NEDUET

APPLIED PHYSICS
ASSIGNMENT

RANA MUHAMMAD AHMED BILAL

2/17/2016

EE-160

Assignment:
Applied Physics:
Q:1 a Explain Interference of Light
Interference of Light:
The modification in the distribution of light energy due to
the superposition of two or more waves, is called Interference

Few More Words On Interference of Light

The interference of waves causes the medium to take on a shape that results from the net effect
of the two individual waves upon the particles of the medium.
Conditions of Interference:
1. For an interference pattern to occur at all, the phase difference at points on the screen must
not change with time
2. The sources should be monochromaticthat is, of a single wavelength.
3. The two sources should not be at a far distance from each other

Examples:
1. Thin Film Interference
2. Newton Ring
Types of Interference:
Constructive Interference
Destructive Interference
Constructive Interference
Constructive interference occurs whenever the oscillations of interfering
waves at a given point are in the same direction, the resulting amplitude
at that point being much larger than the amplitude of an individual wave
Conditions for Constructive Interference
The maximal constructive interference take place when there is a phase difference of full cycle (2
radians). We can say that constructive interference occurs when phase difference is 0,2

i.e. even multiple of the (in radians)

Destructive Interference:

,4 ,6

Destructive interference occurs whenever a positive displacement

of one wave is cancelled exactly by a negative displacement of
the other wave. The amplitude of the resulting wave is zero.
Conditions for Destructive Interference
The maximal constructive interference take place when there is a phase difference of half cycle (
radians). We can say that constructive interference occurs when phase difference is ,3

7 . i.e. even multiple of the (in radians)

Graphical Representation of Interference of Light:
In fig 1 a Two in phase waves combine to form a single wave of greater amplitude
In fig 1 b Two 1800 out of phase waves combine to cancel each other amplitude

Fig 1 a

Fig 1 b

Q1 b: Explain two slit interference

Two Slit Interference:
Double slit interference is the method to produce interference phenomenon by
dividing a light beam into two components that can then interfere with one another

,5 ,

Few More Words On Two Slit Interference:

The light emerging from the two slits is coherent because a single source produces the original
light beam and the two slits serve only to separate the original beam into two parts (which,
after all, is what is done to the sound signal from the side-by-side loudspeakers at the
end of the preceding section). Any random change in the light emitted by the source
occurs in both beams at the same time, and as a result interference effects can be observed
when the light from the two slits arrives at a viewing screen

Young Double Slit Experiment:

Interference in light waves from two sources was first demonstrated by Thomas Young
in 1801. A schematic diagram of the apparatus that Young used in fig 2.

Max

Min

Max
Min
Max
Min
Max
Min

Max

Fig 2

viewing
screen

An Approach to the wave nature of light:

Let consider a light beam (fig 3 a) strikes the barrier placed before the light source
if the light beam traveled only in its original direction after passing through the slits,
the waves would not overlap and no interference pattern would be seen. Instead, in
other words, the light deviates from a straight-line path and enters the region that
would otherwise be shadowed. (fig 3 b) This divergence of light from its initial line
of travel is called diffraction.

Formation of

Fringes

When Plane light waves

arrive at a
barrier
that contains two parallel
slits S1 and S2.
These two
Fig
3
a
Fig
3
b
slits serve as a pair of coherent light sources because waves emerging from them originate
from the same wave front and therefore maintain a constant phase relationship. The light from
S1 and S2 produces on a viewing screen a visible pattern of bright and dark parallel bands
called fringes (Fig.4). When the light from S1 and that from S2 both arrive at a point on the
screen such that constructive interference occurs at that location, a bright fringe appears.
When the light from the two slits combines destructively at any location on the screen, a dark
fringe results.

Fig 4
An enlargement of the center of a fringe pattern formed on the viewing screen

shows some of the ways in which two waves can combine at the screen:

In Figure 5a the two waves, which leave the two slits in phase, strike the screen at the
central point P. Because both waves travel the same distance, they arrive at P in phase.

As a result, constructive interference occurs at this location, and a bright fringe is

observed.

S1
P
S2

Fig 5 a

In Figure 5 b, the two waves also start in phase, but in this case the upper wave has to
travel one wavelength farther than the lower, they still arrive in phase at Q, and so a
second bright fringe appears at this location.

