FMDS0510 PDF

FM Global
Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
5-10
January 2011
Page 1 of 36
PROTECTIVE GROUNDING FOR ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
Table of Contents
Page
1.0 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Changes .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 3
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Operation and Maintenance ............................................................................................................ 3
2.3 Equipment and Processes .............................................................................................................. 3
2.3.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 3
2.3.2 Low voltage solidly grounded systems (1000 volts and less) .............................................. 4
2.3.3 Low voltage high resistance grounded systems (1000 volts and less) ................................ 4
2.3.4 Low voltage ungrounded systems (1000 volts and less) ..................................................... 4
2.3.5 Medium voltage solidly grounded and low resistance grounded systems (from 1 kV
to 15 kV): ............................................................................................................................... 4
2.3.6 Medium voltage high resistance grounded systems (1 kV to 15 kV) ................................... 4
2.3.7 Medium voltage ungrounded systems (1 kV to 15 kV): ........................................................ 4
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 4
3.1 Loss History ..................................................................................................................................... 4
4.0 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 5
4.1 FM Global ........................................................................................................................................ 5
4.2 Other Codes and Standards ........................................................................................................... 5
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................................... 5
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ....................................................................................... 6
APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION ........................................................................................ 6
C.1 Descriptions ..................................................................................................................................... 6
C.2 System Grounds ............................................................................................................................. 6
C.3 Reasons for Grounding ................................................................................................................... 6
C.3.1 Equipment Grounding ........................................................................................................... 7
C.3.2 Multiple Ground Connections ............................................................................................... 7
C.3.3 Equipment Grounding Conductor ......................................................................................... 8
C.4 Ground Resistance ......................................................................................................................... 8
C.5 Installation and Size of Grounding Electrode Conductors ............................................................. 9
C.6 Grounding Electrodes ..................................................................................................................... 9
C.6.1 Water Mains .......................................................................................................................... 9
C.6.2 Driven Grounds ................................................................................................................... 10
C.6.3 Buried Plates ...................................................................................................................... 10
C.6.4 Grounding Ring Or Network ............................................................................................... 10
C.6.5 Concrete Encased Electrode .............................................................................................. 11
C.6.6 Local Underground Systems ............................................................................................... 11
C.7 Industrial Distribution Systems - Grounding Practices ................................................................. 11
C.7.1 System and Equipment Grounding ..................................................................................... 11
C.7.2 Ungrounded Systems .......................................................................................................... 11
C.7.3 Solidly Grounded Systems ................................................................................................. 13
C.7.4 Resistance Grounded Systems .......................................................................................... 13
C.7.5 Low Resistance Grounded Systems .................................................................................. 13
C.7.6 High Resistance Grounded Systems ................................................................................. 13
C.7.7 Reactance Grounded Systems ........................................................................................... 15
C.7.8 Corner-Of-The-Delta Grounded System ............................................................................. 16
1998 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in whole or in part, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission of Factory Mutual Insurance Company.
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Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems
Page 2
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
C.7.9 Mid-Phase Grounded Delta Connected System ................................................................ 17

C.7.10 Zig-Zag Grounding Transformer For Grounding An Ungrounded Delta System ............. 17
C.7.11 Grounding Transformers ................................................................................................... 18
C.7.12 Ground Fault Neutralizers ................................................................................................. 18
C.8 Application ..................................................................................................................................... 19
C.8.1 Ground Fault Protection ..................................................................................................... 19
C.8.1.1 Ground Fault Protection Fundamentals .................................................................. 19
C.8.2 Coordination, Selectivity and Location ................................................................................ 23
C.8.3 High Resistance and Ungrounded Systems ...................................................................... 23
C.8.4 Ungrounded Low Voltage Systems and High Speed Digital Protection Systems
Issues .................................................................................................................................. 23
C.8.5 Ground Fault Protection Schemes ..................................................................................... 24
C.8.6 Phase Overcurrent Protection ............................................................................................ 24
C.8.7 Fuses .................................................................................................................................. 24
C.8.8 Single Point Ground ........................................................................................................... 24
C.8.8.1 Drive Systems ......................................................................................................... 25
C.8.9 Generator Grounding & Protection ..................................................................................... 25
C.8.10 Ground Fault Calculations ................................................................................................ 25
C.9 Electronic Computers .................................................................................................................... 27
C.10 Ground Resistance Testing ......................................................................................................... 28
C.10.1 Electrical Ground Resistance Testers ............................................................................... 28
C.10.2 Three-Point Method .......................................................................................................... 28
C.10.3 Fall of Potential Method .................................................................................................... 30
C.11 Equipment and System Study Costs .......................................................................................... 30
C.12 Jurisdictional Code Requirements .............................................................................................. 31
List of Figures
Fig. 1. Grounding terminology. Electrical system showing system and equipment grounds and
components. ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Fig. 2. Typical grounding system for an outdoor substation. ...................................................................... 10
Fig. 3. Ungrounded system, inherently capacitively coupled to ground. ..................................................... 12
Fig. 4. Ground detectors for ungrounded system. ....................................................................................... 12
Fig. 5. High resistance grounded medium voltage system. ........................................................................ 14
Fig. 6. High resistance grounded low voltage system. ................................................................................ 15
Fig. 7. Reactance grounded system. ........................................................................................................... 16
Fig. 8. Corner-of-the-delta grounded system. .............................................................................................. 16
Fig. 9. Mid-phase grounded delta connected system. ................................................................................ 17
Fig. 10. Grounding ungrounded delta system with zig-zag transformer. ..................................................... 18
Fig. 11. Wye-delta transformer used as grounding transformer. .................................................................. 19
Fig. 12. Zero sequence method of ground fault protection. ........................................................................ 21
Fig. 13. Sensor for ground fault protection system. .................................................................................... 22
Fig. 14. Delta-wye-connected transformer supplying power system with neutral solidly grounded and
equipped with ground fault relay. .................................................................................................... 22
Fig. 15. Ground fault currents in a solidly grounded low voltage 3-phase system. .................................... 26
Fig. 16. Ground fault currents in a high-resistance-grounded low voltage 3-phase system. ...................... 26
Fig. 17. Power and earth distribution, typical configuration. ........................................................................ 29
Fig. 18. Megger Earth Tester, Catalog No. 601. ...................................................................................... 30
Fig. 19. Simplified diagram showing the principle of operation of Megger Earth Tester Catalog
No. 601. .......................................................................................................................................... 31
Fig. 20. Three-point method for testing resistance of ground connection. ................................................. 32
Fig. 21. Fall of potential method for testing resistance of ground connection. ............................................ 33
List of Tables
Table 1. Grounding resistance of 58-inch by 5-foot rods ............................................................................... 9
1998 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

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1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet describes the various methods used for grounding electrical systems and the non-current
carrying metal parts of electrical wiring systems and equipment. The advantages and disadvantages of the
different grounding methods, and the means employed to safeguard property from arc damage and fire are
also discussed.
1.1 Changes
January 2011. Clarifications were made in Section 2.2, Operation and Maintenance.
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS
2.1 Introduction
The intent of these recommendations is to prevent electrical ignition, minimize equipment damage, minimize
electrical system exposure and to minimize business interruption. Application of these recommendations
need to be applied taking into consideration the above, local standards, practices, definitions and intent.
2.2 Operation and Maintenance
2.2.1. A ground fault coordination study should be performed for each voltage level in a facility. The study
should take into consideration capacitive charging currents, neutral unbalances, and harmonic loading (both
zero and negative sequence). Coordination between ground fault protective devices and short circuit and
overload protective devices should be included. The neutral must be grounded only at the service entrance/
ground source. Improper (multiple) system ground connections between neutral and equipment ground should
be determined, documented and corrected where possible. Multiple equipment grounds with two or more
equipment grounds per equipment are normal and should be provided. The study should also take into
consideration the type, application and installation of current transformers (window, bushing, bar, wound etc.)
and the sensitivity of the ground fault protection to harmonics, neutral unbalances and asymmetry.
If the ground fault studies show that the phase overcurrent protective devices will operate for arcing ground
faults (i.e., 38% of 3 phase fault value for 480 volt systems) and that the grounding system exists and ground
continuity is tested annually and that physical fire protection is provided then additional ground fault
protection is not needed for insurance purposes for the particular circuit where the exposure exists.
The ground fault coordination study executive summary should list all protective devices (fuses, circuit
breakers, relays) that are not properly coordinated. The report should include appropriate recommendations
for selective coordination.
2.2.2 Perform ground earth resistance tests on ground connections to earth in accordance with the
recommendations in Data Sheet 5-20, Electrical Testing. Testing should be done when first installed, after
soil conditions have stabilized and there after as needed depending upon conditions:
Protective relays not operating properly for ground-faults
Surge equipment failing to properly protect electrical circuits or equipment
Step and touch potentials
Signal noise on electronic and communication equipment
Physical evidence of grounding conductor deterioration.
The resistance should not exceed 1 ohm. For large utility substations a maximum resistance of 12 ohm is
recommended.
2.2.3. Perform continuity checks (physical and/or electrical) of equipment grounding conductors in
accordance with the recommendations in Data Sheet 5-20, Electrical Testing. Perform as needed to ensure
that this vital protection remains intact. (Recommended annual visual inspection of grounding conductors
noting that corrosion is most likely to appear a few inches below the soil surface where a grounding conductor
attaches to a ground mat or rod.)
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2.3 Equipment and Processes

