LANDUSE PATTERNS, CROPPING PATTERNS AND

CROP COMBINATIONS IN PUNJAB-HARYANA

PLAIN (1991-94 TO 2011-14)
A SPATIO-TEMPORAL ANALYSIS
A
SYNOPSIS
SUBMITTED FOR REGISTRATION OF
THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN GEOGRAPHY
IN
THE FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES

Supervisor:

Researcher:

Dr. Shivjeet Kaur

Jeevan Jyoti

Assistant Prof.

Co-Supervisor:

Dr. K.S. Sohal

Professor

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
PUNJABI UNIVERSITY, PATIALA

Introduction
Growth in agricultural output over the past three decades has been strong and,
importantly, crop production has been able to broadly keep pace with the demands
from a growing population. The introduction of high- yielding seeds (such as
improved strains of wheat) from the mid 1960s and the increased use of chemical
fertilizers epitomized what become known as the green revolution. Wheat
production increased by nearly 150 percent between the mid 1960s and mid 1970s
and the country become self-sufficient in food grain production by the end of the
1970s. The increase in agricultural production boosted rural incomes while also
causing food prices to fall. This had the effect of reducing rural poverty (World Bank,
2004).
Despite the productivity improvements in the Indian agricultural sector over
recent decades, yields remain low by international standards and growth in yields has
only been marginally higher than the world average. In particular, yields for cereals
and vegetables remain substantially lower than the world average. Crop yields have
increased much more for rice and wheat than for other cereals, such as barley. Wheat
yields have tripled over the past 50 years and rice yields have doubled, while yields
for pulses improved little over this period. While able to meet most of its food
requirements from domestic production, India still needs to import some food. Trade
in agricultural products accounts for a modest share of total merchandise trade,
currently about 8 per cent of exports and 2 per cent of imports. Agricultural trade has,
however, grown rapidly over the past decade, with the value of exports and imports
both recording average annual growth rates of about 15 per cent. Rice, animal feed
and seafood are Indias principal food exports, while fruits and vegetables are its
largest food imports. The diversification of agricultural production over the past

couple of decades is also reflected in the changing composition of Indias food

exports, with the sharing of traditional exports like tea and coffee declining and the
share of meat exports increasing. Food grain imports are relatively low, consistent
with India being broadly self-sufficient in grain production. Much of Indias trade is
with economies within a relatively short shipping distance, although imports of wheat
and sugar come from distant sources such as Russia and Brazil.
(Cagliarini and Rush, 2011).
Statement of the Problem :
In the 20th International Geographical Congress, London 1960, it was
suggested that any technique which is adopted for rural land-use planning should aim
at recording the existing use of land in the first instance, followed by mapping of land
capability or land potential at the next stage, but this geographic enquiry of course, the
first step in planning, would remain incomplete and risky if the changes in agricultural
landuse are not analytically evaluated. A quantitative analysis of the changes would
certainly enable planning economical- in terms of capital, labour and time - as it
would help us in fixing the priority areas and periods in the effectuation of the plan
for positive and early results. Likewise, the knowledge of the changes in variables and
their action and reaction, individually and collectively, would be a great aid in the
process of synthesis of developmental forces on the one hand and the elimination or
control of negative forces/variables etc. on the other hand. (Shafi, 1960)
Likemost of the Monsoon Lands, pressure of human population for food on
agricultural land dominates the agricultural landscape, both during Kharif and Rabi
cropping seasons in Punjab and Haryana Plains. In the light of rapid growth of
population in the study region as well as in India, the pressure of population for food
will remain dominant in future also. (Sohal, 1979). Cropping pattern of an area is the