S1
P

S2

Q
Fig 5 b

At point R in Figure 5 c, between points P and Q, the upper wave has fallen half a
wavelength behind the lower wave. This means that a trough of the lower wave
overlaps a crest of the upper wave; this gives rise to destructive interference at point
R. For this reason, a dark fringe is observed at this location.

S1
P

S2
Q

Fig 5 c

Experimental Work:

R (Dark Fringe)

Procedure:
Consider a light source S emitting a light beam. When Plane light waves arrive at a
barrier that contains two parallel slits S1 and S2. These two slits serve as a pair of
coherent light sources because waves emerging from them originate from the same wave
front and therefore maintain a constant phase relationship
The viewing screen is located a perpendicular distance L from the barrier containing two
slits, S1 and S2. These slits are separated by a distance d, and the light after passing
through slits becomes a monochromatic light source.
To reach any arbitrary point P in the upper half of the screen, a wave from the lower slit
must travel farther than a wave from the upper slit by a distance d sin 0. This distance is
called the path difference 6. If we assume that r1 and r2 are parallel, which is approximately
true if L is much greater than d i.e. Ld, then 6 is given by:

Fig 6 a

Fig 6 b

Condition for Constructive Interference

The value of 6 determines whether the two waves are in phase when they arrive at point
P. If 6 is either zero or some integer multiple of the wavelength, then the two waves are
in phase at point P and constructive interference results. Therefore, the condition for
bright fringes, or constructive interference, at point P is
= =

( = , , , )

eq 6 a

The number m is called the order number. For constructive interference, the order
number is the same as the number of wavelengths that represents the path difference
between the waves from the two slits. The central bright fringe at 0 = 0 is called the
zeroth-order maximum. The first maximum on either side, where m = 1, is called the

first-order maximum, and so forth.

Condition for Destructive Interference:
When 6 is an odd multiple of h/2, the two waves arriving at point P are 180 out of
phase and give rise to destructive interference. Therefore, the condition for dark fringes,
or destructive interference, at point P is

= = ( + )

( = , , , . . )

eq 6 b

Position Of Fringes:
It is useful to obtain expressions for the positions along the screen of the bright and
dark fringes measured vertically from O to P. In addition to our assumption that
L >> d, we assume d >> h. These can be valid assumptions because in practice L is
often on the order of 1 m, d a fraction of a millimeter, and h a fraction of a micrometer
for visible light. Under these conditions, 0 is small; thus, we can use the small angle
approximation sin0 = tan0. Then, from triangle OPQ in figure 5 a
we see that

y = L tan0 = L sin0

eq 6 c

Solving Equation 6 a for sin0 and substituting the result into Equation 6 c we see that the
positions of the bright fringes measured from O are given by the expression

( = , , , . ) eq 6d

Using Equations 6 b and 6 c, we find that the dark fringes are located at

=(+)

( = , , , . ) eq 6 e

Conclusion:
Young double slit experiment provides a method for measuring wavelength of the
light in fact, Young used this technique to do just that. Additionally, his
experiment gave the wave model of light a great deal of credibility.
It was inconceivable that particles of light coming through the slits could cancel
each other in a way that would explain the dark fringes.

Q1 c:Explain Single Slit Diffraction?

Diffraction:
Light of wavelength comparable to or larger than the width of
a slit spread out in all forward directions upon passing
Through the slit. We call this phenomenon DIFFRACTION

Another page into the book of evidences of the wave nature of light:
This behavior indicates that light, once it has passed through a
narrow slit, spreads beyond the narrow path defined by the slit into
regions that would be in shadow if light traveled in straight lines.
Other waves, such as sound waves and water waves, also have this
property of spreading when passing through apertures or by sharp
Fig Dif 1
edges

Single Slit Diffraction:

The diffraction pattern that appears on a screen

when light passes through a narrow vertical slit. The
pattern consists of a broad central fringe and a
series of less intense and narrower side fringes.