2.3.1 General
2.3.1.1. An arc monitoring system ABB Arc Guard System or FM Approved equivalent should be provided
to detect arcing faults in electrical rooms having exposed energized components. This additional protection
is only required where the ground fault relay cannot be set low enough to detect ground fault current due
to neutral imbalance current flow. These devices in conjunction with the ground fault protection in Data Sheet
5-4, Transformers section 2.1.2 and should trip the upstream breaker if provided and alarm at a constantly
attended location. The alarm should be treated as a fire event and responded to appropriately. An alarm
response procedure should be developed and posted. The Plant Emergency Organization should include
both fire and electrical personnel capable of de-energizing the equipment. If de-energization can not be
accomplished in a timely manner, then a high side breaker must be installed and tripped (e.g., Data Sheet 5-4,
Transformers Fig 1B).
2.3.2 Low voltage solidly grounded systems (1000 volts and less)
2.3.2.1 Provide ground fault protection for all grounded wye electric systems. Equip the main and/or feeder
low-voltage circuit breakers with ground fault tripping devices. Coordination between the main and feeder
circuit breakers is required to minimize the electrical system disruption in the event that a ground fault occurs.
2.3.3 Low voltage high resistance grounded systems (1000 volts and less)
2.3.3.1 Provide ground fault detection for all high resistance systems. In areas not frequently inspected by
electrical personnel (once per shift), an alarm should be provided to a constantly attended location in the plant.
Promptly locate and remove all ground faults that develop. The high resistance grounded system is similar
to an ungrounded system in that it limits the available ground fault current and allows for an orderly shutdown
if a ground fault occurs. Unlike the ungrounded system the high resistance grounded system prevents
transient overvoltages which can cause potential failure of insulation and misoperation of micro processor
based equipment.
2.3.4 Low voltage ungrounded systems (1000 volts and less)
2.3.4.1 Convert ungrounded systems to high resistance grounded systems.
2.3.5 Medium voltage solidly grounded and low resistance grounded systems (From 1 kV to 15 kV):
2.3.5.1 Medium voltage solidly grounded and low resistance grounded systems should be provided with
ground fault protection. Coordination between the main and feeder circuit breakers is required to minimize
the electrical system disruption in the event that a ground fault occurs.
2.3.6 Medium voltage high resistance grounded systems (1 kV to 15 kV)
2.3.6.1 Provide ground fault protection for all high resistance systems. The appropriate upstream breaker
should be tripped to isolate the faulted portion of the system. The high resistance grounded system is similar
to an ungrounded system in that it limits the available ground fault current and allows for an orderly shutdown
if a ground fault occurs. Unlike the ungrounded system the high resistance grounded system prevents
transient overvoltages which can cause potential failure of insulation and misoperation of micro processor
based equipment.
2.3.7 Medium voltage ungrounded systems (1 kV to 15 kV):
2.3.7.1 Convert all medium voltage ungrounded systems to a resistance grounded system. Perform a system
grounding study to determine whether a high resistance or a low resistance grounded system is the most
appropriate. If the ungrounded system is converted to a low resistance grounded system, then follow
recommendation 6 above. If the ungrounded system is converted to a high resistance grounded system, then
follow recommendation 7 above.

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3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Loss History
Improper grounding or the lack of properly applied ground fault protection for enclosed electrical equipment
in industrial and commercial power systems is responsible for numerous equipment burndowns resulting
in considerable property damage, extended loss of power, and interruption to production.
Based on data reported to and recorded in the Loss Analysis database, the total number of losses for all
perils involving ground faults for the seven+ period 1992-to-1999 (3/19/99) was 228.
4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 5-4, Transformers
Data Sheet 13-3, Utility Steam Turbine-Generators
Data Sheet 13-11, Steam Turbines Driving Generators-Industrial Applications
Data Sheet 5-20, Electrical Testing
4.2 Other Codes and Standards
ANSI/NFPA70 National Electrical Code (NEC) 1996
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) Standard 142-1993
National Electrical Safety Code ANSI-C2-1981
IEEE Standard 80-1996, IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Effectively Grounded (System): a power system is considered effectively grounded when, for any given point
on the system, the ratio of zero sequence reactance to positive sequence reactance is positive and less
than three, and the ratio of zero sequence resistance to positive sequence reactance is positive and less
than one.
Equipment Grounding: the bonding together and connection to ground of all metallic structures associated
with electrical circuits, but not intended to be energized under normal conditions (e.g., conduit, building
columns, enclosures, frames).
Ground: a conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, between an electrical circuit or
equipment and the earth, or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth. Normally considered
to be at zero potential
Grounded: connected to earth or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth.
Grounded, Effectively: intentionally connected to earth through a ground connection or connections of
sufficiently low impedance and having sufficient current-carrying capacity to prevent the buildup of voltages
that may result in undue hazards to connected equipment or to persons.
Grounded Conductor: a system or circuit conductor that is intentionally grounded.
Grounding Conductor: a conductor used to connect equipment or the grounded circuit of a wiring system
to a grounding electrode or electrodes.
Grounding Conductor, Equipment: the conductor used to connect the noncurrent-carrying metal parts of
equipment, raceways, and other enclosures to the system grounded conductor, the grounding electrode
conductor, or both, at the service equipment or at the source of a separately derived system.
Grounding Electrode: a conductor used to establish a ground. Usually a conductor (or group of conductors)
in intimate contact with the ground for the purpose of providing a connection with the ground.
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Grounding Electrode Conductor: the conductor used to connect the grounding electrode to the equipment
grounding conductor, to the grounded conductor, or to both, of the circuit at the service equipment or at the
source of a separately derived system.
Ground Fault Current: the current that flows from a conductor to ground due to an abnormal connection
between the two.
Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupter: a device intended for the protection of personnel that functions to
de-energize a circuit or portion thereof within an established period of time when a current to ground exceeds
some predetermined value that is less than that required to operate the overcurrent protective device of the
supply circuit.
Ground-Fault Protection of Equipment: a system intended to provide protection of equipment from damaging
line-to-ground fault currents by operating to cause a disconnecting means to open all ungrounded conductors
of the faulted circuit. This protection is provided at current levels less than those required to protect
conductors from damage through the operation of a supply circuit overcurrent device.
Solidly Grounded (System): a power system may be solidly grounded by directly connecting the neutral point
of a source to ground. For most practical industrial and commercial situations, solidly grounded systems
may be considered to be effectively grounded.
Ungrounded: a system, circuit, or apparatus without an internal connection to ground except through potential
indicating or measuring devices or other very high impedance devices.
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY
January 2011. Clarifications were made in Section 2.2, Operation and Maintenance.
May 2003. Minor editorial changes were made.
June 1999. This revision of the document was reorganized to provide a consistent format.
September 1998. Rewritten, supercedes July 1984.
July 1984. Rewritten, supercedes February 1974.
February 1974. Issued.
APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
C.1 Descriptions
Systems and circuit conductors are grounded to limit voltages due to lightning, line surges, or unintentional
contact with higher voltage lines, and to stabilize the voltage to ground during normal operation. Systems
and circuit conductors are also grounded to facilitate overcurrent device operation in case of ground faults.
This data sheet is based on the grounding requirements as described in the 1996 edition of the National
Electrical Code and the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Standard 142-1993. For complete
information on the subject, refer to these documents.
Conductive materials enclosing electrical conductors of equipment, or forming part of such equipment, are
grounded for the same reasons cited above. This is called the equipment ground.
C.2 System Grounds
Both grounded and ungrounded distribution systems are used successfully at the lower distribution voltages
and both types have their proponents. At higher distribution voltages, systems are nearly always grounded
in some manner, depending upon the level of equipment protection, personnel protection, and service
continuity considered necessary for that particular system. At all distribution voltages there is a wide range
of choices in the type and amount of ground fault protection to apply, as will be discussed later. Figure 1 shows
the difference between a system ground and an equipment ground.
Industrial power systems may be ungrounded or employ different methods of grounding the system. The
types of grounding methods include: solidly grounded systems, high resistance grounded systems, low
resistance grounded systems, reactance grounded, and ungrounded systems. Each of these methods is
discussed later in the text.

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Fig. 1. Grounding terminology. Electrical system showing system and equipment grounds and components.
The selection of a specific method of system grounding is related to various factors such as equipment cost,
electrical system maintenance, safety of personnel, damage to equipment arising from ground fault
conditions, system protective devices and their settings, and power continuity requirements of the process.
C.3 Reasons for Grounding
The fundamental reasons for system grounding are:
1. To limit the differences of electric potential between all uninsulated conducting objects in a local area.
2. To provide for isolation of faulty equipment and circuits when a fault occurs.
3. To limit overvoltages appearing on the system under various conditions.
The method employed for grounding the electric system may have a noticeable effect on the magnitude of
line-to-ground voltages imposed under both steady-state and transient conditions. Reduction of the useful life
of insulation can be expected where the electric system is exposed to severe overvoltages. In rotating
machines where the insulation space is limited, the possibilities of insulation failure due to overvoltages are
high.
Intentional grounding of the electric system neutral also makes possible the prompt operation of sensitive
fault protection based on detection of the flow of ground current.
The protection of rotating machines on a grounded system can often be greatly improved by the use of a
simple inexpensive ground overcurrent relay.
C.3.1 Equipment Grounding
The IEEE Standard 141-1993 states that the main purposes of equipment grounding (see Definitions) are
as follows:
1. To maintain low potential difference between nearby metallic members in any area to ensure freedom
from electric-shock hazard to personnel in the area (bonding).
2. To provide an effective electric conductor system over which short-circuit currents involving ground can
flow without sparking or other evidence of thermal distress to avoid fire hazard to combustible material or gas
ignition in combustible atmospheres.
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To satisfy these requirements all electric conductor housings, equipment enclosures, and motor frames must
be interconnected by an equipment grounding system. The rules for complying with the foregoing are
described in the National Electrical Code-1996 edition and in the National Electrical Safety Code
ANSI-C2-1981.
C.3.2 Multiple Ground Connections
The multiple ground connections mentioned include those connected to motor, generator and other electrical
equipment casings or frames and leading to ground. The difference between equipment grounding for
personnel safety and system grounding for proper system operation must be understood. Equipment
grounding ensures that an equi-potential exists between all metallic equipment (conduit, trays, panels, frames,
motors, generators, transformers, switchgear etc.) This is accomplished by connecting a grounding conductor
(green wire/bare copper wire) from all metallic objects to ground. When a ground fault occurs the ground
fault current return path is through the equipment ground back to the ground source which is where the system
ground is connected to the ground mat. The system ground ensures that the 3-phase system neutral is
anchored at zero potential, and each phase to ground voltage will be of equal magnitude. This is true even
for resistance grounded systems which do not have a system neutral wire. Unbalanced loads on a 3-phase
system cause an unbalance current to flow back through the system neutral wire back to ground source.
For solidly grounded systems both a system ground and an equipment ground are necessary for proper
electrical protection and loss prevention for two reasons. The first is to prevent fires. The second is to minimize
damage of the electrical system and associated downtime for repairs. In most cases, automatic sprinkler
protection is recommended for a facility due to combustible occupancy or construction. Many times it will not
be cost effective to also provide GFP. However, in occupancies where nonthermal damage can be significant,
GFP should be considered as it will help reduce the probability of an electrical fire and the resulting damage
which would be incurred prior to operation of the automatic sprinklers.
C.3.3 Equipment Grounding Conductor
The equipment grounding conductor should be permanent and continuous, and have sufficient mechanical
strength and ample carrying capacity to conduct any current that is likely to be imposed on it, and be arranged
so that it will not be exposed to mechanical damage. For an equipment grounding circuit, any of the following
may be employed: metal enclosures for conductors and equipment, rigid metal conduit, intermediate metal
conduit, electrical metallic tubing, flexible metal conduit with fittings approved for grounding, armor of Type AC
cable, sheath of Type MI cable, Type MC metal sheath, and cable trays or other continuous metal raceways
approved for grounding. Where the equipment grounding conductor is run with, or enclosed with, the circuit
conductors, it should be one or more of the following: solid or stranded copper or other corrosion-resistant
conductor which may be insulated, covered, or bare and in the form of a wire or bus bar of any shape. (See
NEC-1996-250-91.) The size of the equipment grounding conductors for grounding interior raceway and
equipment depends upon the rating or setting of the automatic overcurrent devices in the circuit ahead of
the equipment or the raceway. Refer to Table 250-95 of the National Electrical Code-1996.
It is of major importance that the equipment grounding conductor provide an electrically continuous low
impedance path to the grounding electrode. If the system is grounded it must also be connected by a low
impedance path to the grounded conductor, for the following reasons:
1. Reduces the difference in potential that may occur between equipment frames and structures under ground
fault conditions.
2. If the impedance of the grounding path is high, there may be insufficient fault current to operate the
protective devices.
3. Allows the use of lower voltage rated surge arresters which can improve equipment protection.
To provide a low impedance path, the separation between the equipment grounding conductor and the
ungrounded conductors should be kept to a minimum. Wherever possible the ungrounded, grounded neutral
(if provided), and equipment grounding conductors should be run in the same conduit, raceway, or tray, or
enclosure.