result of physical and human environment. (Sohal, 1993). While Shafi (1996)
observed that cropping pattern is governed by ecological, technological, institutional
and economic factors. Whereas Kharkwal and Teli (1987) stated that the composition
of crops in an area is the offspring of geo-climatic conditions, regional traditions,
mechanization of agriculture, infrastructural facilities, farmers choice of crop etc.
Singh (2012) defined cropping pattern is the combined result of physical and manmade factors which include nature of land, climatic conditions, nature of soil,
availability of water resources, green revolution technology, human resources and pro
agricultural policy of the government. All these factors have greately affected the
choice of the farmers for selecting the crops to be grown.
Since 1954, the study of crop combination analysis has increased greatly. Its
importance is also increasing everyday. Before 1954, i.e. the work of Weaver in
agriculture, the study of crop combinations were merely limited to the description of
the important /dominant crops rather than the study of complex agricultural systems,
previously it was the practice of only to study the individual crops in a given area
without taking into account its relationships with other crops grown in that area.
Naturally these studies suffer from over-generalizations. Weaver (1954) stated that
crops are grown in combinations then why these should be explained individually.
Moreover crop combinations are also taken as important variable for making
agricultural regionalizations. The studies of crop combinations are very useful
because of many reasons like providing enough understanding about the position of
all the individual crops grown in area. Secondly crop combinations throw light on the
nature of cropping pattern whether it is cereals dominated or non cereals crops
dominant, either cropping pattern is specialized or diversified. The study of crop
combination regions are important for the regionalization of still more complex

structures of valid crop regions. Weaver (1954) has also advocated that individual
systematic elements of geography are commonly studied by and for themselves alone.
Kaur (2007) stated that rarely does a crop assume a position approximately in
absolute isolation. Characteristically plants are grown in combined association, and a
successful attempt to understand the geographical pattern of landuse must eventually
move up to this level of description and analysis. A general understanding of the
particular combination of crops and relative importance of each in an area may be
helpful in interpreting some aspects of social as well as agricultural geography of the
region and also helpful for making agricultural regionalization. All these, make this
type of study imperative in the field of Agricultural Geography.
Study Area
The Geographical extent of Punjab-Haryana plain ranges between 7355 East
longitude to 7746 east longitude and latitudinal extent lies between 2737 north
latitude to 3233 north latitude. It comprises 2.88 percent of the total reporting area
of the country. It forms international boundary with Pakistan in the north-west and
shares states boundaries with Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttrakhand,
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Union Territory of Delhi and Chandigarh. Though the
study area is homogenous from relief point of view yet there are certain exceptions
like outcrops of Aravallis, Sand dunes, Kandi areas and Shivalik hills. These plains
are blessed with four perennial rivers namely Yamuna, Satluj, Beas and Ravi; and one
seasonal river namely Ghaggar. There are also several seasonal streams which are
locally called choes. Average annual rainfall is about 60 cms. Temperature during
summer normally touches 44c and during winters the minimum temperature even fall
upto freezing point. A variety of soils are found namely silty clay, loamy, sandy, fine
sandy, etc. Its total population is 5,30,96,419 persons in 2011. There are 42 districts

and 151 tehsils.

Review of Literature
Amatya (1973) in his study of Agricultural Crop Combinations in Nepal have used
two methods i.e. minimum deviation technique of Weber and maximum positive
deviation of Raffiula for calculating the crop combinations. From his study, he has
observed that the crop combinations are the result of partly physical environment and
partly of cultural environment.
Andrews (2013) in her study Dynamics of Cropping Pattern Shift in Kerala: Sources
and Determinants has analysed that the crop shift mainly takes place after the land
reform measures in Kerala which shows the underlying forces behind the crop shift
are government measures starting with land and labour policies and other institutional
measures which have clearly depicted the absence of an organisation for farmers to
continue farming and to represent their issues. But owing to this absence of an
organisation, farmers resorted to an income maximization approach as a part of the
peasants rationality which led to shift in cropping pattern. As a result of such crop
shift, the crop production has decreased drastically because the Kerala state give
incentive to rubber plantation as compared to paddy cultivation.
Bains (1971) in his study Agronomic Investigation in Utilization of Waste Lands in
Saline and Alkaline Soils has suggested that the salinity, alkalinity and water logging
problems can overcome by applying suitable agro-techniques.
Basu (1984) while studying the Impacts of DVC Irrigation on Changing the Landuse
and Cropping Pattern of the Lower Damodar Valley has explained that with the
introduction of irrigation, the adoption process of modern agricultural inputs like use
of HYVs seeds and agro-chemicals become feasible, and their development has

resulted into the changes in the landuse and cropping patterns.