Let us consider a common situation, that of light passing through a narrow opening
modeled as a slit, and projected onto a screen. To simplify our analysis, we assume that
the observing screen is far from the slit, so that the rays reaching the screen are
approximately parallel. This can also be achieved experimentally by using a converging
lens to focus the parallel rays on a nearby screen. In this model, the pattern on the screen
is called a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern
Analyzing Experiment:
Figure Dif 2(a) shows light entering a single slit from the left
and diffracting as it propagates toward a screen. Figure Dif2
(b) is a photograph of a single-slit Fraunhofer diffraction
pattern.
A bright fringe is observed along the axis at = 0 with
alternating dark and bright fringes on each side of the central
bright fringe assumed that slits are point sources of light
Lets see how the finite width of slits is the basis for
understanding Fraunhofer diffraction. We can deduce some
important features of this phenomenon by examining waves
coming from various portions of the slit, as shown in fig Dif 3

Incoming
Wave

(a)

Fig Dif 2

(b)

To analyze the diffraction pattern, it is convenient to divide

the slit into two halves, as shown in Figure Dif 3. Keeping in
mind that all the waves are in phase as they leave the slit,
consider rays 1 and 3. As these two rays travel toward a
viewing screen far to the right of the figure, ray 1 travels
farther than ray 3 by an amount equal to the path difference

( sin )
2
where a is the width of the slit. Similarly, the path difference

between rays 2 and 4 is also ( sin ) , as is that between

2

rays 3 and 5. If this path difference is exactly half a

wavelength (corresponding to a phase difference of 180),
then the two waves cancel each other and destructive
interference results. If this is true for two such rays, then it is
true for any two rays that originate at points separated by
half the slit width because the phase difference between two
such points is 180.Therefore, waves from the upper half of
the slit interfere destructively with waves from the lower half
when

sin =
2
2
Or when
sin =

If we divide the slit into four equal parts and use similar
reasoning, we find that the viewing screen is also dark when
sin =

Likewise, we can divide the slit into six equal parts and show
that darkness occurs on the screen when
=

fig Dif 3
Paths of light rays that encounter a
narrow slit of width a and diffract toward a
screen in the direction described by angle
Each portion of the slit acts as a point source
of light waves. The path difference between
rays 1 and 3, rays 2 and 4, or rays 3 and 5 is

sin

Therefore, the general condition for destructive interference is

=

( = , , , . . )

Each bright-fringe peak lies approximately halfway between its bordering dark fringe
minima. Note that the central bright maximum is twice as wide as the secondary
maxima

Q 1 d Huygenss Principle:
The laws of reflection and refraction by using a geometric method was proposed by Huygens in 1678.

Huygenss principle is a geometric construction for using knowledge of an earlier

wave front to determine the position of a new wave front at some instant.
In Huygenss construction,
all points on a given wave front are taken as point sources for the
production of spherical secondary waves, called wavelets, which
propagate outward through a medium with speeds characteristic of
waves in that medium. After some time, interval has passed, the new
position of the wave front is the surface tangent to the wavelets.

Evaluation of Huygens Principle:

First, consider a plane wave moving through free space, as shown in Figure Hyg 1 at t=0, the
wave front is indicated by the plane labeled AA. In Huygenss construction, each point on this
wave front is considered a point source. For clarity, only three points on AA are shown. With
these points as sources for the wavelets, we draw circles, each of radius ct, where c is the
speed of light in vacuum and t is some time interval during which the wave propagates. The
surface drawn tangent to these wavelets is the plane BB, which is the wave front at a later
time, and is parallel to AA In a similar manner, Figure Hyg 2 shows Huygenss construction
for a spherical wave.

Old
Wave front

AFig
Hyg 1
Fig Hyg b

New
Wave Front

Old
Wave Front

New
Wave front

Fig Hyg 2

RESOLVING POWER OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS:

The ability of an optical instrument, expressed in numerical measure, to resolve the
image of two nearby points is termed as its resolving power. In the case of a prism or a
grating the term resolving power is referred to the ability of the prism or grating to
resolve two nearby spectral lines so that the two lines can be viewed or photographed as
separate lines.

BASIC CRITERION FOR RESOLUTION

To express the resolving power of an optical instrument as a numerical value, Lord
Rayleigh proposed an arbitrary criterion. According to him
Two nearby images are said Tobe resolved if the position of the central maximum
Of one coincides with the first secondary minimum of the other and vice-versa.
The same criterion can be conveniently applied to calculate the resolving power of a telescope,
microscope, grating, prism, etc.