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C.4 Ground Resistance

The connection of a grounding system to earth is one of the most important parts of the system. Without a
low ground resistance earth connection, the grounding system may perform entirely inadequately for the
purposes intended.
A grounding resistance of less than 1 ohm is generally the preferred value, but it may not need to be as
low as this in all cases. The desired resistance varies with the fault current to ground, so the larger the fault
current the lower must be the resistance. Electrodes that are buried in the ground to provide an electrical
connection to earth must be good electrical conductors, be corrosion resistant, and be able to withstand
mechanical abrasion. They must provide a sufficient area in contact with the soil so that the resistance of the
current path into and through the earth will be within the allowable limits for the particular application. The
resistance of the earth path should remain reasonably constant throughout the year.
Table 1 shows the resistance of 58-inch x 5 ft rods in different kinds of soil.
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Table 1. Grounding resistance of 58-inch by 5-foot rods

Soil
Fills:
Ashes, cinders, brine waste
Clay, shale, gumbo loam
Same, with varying proportions of sand and gravel
Gravel, sand, stones with little clay or loam
Average
Resistance, ohms
Minimum
Maximum
14
24
93
554
3.5
2
6
35
41
98
800
2700
Soil resistivity also varies with the depth below the surface of the earth. This is due to the difference in soil
composition in the different layers, and variations in moisture content and temperature. In general, the
resistivity of the soil tends to decrease at the greater depths.
C.5 Installation and Size of Grounding Electrode Conductors
The grounding electrode conductor for the wiring system should have sufficient mechanical strength and
ample carrying capacity to conduct currents that are likely to be imposed on it. A metal raceway, cable tray,
cable armor, cable sheath, copper or aluminum wire, either bare or insulated, or other corrosion-resistant
material is satisfactory. The specific size of the wire depends on the size of the building service entrance
conductors as specified in Table 250-94 of the National Electrical Code, but should not be smaller than No.
8 in any case. The connection from the wiring system to ground should not be broken by a switch or cutout
unless that entire installation is disconnected from the source of power.
C.6 Grounding Electrodes
The grounding electrode should preferably be a metallic underground water piping system. The metal frames
of buildings (if effectively grounded), or other local metallic underground systems are also acceptable. Driven
pipes, driven rods, or buried plates are acceptable but less desirable.
Concrete-encased electrodes consisting of not less than 20 ft (6 m) of bare No. 4 copper encased by at
least 2 in. (5 cm) of concrete and located within and near the bottom of concrete foundation footing in direct
contact with the earth are also acceptable.
Usually 10 ft (3.03 m) or more of a buried water piping system is considered an acceptable grounding
electrode, but special equipment such as electronic computers may require much lower values of ground
resistance. Because piping for water systems is often nonmetallic, it is important that the water piping within
a building be adequately grounded without dependence on the outside piping system. The National Electrical
Code now requires that a buried water piping system that is being used as a grounding electrode system
be supplemented with an additional electrode such as a driven pipe, rod or plate, or concrete encased
electrode, the ground resistance of which should not exceed 25 ohms.
The grounding electrodes and grounding conductors should have a low resistance (impedance) to permit
the prompt operation of the nearest overcurrent protective device in the circuit when a ground fault occurs.
Otherwise, the overcurrent protective device may not operate, and the fault currents will continue and may
cause a fire.
For substations at industrial plants, the current practice is to design the ground resistance for 1 ohm; and
for large substations and utility plants that involve very high currents, a resistance of 12 ohm or less is
recommended. For this purpose, an extensive buried grounding mat is usually provided, consisting of a loop
of copper cable surrounding the substation connected to a number of driven ground rods. (See Fig. 2.)
Where driven rods, pipes, or buried plates are employed, the connection to ground that is, the actual earth
contact plus the resistance of the earth itself depends largely on the character of the soil.
C.6.1 Water Mains
Underground, cast iron, leaded-joint water mains will usually afford a permanent low resistance ground
connection. However, the modern practice is to employ cement-lined asbestos piping for the mains and plastic
piping for the smaller branch lines for most new water systems or where repairs or replacement of the old
metal water lines is needed. Obviously, water mains of this type are not suitable for grounding purposes.
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Fig. 2. Typical grounding system for an outdoor substation.
C.6.2 Driven Grounds

Driven rods or pipes make an acceptable ground connection in some kinds of soil and have the advantage
of low cost and ease of installation. However, a single driven rod or pipe seldom has a sufficiently low ground
resistance to serve as the grounding electrode for a lightning rod or lightning arrester. A test of the ground
resistance is especially important here. If a single driven electrode has a ground resistance of appreciably
more than 5 ohms, two or more driven electrodes spaced at least 10 ft (3 m) apart and connected in parallel
may be needed to obtain a resistance of 5 ohms or less. The depth to which the ground rods are driven
will depend on the character of the soil: 8 ft (2.4 m) lengths are required as a minimum, but 10 ft (3 m) lengths
are also available. Driven rods should be copper-clad steel or galvanized iron of at least 58 in. (1.59 cm)
diameter. If pipe is used, 34 in. (1.91 cm) galvanized iron is recommended.
In some areas where a low resistance ground connection is required, a ground rod driven to a depth of 50 ft
(15 m) or more has been found to be the least expensive means of obtaining a satisfactory low resistance
earth connection.
C.6.3 Buried Plates
The National Electrical Code accepts plate electrodes having a surface area not less than 2 ft2 (0.18 m2).
The preferred practice, however, is that they be at least 9 ft2 (0.81 m2) in area and of 1/16 in. (0.156 cm) thick
copper. They should be buried below permanent moisture level with about 2 ft (60 cm) of crushed coke or
charcoal above and below each plate. A test of the ground resistance of such electrodes is important. If the
ground resistance is appreciably more than 5 ohms, additional electrodes spaced about 10 ft (3 m) apart
and connected in parallel should be installed.
C.6.4 Grounding Ring Or Network
Major substations are usually provided with a ground ring or network having a resistance of 1 ohm or less.
The ground resistance must be of low value for the protective equipment to function properly. During fault
conditions the passage of thousands of amperes through the ground resistance will raise the voltage
aboveground to a value equal to the voltage drop through the station ground connection. As long as all
grounded parts of the station equipment are connected to the ground network, they will be maintained at the
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same potential, and no damage will occur to the station equipment. Likewise there will be no hazard to
personnel within the station. A ground ring or network consists of a loop of cable surrounding the substation
and buried 2-12 ft (0.76 m) or more, to which are connected a number of grounding electrodes, usually driven
rods, as shown in Fig. 2. (See IEEE Standard 80-1996, IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding.)
C.6.5 Concrete Encased Electrode
Concrete-encased electrodes previously described are particularly effective in desert areas where it is usually
difficult to obtain a satisfactory ground connection.
C.6.6 Local Underground Systems
Underground steel tanks, buried piping systems, and well casings, in addition to water mains, are also
acceptable for use as grounding electrodes.
C.7 Industrial Distribution Systems - Grounding Practices
System grounding practices for commercial and industrial distribution systems, as mentioned earlier in this
data sheet, vary extensively. The following text describes the different methods that are employed and the
reasons for the selection of a specific method.
C.7.1 System and Equipment Grounding
Common types of system grounding are discussed in this document. They are solid, low resistance, high
resistance and ungrounded. Several types of system grounding which are not commonly used are also
described. They are reactance, corner of the Delta, and Mid Phase Grounded Delta. Ground fault magnitudes
vary greatly depending on the type of grounding of the system. For a solidly grounded system they depend
on the impedances of the system (zero sequence impedance) and can be as high as or even higher than
the 3 phase fault values. For low voltage systems however they are usually less than the 3 phase fault. For
low resistance grounded systems the ground fault current depends on the grounding resistance and will vary
from 200-1000 A. For high resistance systems the ground fault may be as low as 2-10 A. This value is
selected by choosing a resistor that allows more resistive current to flow than capacitive charging current.
C.7.2 Ungrounded Systems
An ungrounded system is one in which there is no intentional connection between the system conductors
and ground. The impedance ratio for an ungrounded system is Ro/Xo < 3. Because of the capacitive coupling
existing between the system conductors and ground, the ungrounded system is in fact inherently grounded
through the distributed system capacitance (Fig. 3). Capacitive coupled (ungrounded) systems can produce
transient overvoltages due to near resonance produced by inductive and capacitive system characteristics.
These can approach three to six times normal voltage. A more serious overvoltage condition can occur from
contact with a higher voltage system.
The ungrounded system has been used extensively in industrial plants in the past primarily because a single
ground fault does not cause an interruption to plant operations. However, transient overvoltages of greater
than normal can be developed during a fault which may cause insulation failure at other locations on the
system. Also, in an ungrounded system a second ground fault on another circuit may or may not occur before
the first fault is cleared. If a second ground fault does not occur on the same circuit, or another circuit, normal
operations may continue until it is convenient to locate and repair the fault. However, if a second ground
fault does occur on another phase before the first fault is cleared, a phase-to-phase fault will result, actuating
relays and circuit breakers and tripping faulted circuits. The relatively high phase-to-phase fault current may
cause considerable damage to plant equipment and interruption to both circuits.
A ground fault, on one line in an ungrounded system, causes full phase-to-phase voltage to appear throughout
the system, between the two unfaulted phases and ground. In the event this voltage, which is 73% higher
than normal, is applied for a long period, it may result in failure of insulation deteriorated from age or other
severe conditions. The probability of a second dielectric failure on another phase is increased due to the
significant increase in voltage stress. A phase-to-ground fault causes small ground fault current, in the range
of a few amps to 25 amps, or more on larger systems, to flow through the system capacitance.
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Fig. 3. Ungrounded system, inherently capacitively coupled to ground.
Although fault current which is caused by a phase-to-phase fault that is developed upon the occurrence of
a second ground fault in an ungrounded system is less than that which can occur during a single phase to
ground fault on a grounded system, equipment damage would still occur. Therefore, some means of ground
detection and/or protection is necessary in an ungrounded system. A commonly used ground detection
scheme is shown in Fig. 4. In this scheme, a ground on any phase will be indicated by the lamp on the
grounded phase glowing less brightly or not at all, and the lamps on the other two phases will glow more
brightly.
Fig. 4. Ground detectors for ungrounded system.
Where detection only is provided, written procedures should be posted to expedite clearing the ground fault.
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C.7.3 Solidly Grounded Systems