Das and Mili (2012) in their paper Pattern of Crop Diversification and Disparities
in Agriculture : A Case Study of Dibrugarh District, Assam (India) have observed
that the progress of human civilization mainly depends on agriculture and further
stated that in order to achieve agricultural sustainability, there must be crop
diversification. They have also concluded that overall assessment shows that the crop
diversification index in 2009-10 in comparison to 1999-2000 exhibits a decreasing
trend which is not healthier for crop diversification. The environmental constraints
and natural resources localised in few areas and technological inputs, infra-structural
facilities, are very low and not equally distributed in all areas. Thus it is deduced that
Dibrugarh go for diversified cropping patterns to avoid adverse environmental
consequences apart from reaping other benefits such as providing a boost to
agricultural production and agricultural sustainability; and moreover use of modern
techniques must be increased in order to remove the disparity in agriculture.
Fielding (1985) while studying "The Role Of Government in New Zealand Wheat
Growing " has observed that owing to comprehensive government control, the wheat
growing in New Zealand is thought to be largely a response to countries and centres.
He further concluded that returns from competing systems of land utilization are
influential.
Hazara (2000) from his work has observed that in rain-fed lands farmers grow a
variety of crops for reducing the risk factor of crop failures owing to drought
conditions. He also found that in areas with water-logging, rice cultivation has
replaced cotton, oilseeds etc.
Jalal (1970) in his paper The land utilization in Bamangoan in Uttar Pradesh has
analysed that physical environment and human endeavour have combinedly

determined the landuse patterns and cropping patterns in his study area. He further
found that the crop combinations have also changed with variations in physical
environment and human endeavour.
Jana (1987) in his study Cropping pattern in West Bengal concluded that the
number of crops in crop combinations reveal the nature of croppings pattern whether
it is diversified or specialised.
Johl and Ray (2002) have observed that Punjab agriculture and especially the
cropping patterns of Punjab has become specialised and commercialised with the
ushering of green revolution technology. They have further observed that the present
model of Punjab agriculture is deteriorating the ecological balance of the state.
Kaur, et. al. (2010) in their paper "Technical Efficiency of Wheat Production in
Punjab : A Regional Analysis" have analysed that area under wheat is largely
governed by the plant protection measures, irrigation, high yielding variety of seeds
etc. They further found that the application of agro-chemicals and irrigation is found
more in central parts of Punjab where wheat is very predominant as compared to the
areas along the shivaliks and in south-western parts of Punjab. Though wheat is
enjoying first ranking in the overall cropping patterns in whole of Punjab yet its
production can be increased by about 15 percent through better technology in southwestern parts and along the shivaliks.
Krishnan and Mukhtiar (1972) from their study Soil Climatic Zones in Relation to
Cropping Patterns have found that the cropping patterns and the Soil- Climatic zones
are positively co-related, because the geo-climatic conditions directly affect the
cropping patterns of a place.
Lathar (1996) has analysed the prospects of increasing the income of marginal
farmers through crop diversification in Sonipat district of Haryana. He has found that