Graphical Understanding:

(a)

(b)

Two point sources far from a narrow slit each produce a diffraction pattern (a)the angle subtended by the source at the
slit Is large enough for the diffraction pattern to be distinguishable(b)the angle subtended by the sources is so small
that their diffraction pattern overlap and the images are not well resolved

RESOLVING POWER OF PRISM

Resolving power signifies the ability of the instrument to form separate images of two
neighboring wavelengths and + in the wavelength region
In the given Figure Re 1, S is a source of light, L1 is a collimating lens and L2 is the

telescopic objective. As the two wavelengths and + are very close if the prism is in
minimum deviation position it would hold good for both the wavelengths.

Fig Re 1
The final image I1 corresponds to the principal maximum for wavelength and image I2
corresponds to the principal maxima for wavelength +d. I1 and I2 are formed at the focal
plane of the telescopic objective I2. In the case of diffraction at a rectangular aperture the
position of I2 will correspond to the first maximum of image I1 for wavelength 1 provided

( ) =
=
where
= angle of minimum deviation for wavelength
From Figure

But

+++ =

+
=[ (
)]
2
2
+
sin = cos (
)
2
sin =

(1)

Therefore
cos (

)=
2

also
sin

=
2 2

In case of prism:

Therefore

+
( 2 )
= sin

2
+

sin (

) = sin 2 ------------------------------------ (4)

Here and are dependent on wavelength of light .

Differentiating equation (4) with respect to

()x(cos [(A + )/2]x(d/d)=[d/d]x(sin[A/2])
Using equations (2) and (3)
(a)x[d/d]=(t)x[d/d]
Therefore
/d=(t)x[d/d]
The expression /d measures the resolving power of the prism.
RESOLVING POWER OF MICROSCOPE
In the case of microscope the object is very near the objective of the
microscope and the objects subtend very large angle at the objective.
The limit of resolution of a microscope is determined by the least
permissible linear distance between the two objects so that the two
images are just resolved.

Fig C

In above figure MN is the aperture of the objective of a microscope and

A and B are two
Object points at a distanced apart. A' is the position of the central
maximum of A and B'
5
is the central maximum of B. A' and B' are surrounded by alternate dark
and bright
Diffraction rings.
The path difference between the extreme rays from the point B and
reaching A' is
Given by
(BN+ NA') - (BM+MA')
But NA'=MA'
Therefore,
Path Difference=BN-BM

Fig D

In above figure AD is perpendicular to DM and AC is perpendicular to

BN
Therefore,
BN-BM=(BC+CN)-(DM-DB)
But
CN=AN=AM=DM
Therefore,
Path Difference=BC+DB

From triangles ACB and ADB

BC=AB sin =d sin
and DB=AB sin =d sin
Path Difference=2d sin
If this path difference 2d sin _=1.22_ then A' corresponds to the first
minimum of image B'
and two images appear just resolved
Therefore,
2d sin=1.22
or d=(1.22)/(2sin )
Thus above equations give the resolving power of microscope

RESOLVING POWER OF TELESCOPE:

Letd be the diameter of the objective of the telescope considering the
incident ray of
light from two neighboring points of a distant object. The image of each
point object is a
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.

Fig-E
Let P1 and P2 be the position of the central maximum of two images.
These two images are
resolved if the position of central maximum of second image coincides
with the first
maximum of the first image and vice-versa. The path difference
between the second wave
traveling in the directions AP1 and BP1 is low and hence they reinforce
with one another at P1. The secondary waves traveling in the directions
AP2 and BP2 will meet at P2 on the
screen. Let the angle P2AP1 be d. The path difference between the
secondary waves
traveling in the directions BP2 and AP2 is equal to BC.
Therefore,
BC=AB sin d=AB d=a d
If this path difference [a d= ], the position of P2 corresponds to the
first minimum of the

first image. But P2 is also the position of the central maximum of the
second image. Thus
Rayleigh's condition of resolution is satisfied if
a d=
or d=/a
The whole aperture AB can be considered to be made up of two halves
AO and OB. The
path difference between the secondary waves from the corresponding
points in the two
halves will be /2. The equation d=/a holds good for rectangular
aperture. For circular
aperture this equation can be written as
d_ =1.22/a
The reciprocal of d(Theta) measures the resolving power of the
telescope.
Therefore,
1/d=a/[1.22]

Production of ruby laser.