Solidly grounded means grounded through a ground connection where no impedance has been intentionally
inserted. Effectively grounded is often equated to solidly grounded. In an effectively grounded system the
impedance ratios Xo/X1 < 3 and Ro/X1 < 1, where Xo is the zero sequence reactance, X1 is the positive
sequence reactance, and Ro is the zero sequence resistance.
The problems of high transient overvoltage will not be eliminated if the reactance of the grounded generator
or power transformer is too great. Therefore, it is very important to determine how effectively the system
is grounded. The ground fault current for all solidly grounded systems should be in the range of 25% to 100%
of the three-phase fault current to prevent high transient overvoltages. However, solid grounding of a
generator with no grounding impedance may result in the generator ground fault current exceeding the
three-phase fault current which can be delivered by the generator. Therefore, in solidly grounded systems,
generators may be grounded through an impedance that will limit the ground fault current to a value not
exceeding the three-phase fault current.
Solid grounding is widely used for 3-phase, 4-wire low voltage systems (600 V and below) and for systems
greater than 15 kv to limit the high transient voltage surges. However, solid grounding is not the preferred
grounding method for 3-phase, 3-wire low voltage system nor medium voltage industrial systems because of
the severe damage potential posed to rotating equipment by high ground fault current.
C.7.4 Resistance Grounded Systems
A resistance grounded system connects the neutral of a Y-connected generator, power transformer, or
grounding transformer through a fixed resistance of a predetermined value to ground.
The purpose of the fixed resistance is to limit the ground fault current in order to (1) reduce burning and
melting in faulted equipment, (2) reduce mechanical stress, (3) reduce arcing or flash hazards to personnel,
(4) reduce momentary voltage drop, and (5) to control transient overvoltage.
C.7.5 Low Resistance Grounded Systems
In low resistance grounded systems, the neutral is grounded through a low value resistor inserted into the
system ground connection. The value of the resistor is usually selected to limit the ground fault current
between 200 and 400 amps. On older systems, the ground fault current was often limited to not more than
2000 amps. Low resistance grounding primarily reduces the damage that may occur from the fault currents
during the short interval between the time the fault occurs and the time the protective relays actuate to clear
the fault. It also controls high transient overvoltages and reduces mechanical and thermal stresses in
equipment subjected to the fault current. This type of system is usually chosen to limit core iron damage in
rotating machines. Low resistance grounding is the preferred method for 2.5 kV to 15 kV 3-phase 3-wire
systems.
Ground fault relaying is essential with low resistance grounded systems, as the current during ground fault
conditions is limited compared to a solidly grounded neutral system. Fuses may not be effective in clearing
ground faults in low resistance grounded systems.
C.7.6 High Resistance Grounded Systems
In high resistance grounded systems, the neutral is grounded through a higher value of resistance than that
which would be used in a low resistance grounded system. The value of the resistor is selected to allow a
ground fault current to flow which is slightly larger than the capacitive charging current of the system. The
result is a total ground fault current of approximately the 2 times the charging current. The latter rarely
exceeds 5 amperes on industrial systems except where surge capacitors are used, and 25 amps at utility
generating stations.
For a high resistance grounded system the impedance ratio is Xco/Ro > 3 or Ro = (1/3)Xco. Xco is the zero
sequence capacitive reactance.
High resistance grounding of low and up to 5-kV medium voltage systems is intended to (1) maintain
operations in spite of the known presence of a ground fault; (2) limit fault damage and transient overvoltages;
and (3) provide economical ground fault protection. Shown in Figure 5 is a high resistance grounded medium
voltage system. This system is grounded through the primary of a single-phase distribution transformer.
Connected in the secondary are the high ohmic value resistor and the ground fault overvoltage relay. The
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primary of the distribution transformer is rated equal to or greater than the line-to-neutral voltage. During a
ground fault, line-to-neutral voltage is impressed across the primary, whereas the secondary can be rated at
either 240 or 120 V.
Fig. 5. High resistance grounded medium voltage system.
A line-to-ground fault on a high resistance grounded system subjects the unfaulted phases to the full
line-to-line voltage. These overvoltages may remain on the system for extended periods of time. Cable
insulation level is based on the line-to-line voltage and it is assumed that the corresponding line-to-ground
voltage will not be exceeded except for brief periods of time. In high resistance grounded systems at the 480
and 600-volt levels, 600-volt cable insulation can be used. For medium voltage systems, the situation is
different. In medium voltage systems where ground faults will be cleared within one minute, 100% voltage
rated cables are suitable. If it is anticipated that the fault may not be cleared for up to one hour, 133% insulation
should be used. If it is expected that the ground fault clearing time might exceed one hour, 173% insulation
is required. Care must also be exercised in the selection of surge arresters. Surge arresters used on any
resistance grounded system should be rated at 100%. The effect of the line-to-line voltages being applied to
other components (motors, controllers, switchgear, transformers, and capacitors) does not require special
attention.
High resistance grounded systems are usually designed to give an alarm upon the occurrence of a ground
fault. Determining the location of the fault is the next step. One method of fault location involves the
sequential tripping of circuit breakers to determine when the fault disappears, but this defeats one of the major
advantages of high resistance grounding, i.e., the ability to locate ground faults without shutting down the
system. Commercial ground fault location systems are available that do not require the shutdown of the
system.
Medium voltage industrial systems (5 kV or less) may be operated in the presence of a ground fault of 10
amps or less until a convenient shutdown can be performed. If the system charging current is such that the
10 amp limitation can not be realized, three options are open. They are as follows:
1. Use high resistance grounding with the resistor sized to permit a total ground fault current flow higher
than 10 amps, but arrange for immediate shutdown in the event of a ground fault. With this option, one of
the major advantages of high resistance grounding is lost: the ability to keep the system in operation despite
the presence of a ground fault.
2. Utilize a low resistance grounded system.
3. Solidly ground the system. (This option is not recommended for industrial and commercial distribution
systems for reasons previously cited.)
The second option is preferred because there is no overriding advantage in utilizing the high resistance
grounding if the equipment can not be operated with a ground fault on the system. Both the low resistance
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and high resistance grounding schemes will serve to prevent iron damage. With low resistance grounding,
the problem of promptly isolating only the faulted portion of the system is greatly simplified.
Medium voltage utility generating station systems (up to 25 kV) are normally high resistance grounded. The
generator is usually tripped without intentional delay. Some operators of unit-connected machines are willing
to risk the possibility of additional electrical damage until an orderly shutdown can be effected to avert severe
shock to the mechanical and steam system. This practice is not recommended for industrial and commercial
power systems because of the unacceptably high risk of fault escalation.
Low voltage systems(1000 volts or less) may be high resistance grounded if maintaining operations under
ground fault conditions is of great importance. In this case, a program of immediately locating and correcting
the ground faults as they occur should be established. Figure 6 illustrates a high resistance grounded low
voltage system. The high ohmic value resistor is connected directly between the neutral and ground. High
resistance grounding is the preferred grounding method for low voltage 3-phase 3-wire systems.
Fig. 6. High resistance grounded low voltage system.
High resistance grounding schemes should not be utilized unless there is a firm commitment to promptly
locate and isolate ground faults. This commitment includes the provision of personnel who have the training
and/or experience required to locate the faults.
C.7.7 Reactance Grounded Systems
Reactance grounded systems employ a reactor in the neutral connection to ground, to provide ground
impedance in order to limit the magnitude of fault current (Fig. 7). This method is commonly used in Europe
but seldom used in the United States as it has little advantage over resistance grounding and is more
expensive.
Generally this method is used only with a generator with neutral connected directly to ground, and where it
is necessary to limit the fault current to an amount that does not exceed the three phase fault current. In
some cases, a directly grounded generator without external reactance may produce a ground fault current
in excess of the maximum three-phase fault current that the generator can deliver. In such a case, damage
to the windings may result.
If the system is grounded through a low value reactor, the resulting effects during a ground fault are similar
to those in a solidly grounded system, except that the current in a phase-to-ground fault will be less than
the three-phase fault current. Usually a reactance grounded system is not recommended for industrial power
systems.
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Fig. 7. Reactance grounded system.
Low reactance grounded neutral systems will safely control the overvoltages generated in the power system
by resonant capacitive-inductive circuits and restriking ground faults. They may not control the overvoltages
arising from physical contact with some higher voltage systems. Fast tripping on ground faults limits fault
damage and prevents equipment burn-downs.
C.7.8 Corner-Of-The-Delta Grounded System
The corner-of-the-delta grounded system connects a phase conductor from one corner of the delta connected
low voltage windings of the transformer directly to ground (Fig. 8).
Fig. 8. Corner-of-the-delta grounded system.
The corner-of-the-delta grounded system is not widely used in industry. It has been used primarily on the
older delta connected low voltage systems. This method of grounding requires that the grounded leg be
positively identified throughout the system. No overcurrent device may be connected in it, so that it always
affords a permanent path to ground.
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It also continuously impresses 1.73 times normal line to neutral voltage between the other two-phase
conductors and ground that may result in increased system maintenance due to the high insulation stress
on two phases. Because of the above problems of identification and voltage stress, this method of grounding
is no longer recommended for new installations.
The preferred method of grounding an existing ungrounded delta system is to use a grounding transformer
as described later.
C.7.9 Mid-Phase Grounded Delta Connected System
The mid-phase grounded system is a delta connected system in which the mid-point of the low voltage winding
of the supply transformer has been tapped and solidly grounded (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9. Mid-phase grounded delta connected system.
This method of grounding is often used in smaller distribution systems to supply a 3-phase source of power
and a 3-wire single-phase source for a lighting system. Three single-phase transformers are usually
employed. The transformer that supplies the lighting load is usually somewhat larger than the other two, which
supply only the power load.
With this arrangement one of the phase conductors will operate at a higher voltage to ground than the other
two. In practice, this high leg must be especially identified throughout the system.
C.7.10 Zig-Zag Grounding Transformer For Grounding An Ungrounded Delta System
This method is the one most commonly employed to ground an existing ungrounded 3-wire, 3-phase
distribution system. In order to secure the advantages of a high resistance grounded system, the resistor
should be connected between the neutral and ground. Figure 10 shows the method of connecting the zig-zag
transformer to the system.
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Fig. 10. Grounding ungrounded delta system with zig-zag transformer.
The zig-zag transformer is so called from the manner in which the main windings are arranged on the core.
It has no secondary winding but the main windings consist of six equal parts, two of which are placed on
each of the three core legs. Each pair is then wound in opposite directions. Under normal conditions only a
small magnetizing current flows because the impedance of the transformer to 3-phase current is high.
C.7.11 Grounding Transformers
Grounding transformers can also be used to provide a system grounding point as shown in Figure 11 in order
to secure the benefits of a resistance ground system.
C.7.12 Ground Fault Neutralizers
Ground fault neutralizers, such as the Petersen Coil, are used on utility systems for grounding unit-connected
generators. A ground fault neutralizer has a relatively high value of reactance and is connected between
the system neutral and ground. When a ground fault occurs, the inductive component of current in the
neutralizer and the capacitive component of current in the system neutralize each other. The remaining
current, which is relatively small, is due to resistance, insulation leakage, and corona. This small current is
in phase with the line-to-neutral voltage. Therefore, both current and voltage pass through their zero point at
the same instant, and the arcing at the fault is extinguished.
Ground fault neutralizers prevent excessive transient overvoltages, keep fault currents to nearly zero, but
require the use of 100% surge arresters. It is necessary that the ground fault neutralizer be kept tuned to the
capacitance of the system as sections of the system may be switched on or off.
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Fig. 11. Wye-delta transformer used as grounding transformer.
C.8 Application
C.8.1 Ground Fault Protection
C.8.1.1 Ground Fault Protection Fundamentals
About 80 percent of all electrical faults are ground faults. A ground fault occurs when the electrical conductor
insulation breaks down and the exposed energized conductor comes in contact with the electrical ground
return path. Energy released by the fault may lead to further damage of electrical equipment and also may
become an ignition source for nearby combustibles. Ground fault protection (GFP) will not detect series
arcing (arcing between a conductor and its terminal connection).
Ground fault protection will do the following:
Detect arcing ground faults.
Increase the probability of detecting ground faults with poor ground return paths.
Prevent escalation of the fault.
Prevent electrical burn down of switchgear and bus due to arcing faults.
Minimize equipment damage at the point of fault.
Limit damage to the rest of the system.
Reduce iron burning in transformers, motors and generators.
Reduce the probability of fire.
Reduce business and service interruption.
To be effective, the protection must be set to trip at current levels lower than the anticipated arcing fault current.
The application guidelines in using ground fault protection to prevent electrically ignited fires is under
development. These guidelines will correlate the released energy from the fault (kW-cycles) with that required
for ignition. The ground fault protective device current tap and time dial setting must be set below the thermal
ignition time and current levels. To prevent nuisance tripping the ground fault protection must be set above
charging current and any neutral unbalance in the circuit.
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Electrical fault and coordination studies are required to coordinate GFP with both phase and ground fault
upstream and downstream devices. The maximum current setting for solidly grounded systems should be the
lesser of the allowable maximum local jurisdictional value (e.g., NEC: 1200 Amps.) or 20% to 50% of the
breaker rating. A maximum current setting of 20% to 50% of the breaker rating for GFP was chosen due to
the variances in different electrical systems of charging current and neutral unbalances. This value is not
sacrosanct. A value no greater then the 20% to 50% range of the breaker rating is usually sufficient to clear
a sustained arc. The specific setting to prevent ignition is construction and occupancy specific. The protection
coordination study and/or relay setting sheets should be checked to ensure that the ground fault protection
value was addressed and is consistent with the present setting. For resistance grounded systems the
available ground fault current is limited by the resistor value. For low resistance the ground fault current is
limited to 200 to 1000 amps. For high resistance the ground fault current is limited to 5 to 25 amps. The ground
fault protection for resistance grounded systems must be selected to sense these lower values of currents
(3Io) or changes in line to ground voltages (3Vo).
Ground fault circuit interruption (GFCI) for personnel should not be confused with GFP for equipment. GFCI
operates to de-energize a circuit when a current to ground exceeds a predetermined milliampere value.
Normally a circuit breaker is the interrupting device for GFP. The switch element in typical fused switch
equipment does not have a high enough interrupting capability for this application. A switch with load break
capability or one that has an interrupting capability can be used if the switch ratings are greater than the
maximum ground fault current level. The fused switch to be used as an interrupter of ground fault current
needs to be an electrically operated switch which is initiated by the GFP. Fused disconnect switches may also
clear a ground fault through operation of the fuses as in a main fused service entrance. These switches
should be provided with anti-single phasing provisions. The reason for this is that often an initial ground fault
or phase-to-phase fault can cause one or two fuses to blow to clear phase faults, but the fault continues
to be fed from the undamaged phases.
The ground return path is an important part of the GFP scheme because GFP will not operate without a
continuous path back to the electrical system service entrance. The ground return path can be a bare copper
wire, a green wire, green/yellow striped, conduit or cable tray. In some locations, no designed ground return
path exists and the floor, equipment, piping, and/or building steel frame becomes the ground return path.
Electrical ignition of nearby construction and occupancy can be prevented when GFP operates to clear a
ground fault before sufficient energy is released. Further research by FM Global Research to develop
application guidelines using GFP to prevent electrically ignited fire is pending. Those guidelines would
correlate the energy released from the fault (kW-cycles) with that required for ignition. The specific settings
to prevent ignition would potentially be construction and occupancy specific.
GFP will not detect series arcing which is arcing between a conductor and its terminal connection. Methods
available today to detect series arcing include infrared scanning of energized equipment and visual
inspection. Circuit breakers with the ability to detect series arcing are available for 120 volt systems. Higher
voltage breakers are under development and will be available within the next few years.
Electrical circuits and equipment are subject to severe damage from arcing ground faults when not provided
with proper protection.
Historically, low voltage electrical circuits and equipment have been protected against overloads and short
circuits by means of fuses and circuit breakers. Even though properly applied, experience has indicated that
these phase-overcurrent trip devices are inadequate protection in many instances against arcing ground
faults, because they are not sufficiently sensitive to detect the ground fault currents. Since the use of grounded
distribution systems has largely replaced the ungrounded delta connected 3-phase, 3-wire low voltage
systems, numerous arcing fault burndowns of electrical apparatus have occurred. The increased use of
277-volt fluorescent lighting equipment has resulted in the employment of the 480Y/277-V solidly grounded
distribution system. This is particularly susceptible to severe damage from arcing ground faults when not
properly protected against this hazard. The earlier low voltage systems rated at 120/240V and 208Y/120V
were not as susceptible to serious damage from arcing line-to-ground faults because the arcing is selfextinguishing at these lower voltages. At the higher voltages the arc is likely to be sustained until the source
of power is interrupted.
While there has been some reluctance by industry to install these devices due to nuisance trips, there are
now a number of systems which provide reliable ground fault detection and interruption. The heat and smoke
generated by an arcing ground can be sensed by a fire detection system. The fire detection system should
be installed to alarm at a constantly attended location.
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Properly grounded and protected systems will mitigate the consequences of extended arcing as a result of
a ground fault. Sustained arcing results in both more arcing damage and fire damage, as well as non-thermal
damage.
Though phase-to-phase faults do occur frequently, the phase-to-ground fault is the most common and is
too often provided with inadequate safeguards. The phase overcurrent devices normally provided will not
always recognize a ground fault because the impedance of the arc and the ground return path is sufficient
to limit the fault current below the trip settings of the overcurrent devices.
The energy in the arc is so intense that it will quickly vaporize copper, aluminum, and steel and set fire to
other exposed combustibles such as insulating oils and wire and cable insulations. Comparing the energy in
an arcing fault with an electric arc furnace, the furnace requires about 500 kWH of electrical energy to melt
a ton (0.9 t) of steel; an arcing fault of comparable magnitude (which is not unreasonable) if allowed to persist
for only five or six minutes could melt down about 200 lb (90 kg) of the material in metal enclosed switchgear,
motor control centers, and similar equipment. This would represent considerable physical damage which
could also, in many instances, result in an extended business interruption.
An accidental ground occurring on one phase of a 3-phase ungrounded system may cause no trouble until
a second ground occurs on another phase. If the second ground occurs on another circuit, more parts of
the system are involved and the extent of damage is increased. The amount of damage that occurs depends
upon the impedance in the circuit and the duration of the fault until cleared by the usual phase overcurrent
devices. The first arcing ground fault will cause an overvoltage, which in turn can cause failure of other
electrical equipment on the systems. Enough current can then flow through the ground path between the
two faults, which may be of such high impedance that it results in extensive damage to the electrical
installation. Ungrounded systems of this type are usually equipped with ground indicating lamps, audible
alarms, or voltmeters so that the faulted equipment can be repaired before such serious damage can occur.
Inasmuch as the usual overcurrent protection provided by fuses or circuit breakers cannot be depended upon
to adequately protect against ground faults, specially designed supplementary protection must be provided.
For the protection of power equipment, the National Electrical Code-(1996), Section 230-95, now requires
ground fault protection (see Jurisdictional Code Requirements).
There are a number of systems for providing ground fault protection now available from reputable
manufacturers. These are designed to detect a leakage of current to ground on a circuit, or apparatus
connected to the circuit, which then causes an overcurrent device to open and de-energize the circuit. While
there are many different models and ratings available, they all operate on the same principle of the differential
relay scheme that has been used for the protection of transformers for many years. The chief component
of a ground fault protection system consists of a sensor which is a window-type of current transformer that
encircles all phase conductors, including the neutral. This operates on the principle that the sum of the load
currents, whether balanced or unbalanced, is always zero. However, when a ground fault occurs the sum
is no longer zero and a current is induced in the secondary of the current transformer which activates a relay.
With this arrangement, which is known as the zero sequence method (Fig. 12), inverse time overcurrent
relays may be employed so that the circuit can be tripped selectively. To keep the damage due to the ground
fault to a minimum, the maximum pick-up time of the relay for main circuits should be no greater than one
second, with lesser times for feeder and branch circuits.
Fig. 12. Zero sequence method of ground fault protection.
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Figure 13 shows an actual installation of the sensor part of a ground fault protection system for a grounded
wye electric service.
Fig. 13. Sensor for ground fault protection system.
Another method of providing ground fault protection is shown in Figure 14. This is for detecting ground fault
current in a solidly grounded system and employs a direct-sensing current transformer connected in the
grounding conductor.
Fig. 14. Delta-wye-connected transformer supplying power system with neutral solidly grounded and
equipped with ground fault relay.
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C.8.2 Coordination, Selectivity and Location