the marginal farmers were quite closed to the optimal plan which was derived by
considering the commonly prevalent crop production activities at the existing level of
technologies. The study suggested that for achieving the gains of farm diversification
there is an urgent need for further strengthening the required infra-structure pertaining
to input supply system, marketing system, research and extension programmes etc. to
increase the adoption of advanced production technologies.
Mann, et. al. (1968) has concluded that the area under rice and wheat has increased
greatly in the areas of green revolution. They have further observed that the crops like
fodder, maize, oilseeds, grams etc. have experienced drastically decrease in area
under their cultivation. Thus it shows that the changes in cropping patterns and crop
combinations in Punjab are due to the introduction of green revolution technology in
Punjab. They further observed that the number of crop combinations have also
declined during the study period.
Mishra (1984) in his study Impact of Irrigation on Farming in Mirzapur District
has observed that the extension and changing system of irrigation has multi effects on
agriculture. Irrigation has also helped and enabled the farmers for the adoption of
modern technology which ultimate leads to changes in cropping patterns and crop
combinations.
Munir, et. al. (1989) have examined that the rate of technological factors in the
degree of agricultural productivity in their study region. They have concluded that the
regional disparities in the degree of agricultural productivity has revealed the most
important variable that accounts for the variations in agricultural productivity at micro
level is technology.
Naing, T.A.A et. al. (2002) while studying the Effects of Increasing Cropping
Intensity on Rice Production in Mynammar have concluded that in Mynammar,

application of mineral Nitrogen, the use of fungicides and insecticides play a much
larger role than herbicides. They further observed that increased application of
Nitrogen can lead to increased disease incidence but again these effects are site
specific and lightly reflect more complex interactions with soil properties.
Nisha (2015) has stated that the crop combination of various district of Jammu
province are closely influenced by the terrain, soil and climatic conditions whereas a
variation in intensity of cropping pattern is mainly due to fertility of soil, amount of
rainfall, irrigation facilities and topographic features.
Panigrahy, et. al. (2004) while studying Analysis of Cropping Pattern Changes in
Bhatinda District, Punjab have observed that Bhatinda district like any other district
in Punjab is progressing towards a rice cropping patterns along with the prevalent
cotton-wheat cropping system. Due to the emergence of these crop rotations the most
affected crops are pearl millet in Kharif season while gram & rapeseed and mustard in
Rabi season. The study also provides the spatial information about the cropping
patterns and monitoring of its changes. They also suggested that there is need of
further studies to find out the long term effects of present cropping system,
sustainability of the present cropping system, component technologies and prescribing
the alternate cropping system. This will be done by using cropping system simulation
models in conjunction with optimization models in spatial format.
Paroda (1998) has concluded that the introduction of green revolution has increased
the income and employment opportunities in all over the world especially where the
green revolution technology is adopted by the farmers.
Premakumar, et. al. (2015) have demarcated the crop combination regions in
Palakkad district of Kerala by using weavers and Raffiullas method and have found
that in both cases the number of crop combination regions were the same.

Ramasundaram, et. al. (2012) have stated that the change in cropping patterns and
introduction of crop in relation to agro-climatic conditions provide high standard of
productivity. They further analysed that there is no diversification of cropping
patterns in the districts of Tamil Nadu with exception of eastern and central parts.
They have also used Weavers method and Raffiullas method for demarcating crop
combination regions.
Ramasundram, et. al. (2012) have demarcated crop combination region of India by
using map Info and GIS. They have further studied the regional character of the
individual crops with the help of various methods.
Rana (2013) while studying the "Impact of Irrigation Development on Agriculture in
Punjab" has concluded that irrigation emerged as a basic ingredient for the new
agricultural technology which has ultimately effected the land use patterns and
cropping patterns of Punjab.
Rathod and Mane-Deshmukh (2012) in their paper Landuse Pattern and Crop
Combination Region in Satara District: A Geographical Study have stated that before
the development of irrigation and introduction of modern agricultural techniques, the
number of crop combinations were more but in the post-cultural development period
the number of crop combinations reduced due to the socio-economic impact. They
also observed that such type of study represents real situation of cropping patterns in
Satara district and can help the planners and agricultural scientists for agricultural
planning at micro-level/tehsil level.
Sekhon, et. al. (2010) have observed that even in Punjab which is an advanced
agricultural region there is also a dire need to improve the technical efficiency of the
farmers. Moreover they have also