Ruby Laser :
Ruby laser is historically the first one to be discovered; It gives laser radiation on a pulsed length
(1 nm = 10-9 m). It consists of a ruby rod xenon flash tube, a suitable cavity to reflect the light
from flash tube to the ruby rod, and a high voltage power supply to give electrical energy to the
flash tube. Ruby laser set-up is shown in fig Rub 1

Composition of Ruby Laser:

it is found that the ideal composition for the ruby crystal is five atoms of chromium for every ten
thousand atoms of aluminum, i.e., a concentration of 0.05 percent.

Mirror Combination:
One end was silvered making it a mirror (almost 100 percent reflective) to reflect all the rays of
light striking it. The other end of the rod was partially silvered; the laser beam was emitted
through that end.
The ruby rod used was 4 cm long and 1/2 cm in diameter and the ends were ground to a high
degree of flatness and parallelism.
Working:
The ruby rod was surrounded by a helical xenon flash lamp and both of them were held inside a
cylindrical cavity, coated with a reflective material. The light from the xenon flash tube was
focused by the cylindrical cavity onto the ruby rod, thereby exciting the chromium atoms which
were responsible for the laser action
The ruby laser is a Three-Level system (Fig.Rub 2) since only three energy levels
are involved in the process of stimulated emission. The depopulation of the ground state
for population inversion is achieved by exciting the atoms of the ruby crystal with intense
light from a xenon flash lamp. Thus the atoms are excited from the ground state (level 1)
to an upper state (level 3) by means of absorption. From the energy level 3, the atoms are
transferred to energy level 2 without emitting radiation (non-radiative transfer). The
energy level 2 is called metastable level since the atoms stay at this level for a longer
interval of time. Finally, the atoms return to the ground state from the metastable level
through the process of stimulated emission giving rise to an intense laser light at a
wavelength of 69430 (0 = = 1010 )

 = 64930
Red Laser

Fig Rub 2
Limitations of Ruby Laser:
The laser beam comes out in the form of a pulse of very short duration (about a
millisecond). The continuous wave operation of the system is very difficult to achieve.
Only 1 to 2 per cent of the input is utilized to obtain the laser action. The rest is dissipated
as heat and is therefore wasted. In Q-switched mode, the power up to 500 MW has been
achieved,
Applications:
Since this laser requires consider able input energy to give laser action it is now being used only
for limited applications in the areas of holography, high speed
photography, etc.

Explain
(i)

optical pumping:

optical pumping is a type of pumping in which light from a flash lamp or an arc
lamp is focused onto a rod containing the lasing atoms. Common laser rods
include ruby (chromium ions in an aluminum oxide host glass) and YAG
(neodymium ions in a yttriumaluminumgarnet host glass). The lasing atoms
(chromium or neodymium in this case) absorb photons of incident pump light and
become excited to upper energy levels.

Figure OP
1

Optical Pumping of Laser

Optically pumped lasers use photons of light to directly pump the lasing medium to the upper
energy levels. The very first laser, based on a synthetic ruby crystal, was optically pumped.
Categories Of Optical Pumping
Optically pumped lasers can be separated into two broad categories:

lamp-pumped
Laser pumped.

lamp-pumped laser:
In a lamp-pumped laser, the lasing medium, usually a solid-state crystal, is placed near a
high-intensity lamp and the two are surrounded by an elliptical reflector that focuses the
light from the lamp into the crystal, as shown in figure

Optically pumped laser

Laser-pumped systems:
. In laser-pumped systems, the light from another laser is focused into a crystal (or a stream of
dye), as shown in figure In general, ignoring the efficiency of the pump laser itself, laser
pumping is a much more efficient mechanism than lamp pumping because the wavelength of
the pump laser can be closely matched to specific absorption bands of the lasing medium,
whereas most of the light from a broad-spectrum lamp is not usefully absorbed in the gain
medium and merely results in heat that must be removed from the system. Furthermore, the
size of the laser pump beam can be tightly controlled, serving as a gain aperture for improving
the output mode characteristics of the pumped laser medium. On the other hand, laser pumping
is often not suitable for high-energy applications where large laser crystals are required

laser

optics

Laser Pumped System

(ii)Population inversion:

Atomic energy states are much more complex than indicated by the description
above. There are many more energy levels, and each one has its own time
constants for decay. The four-level energy diagram shown in figure Pi 1 is
representative of some real lasers. The electron is pumped (excited) into an upper
level E4 by some mechanism (for example, a collision with another atom or
absorption of high-energy radiation). It then decays to E3, then to E2, and finally
to the ground state E1. Let us assume that the time it takes to decay from E2 to E1
is much longer than the time it takes to decay from E2 to E1. In a large population
of such atoms, at equilibrium and with a continuous pumping process, a
population inversion will occur between the E3 and E2 energy states, and a photon
Entering the population will be amplified coherently.