There are four basic alternatives in the application of ground fault protection: 1) ground fault protection on
the main only; 2) ground fault protection on the feeder only; 3) coordinated ground fault protection on the main
and feeder; and 4) no ground fault protection.
Ground fault protection installed on the main breaker only may be undesirable in some locations. The power
outage caused by tripping this breaker could have greater consequence than the damage on a faulted remote
downstream feeder. Ground fault protection on the feeder only may not be an option allowed by jurisdictional
code.
If service interruptions can create a severe production loss, a coordinated ground fault scheme on feeders
and the main is required. The feeder breakers then trip before the main breaker, preventing total shutdown of
the system. Mis-coordination between a low voltage power circuit breaker with ground fault protection and
the molded case circuit breaker protecting a motor can occur. To provide selectivity between the individual
equipment protective devices and the main, additional protective devices must be installed on the feeders.
The alternative to providing ground fault protection for each feeder would be to provide conventional fire
protection. Damage to the failed object would not be limited, but ensuing fire would be controlled. The loss
exposure would have to be calculated for each of the alternatives described above.
In order to perform a ground fault protection coordination study, the electrical systems consultant needs to
determine the following:
1. Type of system grounding (solid, resistance, ungrounded).
2. Type of interrupting device (circuit breaker, fused disconnect switch).
3. Whether the transformer leads or the service cables can be protected.
4. Type of electrical arrangement (radial, secondary selective, primary selective, etc.).
5. Service disconnecting means. Whether provided by a single disconnect (breaker) or up to six breakers?
6. Electrical power interruption exposure. Could require coordinated ground fault relay scheme on feeders
and main.
7. Whether surge protection is provided for rotating machinery or solid-state rectifier systems.
C.8.3 High Resistance and Ungrounded Systems
The ground fault relaying schemes briefly discussed above and described in the NEC are only applicable
on solid and low resistance grounded systems. These schemes are not applicable on high resistance or
ungrounded systems since insufficient ground fault current flows to actuate the relays. High resistance and
ungrounded systems use voltage relays and devices to detect ground faults. High resistance is recommended
over ungrounded because it prevents transient overvoltage from occurring. Transient overvoltage reduces
insulation life and can initiate a fault in an electrical system. The methodology for detecting faults, alarming,
and interrupting a circuit does not have to be changed when converting to a high resistance grounded system.
On low voltage systems (less than 1000 V) we are concerned about the transient voltages not only on the
equipment insulation but also on the electronic equipment. Solid state, static, microprocessor and other
electronic equipment is susceptible to transient voltages which can cause misoperation. Tests have shown
that the transients produce erratic controller operation.
C.8.4 Ungrounded Low Voltage Systems and High Speed Digital Protection Systems Issues
With improvements in technology and the advent of digital electronics, the speed of detection and initiation
of protective action can be very fast (microseconds). The basic premise that the protection engineer works
under is the faster he can detect a fault and take protective action, the better the protected device fares in
regards to minimizing damage and limiting interruption to the rest of the unfaulted system. Unfortunately
there is a risk of being too fast as far as response to a high current magnitude is concerned. The risk is being
overly sensitive to system disturbances that are not fault conditions involving the protected equipment and,
therefore, tripping in these cases would be considered misoperation.
Applying a high resistance type grounding scheme in lieu of an ungrounded system eliminates the possibility
of recurrence of these transients and therefore greatly reduces the potential of misoperation of these devices.
5-10
Page 25
C.8.5 Ground Fault Protection Schemes