found

that irrigation, agro-chemicals,

mechanization, high yielding variety of seeds etc. contribute positively towards

10

increase in area and yield of individual crops. There is general impression in the mind
of the scientist which is contrary that Punjab agriculture is over agro-chemicalised,
labour-intensive and over mechanized.
Shafi and Siddiqui (2008) in their study have concluded that the land utilization
activities depend upon the multiple aspects such as location, physiography, climate,
social and cultural conditions. The major factor determining the optimum land
utilization in an area is its location. As a salient point of analysis, it shows that the
land utilization activities in the block are highly uneven. The land-use intensity is
higher in those villages which are either located near the towns or on the
transportation routes. It is also observed that the study area has attained the stage of
commercialisation of agriculture because it is situated in the vicinity of Delhi.
Shinde, et. al. (2015) while analysing the Optimal Cropping Pattern for Sustainable
Water Use in Canal Command Area of Kalawande Minor Irrigation Scheme of
Maharashtra have observed that rabi paddy would not be found feasible in terms of
water availability and benefits obtained. The vegetable and horticultural crop showed
potential in the command area with the available water source to get maximum net
returns because the maximum net returns can be obtained by adopting fruitsvegetables-pulses cropping pattern.
Sidhu (1983) in his work Socio-Economic Implications of Rapid Agricultural
Growth in Punjab have observed that with the emergence of wheat-rice dominant
cropping pattern in Punjab, the demand of casual agriculture labourers has increased
which enthused the labourers from other states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan
etc to migrate to Punjab. This migrating trend of labour force has also affected the
social structure of Punjab.
Singh (2014) has studied the "Spatio-Temporal Changes in Crop Diversification in

11

Punjab" and summarised that during the study period crops like rice and vegetables
have registered positive changes whereas cotton, maize, wheat, sugar-cane, fodder,
oilseeds etc. have recorded negative changes. Among the gainer crops during 19882008 rice has registered 9.04 percent volume of change which is highest and fodder is
the leading looser with the negative change of 2.72 percent.
Singh and Singh (1970) in their work entitled " Review of Cropping Pattern and
Land Utilization in Punjab" have revealed that the increase in gross cropped area in
Punjab during the first three plan periods was mainly owing to increase in double
cropped area. Thus they further found that for meeting the targets of production of
various crops and increasing the food grains productivity, the best way is intensive
cultivation by using agro-chemicals, high- yielding variety of seeds and modern
methods of cultivation.
Singh, Sukhdeo (2013) has concluded that the introduction of canal irrigation in
South- West region of Punjab in the later half of 20th century and especially with the
ushering of green revolution technology, Punjab agriculture has resulted into high
crop intensity which means farmers have adopted wheat-cotton and wheat-rice crop
rotation as compared to other crops like bajra, pulses, oilseeds, govara, etc. He has
further stated that all this has led to water-logging. Thus, with the emergence of water
logging, wheat-cotton crop rotation has been shifted to wheat-paddy crop rotation.
There occur changes not only in cropping pattern but crop productivity has also
affected very severely owing to water-logging.
Sohal (1993) while studying the Crop Combinations in Punjab : Pre and Post Green
Revolution Period has observed that in Punjab crop combinations are the offspring of
the actions, reactions and interactions among physical and human environment.
Uma, et. al. (2013) in their paper Changing Cropping Pattern : A Boon or Bane to