Fig Pi 1

Electron Excitation:
Excitation is the process of raising a species from a lower energy level to a higher one and is a
pre requirement for laser action. The transfer of energy into the laser medium can occur by
several mechanisms, including:

Absorption of photons
Collisions between electrons (or sometimes ions) and species in the active medium
Collisions among atoms and molecules in the active medium
Recombination of free electrons with ionized atoms
Recombination of current carriers in a semiconductor
Chemical reactions producing excited species
Acceleration of electrons

The probability of a species absorbing energy by some of these mechanisms is indicated by

measurements of absorption cross section. Excitation probabilities or cross sections depend on
factors such as the wavelength of the illuminating light, the speed of incident electrons, or
coincidences in the energy-level structures of species. The excitation of a laser is often a
multistep process. For example, in the helium neon laser electrons passing through the active
medium transfer energy to helium atoms, which in turn transfer the absorbed energy to the
less-abundant neon atoms, which then emit laser light.

Lasant:
Lasant is a material which can be used to amplify laser beams by the process
of stimulated emission
Example:
This type of laser is finding less and less application but there are still many of
them in use in research and industrial sectors. Nd: YAG laser the amplification
of light is achieved by triply ionized Nd as the Lasant (a material that can be
stimulated to produce laser light) and the crystal YAG (yttrium-aluminumgarnet) as the host. YAG is a complicated oxide with the chemical composition
Y3Al5O12. The wavelength of this type of laser is 1.06 m which is near the
infrared spectrum. The light can be transport by optical fiber, which makes
their application flexible and was responsible for their industrial uptake.

Meta Stable State:

When light of suitable wavelength falls on atoms, their electrons jump to a
higher energy state. When the incoming radiations are removed, the excited
electron goes back to its original level, typically within duration of around
108 seconds. However, when an electron goes to a metastable state, it remains
there for a relatively longer duration of 103 seconds. This phenomenon leads to

accumulation of electrons in the metastable state, since the rate of addition of

electrons to the metastable state is higher than the rate of their de-excitation

Host Medium:

Solid-state host materials may be broadly grouped into crystalline solids and glasses. The
host must have good optical, mechanical, and thermal properties to withstand the severe
operating conditions of practical lasers. Desirable properties include hardness, chemical
inertness, absence of internal strain and refractive index variations, resistance to
radiation-induced color centers, and ease of fabrication. Several interactions between the
host crystal and the additive ion restrict the number of useful material combinations.
These include size disparity, valence, and spectroscopic properties. Ideally, the size and
valence of the additive ion should match that of the host ion it replaces. In selecting a
crystal suitable for a laser ion host one must consider the following key criteria: (a) The
crystal must possess favorable optical properties. Variations in the index of refraction lead
to inhomogeneous propagation of light through the crystal which results in poor beam
quality. (b) The crystal must possess mechanical and thermal properties that will permit
high-average-power operation. The most important parameters are thermal conductivity,
hardness, and fracture strength. (c) The crystal must have lattice sites that can accept the
dopant ions and that have local crystal fields of symmetry and strength needed to induce
the desired spectroscopic properties. In general, ions placed in a crystal host should have
long radiative lifetimes with emission cross sections near 1020 cm2. (d) It must be
possible to scale the growth of the impurity-doped crystal, while maintaining high optical
quality and high yield

Laser Applications in Electronic Devices:

the HeNe laser is used in many pointing, alignment,
and scanning applications.
Not long ago, many supermarket bar-code scanners and
even some high-end handheld scanners used HeNe lasers,
as did the original (early 1980s) CD and laser disk players.

 For holography, the HeNe laser is still the laser of choice

because of its good coherence length compared to other
types of lasers
Applications for excimer lasers include wire stripping
(especially for ultra-fine wires used in the microelectronics
industry), surface-mount component marking, drilling
inkjet printer nozzle holes, and marking wires
. A solid-state amplifier using laser is used extensively in
the communications field to boost weak
signals in long runs of fiber optic cables is the erbium-doped
glass fiber amplifier.