The ground fault protection provided depends upon the type of system grounding, the voltage level and the
type of interrupting device. Typical ground fault protection schemes are shown in Figures 1A though 1E and
Table 1 in Data Sheet 5-4, Transformers. Generic ground fault protection types and device numbers for the
various system grounding methods are listed below:
a. Solid, low resistance and reactance grounded system.
1. Neutral relay, 50G/51G.
2. Residual connected relay, 50N/51N.
3. Ground sensor relay, 50G/51G (from toroidal or window type etc).
4. Any of the above functions as part of low voltage circuit breaker static/microprocessor trip devices.
b. High resistance grounded system.
1. Ground overvoltage, 59N.
c. Ungrounded system.
1. The ungrounded system should be changed to a high resistance grounded system.
2. Ground overvoltage, 59N.
C.8.6 Phase Overcurrent Protection
Standard phase overcurrent protective devices may not be able to provide ground fault protection because
their settings have to be greater than full load and starting, inrush currents. Low magnitude arcing ground
faults can be below these setting and therefore the protective device will not see the fault. Phase
instantaneous settings should be lowered to a level that is just high enough to avoid nuisance tripping. This
will provide an improved level of ground fault protection for solidly grounded systems that are not provided
with separate ground fault tripping devices. (This will not afford complete protection against all arcing ground
faults because these faults can be lower than the permissible settings of the instantaneous and short time
trips, but protection is improved at no additional cost. See Section 2-2 (1).)
C.8.7 Fuses
If transformers are protected with fuses or fuse disconnects and the fuse can not detect the ground fault,
then separate ground fault protection is required. If an automatically operated disconnect is not provided or
does not have an interrupting capability greater than the available ground fault current, the ground fault
protection should alarm at a constantly attended location. Written instructions should be provided to notify
fire and electrical personnel. If response time is inadequate, the addition of circuit breakers directly on the
primary of the transformer or at the power supply point of the service conductor should be provided.
In summary, unless circuit breakers or fuse disconnects with interrupting capability are installed, ground fault
protection can not be realistically provided. After circuit breakers have been installed, then appropriate
recommendations for ground fault protection can be made.
C.8.8 Single Point Ground
One fundamental point often overlooked in these schemes is that the system neutral can only be grounded
at the incoming source and all other system grounds must be removed. Finding and removing all other system
grounds could be difficult. Most subpanels tie both the neutral (e.g., white wire) and the ground (bare wire)
together to the same terminal block. When the system ground and the neutral are tied together at other than
the incoming source, the system unbalance current (negative sequence) and the ground fault current (zero
sequence) both divide respectively by the impedance of the system ground and the neutral. The ground
fault relay for this case will see both the system unbalance and the ground fault current. The relay will therefore
have to be set above the system unbalance current to prevent false tripping. The response of the relay is
unpredictable due to the impedance split. An arc monitoring system, ABB Arc Guard System or FM Approved
equivalent can be provided if a single point ground is not feasible.
5-10
Page 26
C.8.8.1 Drive Systems

The method of ground fault protection for motor drive systems is dependent upon the isolation transformer
secondary connection. Ground fault protection is usually provided integral to the drive system. Zero sequence
voltage detection will be used for isolation transformers with ungrounded secondaries. Ground fault protection
should be provided by using a grounded wye/broken delta line to line rated voltage transformers.
Coordination of the ground fault protection from the isolation transformer to the motor needs to be performed
and documented. The isolation transformer primary side breaker needs to be tripped for ground faults in
this zone (isolation transformer/power electronics/motor).
C.8.9 Generator Grounding & Protection
Ground fault protection for high resistance grounded generators should be provided in accordance with Data
Sheet 13-3, Utility Steam Turbine-Generators, Section 3.4.2.2 Stator Ground Faults and Table 12, Protective
Devices for Utility A.C. Generators. The most common protective relay provided is a time delay overvoltage
relay, device 59GN, connected across the grounding impedance to detect the zero sequence voltage. This
relay is tuned to fundamental frequency and is insensitive to third harmonics which are produced by machine
dissymmetries. This scheme protects approximately 90 to 95 percent of the stator winding to the neutral.
Ground fault relays are now available for high resistance grounded generators that provide complete
protection of the stator winding. These schemes are often referred to as 100 percent ground fault protection
since they detect ground faults to the neutral.
Ground fault protection of generators on low resistance grounded systems should be provided in accordance
with Data Sheet 13-11, Steam Turbines Driving Generators- Industrial Applications, Section 4.2.2 Stator
Ground Faults. Studies have shown that 75% of the iron burning for generators whose neutral is low
resistance grounded is caused by the decaying magnetic field after the generator breaker has tripped. To
prevent this iron burning and the associated restacking of the stator core we recommend that the generator
neutral be high resistance grounded. This limits the available ground fault current after the generator breaker
has tripped to 5-10 amperes. The medium voltage industrial distribution system should remain low resistance
grounded to ensure proper selective ground fault relay operation. This may require the addition of grounding
transformer banks on the synchronizing bus which will ensure the same level of ground fault current on the
facility distribution system even if the utility source is lost.
The ground differential provides the most sensitive ground fault protection for low resistance grounded
generators. This scheme uses a product type relay. The relay is connected to both the CT residual on the
line side and to the generator neutral. The operating torque for the relay is provided by energizing the
operating coil of the relay with residual current from the line current transformers, and energizing the relay
polarizing coil from the generator neutral so that it sees 3I0. Operation occurs when the residual current and
the polarizing currents are in the same direction. The relay is polarized (biased) so that positive restraint
exists for external faults and provides very sensitive protection for internal faults. A polarity test needs to be
performed to confirm that the direction of secondary CT current flow is correct for a given primary current
flow direction.
C.8.10 Ground Fault Calculations
The magnitude of current that will flow when a line-to-ground fault occurs on a grounded system is determined
by the reactance of the grounded equipment, the reactance in the conductors leading to the fault, and the
resistance and reactance of the ground return path including any intentional grounding resistance or
reactance.
Illustrated below are sample calculations for determining the ground fault current in a solidly grounded
three-phase low voltage system (Fig. 15) and a high resistance grounded low voltage system (Fig. 16), both
of which are common types of industrial distribution systems.
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Page 27
Fig. 15. Ground fault currents in a solidly grounded low voltage 3-phase system.
Fig. 16. Ground fault currents in a high-resistance-grounded low voltage 3-phase system.
In Figure 15, for a solidly grounded system, single line-to-ground fault current is equal to:
3
IBASE
IGF =
Z1 + Z2 + Z0 + 3ZG
Z1 = System positive sequence impedance
Z2 = System negative sequence impedance
Z0 = System zero sequence impedance
ZG = System Ground impedance, ZG =
R2G + X2G
5-10
Page 28
IBASE = Transformer full load amperes on the faulted (secondary) side:

IBASE =
1000 kVA
= 1202
3 (0.48 kV)
If we assume ZG to be nearly zero (for a fault near the transformer low-voltage bushings), and
Z1 = Z2 = Z0 for the transformer, then
IGF =
3 IBASE
3Z1
IBASE
Z1
Z1 is equal to the sum of the transformer positive-sequence and system positive-sequence impedances on
a per-unit base (1000 kVA). For this condition the ground fault current is equal to the three-phase fault
current.
1000 kVA
Z1 SYSTEM =
= 0.0067 per unit
150,000 kVA
Z1 TRANSFORMER = 0.0575 p.u. (by nameplate rating)
and
Z1 = 0.0575 + 0.0067 = 0.0642 p.u.
IGF =
1202A
= 18722 Amperes
0.0642
In Figure 16, for a high-resistance grounded system, the value of the neutral resistor is much greater than
Z0, Z1, and Z2. Thus, the value of ground fault current approximates the line-to-neutral voltage divided by the
value of the resistor.
In Figure 16
IGF =
IGF =
3 IBASE
3Zi + 3Zn
IBASE
Zn
ELL
3Rn
480
= 1.39 amperes
3200
C.9 Electronic Computers

Electronic computers and data processing equipment are installed in non-current carrying metal enclosures.
Some are supplied by a 208Y/120 V, 60 Hz power system with a grounded neutral and others by 120, 220
or 240 volt at single-phase power with grounded neutral and frequency ranging from 47 to 63 Hz. In some
cases a separately derived source of power is employed, such as an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) or
a motor generator set.
Most computer equipment is installed on a raised floor with the power cables supplying the computer and
peripheral equipment, other interconnecting cables, and a fire extinguishing system all located under the floor.
This space may also carry cooling air for the computers.
Power supplies and the non-current carrying metal parts of these installations must be grounded as previously
described for other installations supplied by alternating current in accordance with Article 250 of the
NEC-1984.
Extraneous signals commonly known as electronic noises in a computer installation can cause false data
to be processed by the computer and malfunction or failure of some of the components. High speed
computers operate in radio frequencies in the range of several thousand MHZ. The wiring can act as a
receiving antenna and respond to external RF signals that can result in false data.
Stray inductance and capacitance from conductor to conductor or conductor to grounded metal cause voltage
differentials at the ends of long conductors. Potential differences in a grounding conductor connecting two
pieces of a data processing unit can cause data errors. Thermal agitation of material, processors at
5-10
Page 29
semi-conductor junctions (shot noise), crystal defects (popcorn noise), and surface phenomena (contact
noise) all contribute to unwanted signals in low-level circuits.
Techniques used to reduce or eliminate these noises include shielding, grounding, guarding reduction of
circuit impedance and power supply impedance, filtering, balancing, optical coupling, differential analyzers,
isolation transformers, modulation, and use of transient suppressors.
Earth loops should be avoided by maintaining only one earth point in the system. Where peripheral and
subsystem d-c power supplies are referenced to the chassis, the equipment must be isolated from building
earth to avoid earth loops. The electric power should be supplied by a separate feeder from the main power
source for exclusive use of the computer system. The power to the system should also be supplied through
an isolation transformer which is also isolated from structural earth, and the power wiring, if in metal conduit,
should be insulated from the metal enclosure for the main communications rack or central processing unit.
Figure 17 illustrates the method employed by one major manufacturer for complying with the equipment
grounding requirements of the National Electrical Code and reducing electronic noise in the computer
system. This system employees two separate earthing (grounding) networks, the logic earth and the a-c power
earth. The chassis for the various components are insulated from the floor and the building steel, and metallic
conduit, if used for a-c wiring, is not connected to the metal enclosures except through an insulating bushing
or section of non-metallic conduit. The manufacturers grounding instructions must be complied with to warrant
the system.
Disconnect the main power supply and with an ohmeter check the resistance between all equipment units.
Be sure test leads contact clean unpainted metal surfaces and resistance does not exceed 0.5 ohms.
The power system ground should also be checked by disconnecting the lead to the driven ground rod at a
convenient point. Then with an ohmeter measure the resistance across the earth connection at this point. It
should measure more than 10 megohms.
C.10 Ground Resistance Testing
C.10.1 Electrical Ground Resistance Testers
Several self-powered instruments are available for testing the resistance of the ground connections. With
these instruments the tests are simple and easy to make.
The James G. Biddle Co. makes two types of Megger Null Balance Earth Testers, one battery operated
and the other a hand-cranked unit. The latter generates 150 to 160 volts and is shown in Figure 18. To use
the instrument it is necessary to drive two reference grounds 20 in. (0.5 m) long, connected as shown in
Figure 19.
The Megger earth tester should not be confused with the Megger insulation resistance tester, as the term
Megger is a registered trademark used by the James G. Biddle Co. to identify instruments of their
manufacture. The term is also applied to ohmeters and other instruments for measuring electrostatic capacity.
The Associated Research Inc. also makes a Vibroground electrical ground resistance tester which is
powered by two 1-12-volt dry cell batteries.
If the above mentioned instruments are not available, the resistance of the ground connection may also be
determined by the following methods. These each require the installation of two auxiliary electrodes in
addition to the one under test and the use of a voltmeter and ammeter.
C.10.2 Three-Point Method
Either alternating current of commercial frequency or direct current may be used as the power supply in this
method. The arrangement of the test connections and the method for calculating the resistance of the ground
connection (Rx) are shown in Figure 20. The resistance of the auxiliary electrodes should be roughly equal
to or less than the ground connection under test. Stray direct currents will not affect the readings when using
alternating current for the power supply, but stray alternating current of the same frequency will probably
cause an error. Likewise, if direct current is used for the test current, stray direct current will give false
readings. If stray direct currents are present, reversing the polarity and averaging the readings in both
directions will provide an accurate answer.
Page 30
Fig. 17. Power and earth distribution, typical configuration.
5-10
5-10
Page 31
Fig. 18. Megger Earth Tester, Catalog No. 601.
C.10.3 Fall of Potential Method

This method uses alternating current of a known value to pass through an auxiliary electrode and the one
under test as illustrated in Figure 21. The drop in potential between a second auxiliary electrode and the one
under test is then measured and the ratio of this voltage drop to the known current will indicate the resistance
of the electrode under test (Rx).
This method may be subject to considerable error if there are stray ground currents present, or if pipes or
other conductors are buried near the test electrode.
C.11 Equipment and System Study Costs
The cost of refurbishing a low voltage power circuit breaker including addition of an electronic trip with ground
fault function and sensors is $6000 to $18000 depending upon breaker rating. Low voltage power circuit
breakers that are 25 years or older should be refurbished or replaced.
In general molded case circuit breakers cannot be retrofitted with ground fault trip devices. Some modern
models can be retrofitted and the manufacturer should be contacted for applicability. When the molded case
circuit breaker cannot be retrofitted with ground fault protection, it should be replaced by a new breaker with
a ground fault trip device. Replacement costs of molded case circuit breakers including an electronic trip
with ground fault function and sensors is $3000 to $8000 depending upon breaker rating. Molded case circuit
breakers that are 25 years or older should be replaced.
High resistance grounding equipment provides a neutral ground for an ungrounded three-phase power system
utilizing the high resistance grounding method. The system operates basically as an ungrounded system
with all of the ungrounded system advantages. The high resistance grounding equipment is designed to
eliminate the danger of high transient overvoltages due to arcing ground faults. The system is designed to
provide immediate warning when the first ground occurs and to provide a methodology of finding and removing
the fault before another occurs. The range of equipment costs is $15,000 $20,000 depending upon chosen
options.
Electrical system studies includes load flow, phase and ground fault, phase and ground protective device
coordination, harmonic, insulation coordination, and stability. The costs of having electrical system studies
done depends upon the complexity and size of the facility. Average costs are as follows:
Commercial
Small Industrial
Paper Mill
Steel Mill
$10,000
$25,000
$100,000
$300,000
5-10
Page 32
Fig. 19. Simplified diagram showing the principle of operation of Megger Earth Tester Catalog No. 601.
C.12 Jurisdictional Code Requirements

Jurisdictional code requirements for electrical systems and protection are normally minimum requirements.
The recommendations provided in the data sheet should therefore not be in conflict.
The following will address the National Electrical Code (NEC), NFPA 70 used in the United States. Other
jurisdictional requirements should be similar. The NEC requirements are minimum requirements for the
minimum practical safeguarding of property arising from the use of electricity. It is not intended as a design
specification nor as an instruction manual for the untrained. The FM Global recommendations pertaining
to grounding, electrical protection and ground fault protection are not in conflict with the NEC. FM Global
exceeds the NEC where appropriate to prevent ignition.
The National Electrical Code (NEC) defines Ground Fault Circuit-Interrupters (GFCI) (personnel protection)
and Ground Fault Protection (GFP) (equipment protection) as follows:
Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupter: A device intended for the protection of personnel that functions to
de-energize a circuit or portion thereof within an established period of time when a current to ground exceeds
some predetermined value that is less than that required to operate the overcurrent protective device of the
supply circuit.
5-10
Page 33
Fig. 20. Three-point method for testing resistance of ground connection.
Ground-Fault Protection of Equipment:

A system intended to provide protection of equipment from damaging line-to-ground fault currents by operating
to cause a disconnecting means to open all ungrounded conductors of the faulted circuit. This protection
is provided at current levels less than those required to protect conductors from damage through the operation
of a supply circuit overcurrent device.
Ground fault protection is required to detect arcing ground faults. An interrupting device is needed to clear
the fault once it is detected. This is normally done using a circuit breaker. The switch element in the typical
fused switch equipment does not have a high interrupting capability and therefore cannot be used in ground
fault protection schemes. A switch with a load break capability or one that has an interrupting capability can
be used if the maximum ground fault level is below the switch ratings. See ANSI/NFPA 70-1996, National
Electrical Code, Article 230-95. Ground-Fault Protection of Equipment (b) Fuses below.
The NEC allows for each set of service entrance conductors up to six disconnecting means in lieu of a single
main disconnect. In this type of installation up to six (6) ground fault relays would be required to determine
5-10
Page 34
Fig. 21. Fall of potential method for testing resistance of ground connection.
the ground fault location. Specifically ANSI/NFPA 70-1996, National Electrical Code, Article 230-71, Maximum
Number of Disconnects states the following: Other jurisdictional codes have similar requirements and will
need to be followed.
230-71. Maximum Number of Disconnects.
(a) General. The service disconnecting means for each service permitted by Section 230-2, or for each set
of service-entrance conductors permitted by Section 230-40, Exception No. 1, shall consist of not more than
six switches or six circuit breakers mounted in a single enclosure, in a group of separate enclosures, or in or
on a switchboard. There shall be no more than six disconnects per service grouped in any one location.
Exception: For the purpose of this section, disconnecting means used solely for the control circuit of the
ground-fault protection system, installed as part of the listed equipment, shall not be considered a service
disconnecting means.
230-91. Location of Overcurrent Protection.
(a) General. The service overcurrent device shall be an integral part of the service disconnecting means or
shall be located immediately adjacent thereto.
(b) Access to Occupants. In a multiple-occupancy building, each occupant shall have access to the
overcurrent protective devices.
The NEC does not require that the service equipment overcurrent protective device be placed directly on
the power supply point of the service conductor. Therefore the conductors between the power supply point
and the overcurrent protective device are unprotected. A ground fault occurring on these conductors will not
be detected.
Specifically ANSI/NFPA 70-1996, National Electrical Code, Article 230-94. Relative Location of Overcurrent
Device and Other Service Equipment, states the following: (Other jurisdictional codes have similar
requirements and will need to be followed.)
230-94. Relative Location of Overcurrent Device and Other Service Equipment.
The overcurrent device shall protect all circuits and devices.
Exception No. 1: The service switch shall be permitted on the supply side.
5-10
Page 35
Exception No. 2: High-impedance shunt circuits, surge arresters, surge protective capacitors, and
instrument transformers (current and voltage) shall be permitted to be connected and installed on the
supply side of the service disconnecting means as permitted in Section 230-82.
Exception No. 3: Circuits for emergency supply and load management devices shall be permitted to be
connected on the supply side of the service overcurrent device where separately provided with overcurrent
protection.
Exception No. 4: Circuits used only for the operation of fire alarm, other protective signaling systems, or
the supply to fire pump equipment shall be permitted to be connected on the supply side of the service
overcurrent device where separately provided with overcurrent protection.
Exception No. 5: Meters nominally rated not in excess of 600 volts, provided all metal housings and service
enclosures are grounded in accordance with Article 250.
Exception No. 6: Where service equipment is power operable, the control circuit shall be permitted to
be connected ahead of the service equipment if suitable overcurrent protection and disconnecting means
are provided.
Some form of ground fault protection at the service entrance is being required by many jurisdictions. The
NEC requires ground fault protection on all solidly grounded systems for each service disconnect rated 1000
amperes or more which have line-to-ground voltages greater than 150 volts and phase-to-phase voltages
less than 600 volts. Other jurisdictional codes have similar requirements and will need to be followed. The
ground fault protection at the service entrance will not protect the conductors on the supply side of the service
disconnect. The NEC exception to applying ground fault protection on continuous industrial process where
a nonorderly shutdown will introduce additional or increased hazards is referring to personnel hazards, not
equipment failure, fire, or business interruption.
Specifically ANSI/NFPA 70-1996, National Electrical Code, Article 230-95. Ground-Fault Protection of
Equipment., states the following:
230-95. Ground-Fault Protection of Equipment.
Ground-fault protection of equipment shall be provided for solidly grounded wye electrical services of more
than 150 volts to ground, but not exceeding 600 volts phase-to-phase for each service disconnect rated 1000
amperes or more.
The rating of the service disconnect shall be considered to be the rating of the largest fuse that can be installed
or the highest continuous current trip setting for which the actual overcurrent device installed in a circuit
breaker is rated or can be adjusted.
Definition. Solidly grounded means that the grounded conductor (neutral) is grounded without inserting
any resistor or impedance device.
Exception No. 1: The ground-fault protection provisions of this section shall not apply to a service
disconnect for a continuous industrial process where a nonorderly shutdown will introduce additional or
increased hazards.
Exception No. 2: The ground-fault protection provisions of this section shall not apply to fire pumps.
(a) Setting. The ground-fault protection system shall operate to cause the service disconnect to open
all ungrounded conductors of the faulted circuit. The maximum setting of the ground-fault protection
shall be 1200 amperes, and the maximum time delay shall be one second for ground-fault currents
equal to or greater than 3000 ampere.
(b) Fuses. If a switch and fuse combination is used, the fuses employed shall be capable of interrupting
any current higher than the interrupting capacity of the switch during a time when the ground-fault
protective system will not cause the switch to open.
(FPN No. 1): Ground-fault protection that functions to open the service disconnect will afford no
protection from faults on the line side of the protective element. It serves only to limit damage to
conductors and equipment on the load side in the event of an arcing ground fault on the load side of
the protective element. (FPN No. 2): This added protective equipment at the service equipment may
make it necessary to review the overall wiring system for proper selective overcurrent protection
coordination. Additional installations of ground-fault protective equipment may be needed on feeders
and branch circuits where maximum continuity of electrical service is necessary.
5-10
Page 36
(FPN No. 3): Where ground-fault protection is provided for the service disconnect and interconnection
is made with another supply system by a transfer device, means or devices may be needed to ensure
proper ground-fault sensing by the ground-fault protection equipment.
(c) Performance Testing. The ground-fault protection system shall be performance tested when first
installed on site. The test shall be conducted in accordance with instructions that shall be provided with
the equipment. A written record of this test shall be made and shall be available to the authority having
jurisdiction.
Ground fault protection for services exceeding 600 Volts is required by the NEC. Other jurisdictional codes
have similar requirements and will need to be followed. Specifically ANSI/NFPA 70-1996, National Electrical
Code, Section H. Services Exceeding 600 Volts, Nominal; Article 230-200. General. states the following:
H. Services Exceeding 600 Volts, Nominal
230-200. General.
Service conductors and equipment used on circuits exceeding 600 volts, nominal, shall comply with all
applicable provisions of the preceding sections of this article and with the following sections, which
supplement or modify the preceding sections. In no case shall the provisions of Part H apply to equipment
on the supply side of the service point.
Article 517-17 describes ground fault protection for health care facilities. It requires a second layer of ground
fault protection on the feeders as well as the main. The two sets must be coordinated. Ground fault protection
is not allowed on the load side of the essential electrical system transfer switch nor between the emergency
generator and the essential electrical system transfer switch. A third exception is that ground fault protection
as defined by the NEC is not allowed on electrical systems that are not solidly grounded wye systems with
greater than 150 volts to ground, but not exceeding 600 volts phase-to-phase.
The FM Global recommendation to convert ungrounded systems to high resistance grounded systems and
to provide an overpotential device is not in conflict with the NEC. The reason is that the NEC Ground Fault
Protection is an overcurrent device that trips and we are calling for an overpotential device that sounds an
alarm. FM Global recommends that all ground faults that develop be promptly located and removed.
Specifically ANSI/NFPA 70-1996, National Electrical Code, Article 517-17. Ground-Fault Protection. states
the following:
517-17. Ground-Fault Protection.
(a) Feeders. Where ground-fault protection is provided for operation of the service disconnecting means or
feeder disconnecting means as specified by Sections 230-95 or 215-10, an additional step of ground-fault
protection shall be provided in the next level of feeder disconnecting means downstream toward the load.
Such protection shall consist of overcurrent devices and current transformers or other equivalent protective
equipment that shall cause the feeder disconnecting means to open. The additional levels of ground-fault
protection shall not be installed: (1) on the load side of an essential electrical system transfer switch, or (2)
between the on-site generating unit(s) described in Section 517-35(b) and the essential electrical system
transfer switch(es), or (3) on electrical systems that are not solidly grounded wye systems with greater than
150 volts to ground, but not exceeding 600 volts phase-to-phase.
(b) Selectivity. Ground-fault protection for operation of the service and feeder disconnecting means shall
be fully selective such that the feeder device and not the service device shall open on ground faults on the
load side of the feeder device. A six-cycle minimum separation between the service and feeder ground-fault
tripping bands shall be provided. Operating time of the disconnecting devices shall be considered in selecting
the time spread between these two bands to achieve 100 percent selectivity.
(FPN): See Section 230-95, Fine Print Note, for transfer of alternate source where ground-fault protection
is applied.
(c) Testing. When equipment ground-fault protection is first installed, each level shall be performance tested
to ensure compliance with (b) above.
FM Engr. Comm. May 1984

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FM Global

Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

PROTECTIVE GROUNDING FOR ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT

Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

C.7.9 Mid-Phase Grounded Delta Connected System ................................................................ 17

Table 1. Grounding resistance of 58-inch by 5-foot rods ............................................................................... 9

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Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

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Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

2.3 Equipment and Processes

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Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

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Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

1998 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

1998 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

1998 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

C.4 Ground Resistance

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Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Table 1. Grounding resistance of 58-inch by 5-foot rods

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Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

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Fig. 2. Typical grounding system for an outdoor substation.

C.6.2 Driven Grounds

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Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

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Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

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Fig. 3. Ungrounded system, inherently capacitively coupled to ground.

Fig. 4. Ground detectors for ungrounded system.

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C.7.3 Solidly Grounded Systems

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Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

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Fig. 5. High resistance grounded medium voltage system.

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Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

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Fig. 6. High resistance grounded low voltage system.

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Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems

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Fig. 7. Reactance grounded system.

Fig. 8. Corner-of-the-delta grounded system.

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