12

Food Security have found that most of the agricultural labourers are showing less
interest in producing food crops which demands their complete attention and are
changing their cropping patterns to commercial crops so that they can work both in
urban area and on land to a limited extent. All marginal farmers slowly depending on
other sector for higher wages without fully neglecting the agriculture. Instead, they
are changing the cropping patterns and continued their agriculture activity with other
family members and relatives. They are changing cropping from food crops to
commercial crops. This has posed threat to the overall production of food crops. If
every farmer thinks that changing the food crops to commercial crop will bring more
income, then there will be no one to produce needed amount of food crops in the
country. Therefore, there is an utter need to encourage the farmers to continue with
the food crop production, so that there will not be any threat to food security in the
future.
Weaver (1954) has examined that crop combinations are very helpful to study the
nature of agriculture of an area because crop combinations throw light on the
individual crops and their relative position in the cropping patterns.
Thus, the preceeding review of literature indicates that no work on land use patterns,
cropping patterns and crop combinations in Punjab-Haryana Plain: 1991-94 to 201114 is done by any scholar. Therefore, it is judicious to undertake this topic for Ph.D.
thesis. It will certainly helpful to understand the nature of agriculture and demarcation
of eco-friendly cropping patterns and crop combinations for the study region.
Objectives
Following objectives are selected for the present study :
1. To reveal the landuse patterns and changes.
2. To know the spatio-temporal variations in the cropping patterns.

13

3. To examine the ranking of individual crops in the cropping patterns.

4. To derive the crop combination regions and changes.
5. To highlight the factors responsible for changes in landuse patterns and
cropping patterns and crop combinations.
6. To suggest economically and ecologically viable crop combinations.
Hypotheses
The present study will test the following hypotheses :
1. Physical and socio-economic factors determine the landuse and cropping
patterns of an area.
2. Diffusion of agricultural innovations often leads to changes in cropping
patterns which further affect the crop combinations.
3. Economic returns effect the choice of farmers for a particular crop.
4. Higher the level of crop specialization, lower is the number of crop
combinations and vice-versa.
Methodology
The present study will be based on secondary sources of data. District will be
taken as unit of study. Three years average for two time periods will be taken for
explaining the changes in landuse patterns, cropping patterns and crop combinations
i.e. 1991-1994 and 2011-2014. Simple Percentages, Standard Deviations, Weavers
and Duis Methods of Crop Combinations etc. will be used for deriving the results.
Cartographic techniques will be applied for mapping the results.
Sources of Data
The study is based on secondary sources of data which will be obtained from
the following offices :

Economic and Statistical Organisation, Punjab, Chandigarh

Economic and Statistical Organisation, Haryana, Panchkula

14

Director Land Record Punjab, Jalandhar

Director Land Record, Haryana

Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana

Haryana Agriculture University, Hisar

Regional Centres of Remote Sensing, Punjab, Ludhiana

Regional Centres of Remote Sensing, Haryana

Libraries of various institutions

Books, Journals, Reports, etc

Tentative Scheme of Study

1. Introduction
2. Profile of Physical and Socio-Economic environment
3. Landuse Patterns and Changes: 1991-94 and 2011-2014.
4. Spatio-Temporal changes in Cropping Patterns: 1991-94 and 2011-2014.
5. Ranking of Crops : 1991-94 and 2011-2014
6. Demarcation of Crop Combination Regions: 1991-94 and 2011-2014.
7. Suggested Crop Combination Regions.
8. Conclusion and Suggestions.

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of Humanities and Social Sciences, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur (Nepal),
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Andrews, S. (2013), Dynamics of Cropping Pattern Shifts in Kerala: Sources and
Determinants, Agriculture Situation in India, pp.15-24.
15

Bains, S.S. (1971), Agronomic Investigation in Utilization of Waste Lands in Saline

and Alkaline Soils Proceedings of Symposium Science and Indias Food
Problems, ICAR, New Delhi, pp.198-203.
Basu (1984), Impacts of D.V.C. Irrigation in Changing Land-Use Cropping Pattern
of the Lower Damodar Valley, Geographical Review of India, Vol.46, pp.70-78.
Cagliarini, A, and Rush. A, (2011),Economic Development and Agriculture in
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Chand, R. and Parappuratheo, S. (2012), Temporal and Spatial Variations in
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Das and Mili (2012), Pattern of Crop Diversification and Disparities in Agriculture :
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Fielding, Gordon J. (1965), The Role of Government in New Zealand Wheat
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Jalal, D.S. (1970), Land-Utilization in Bamangoan National Geographical Journal
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Jana, M.M. (1987), Cropping Pattern in West Bengal Geographical Review of
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17

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