Introduction:

For them in that current time, Industrial Revolution was:

The greatest formative centuries of the modern world

A liberating phase of human development
Prosperity and unlimited progress

For us, their time was:

Centuries of preparation
Great things were done at the expense of much human suffering
Grandiose but unstable culture
Period of establishment of science as an indispensable feature of a new
industrial civilization
New methods of experimental science were extended through application
Application of sciences
New methods of Production

Industrial revolution is

Not mainly a product of scientific advances (even though certain

contributions of science like steam-engine were essential ingredients in its
success)
more closely identified with the growth and inner transformation of the
economic system of capitalism (from merchants and small manufacturers to
financiers and heavy industry)

Social and economic changes of the period

By the end of 17th century, the stage was set for the further advance of the
new capitalist mode of production
Almost limited to England, low Countries, and northern France.
Urban middle class had broken away to a greater or lesser degree from feudal
limitations
Urban middle class was able to finance production for profit. They can even
market it all over the world (which the new navigation opened to them)
Production was still handicraft and domestic. But, there was an expanding
market (local and foreign, again due to trade & navigations), growing
freedom from manufacturing restrictions (due to a break-up guilds), a field of
investments in profitable enterprise. These combination created a premium
on technical innovations (like textile machineries, steam-engine, etc. in order
to cut the costs and expand production and profits)
Both craftsmen and peasants were being depressed to the status of wage
laborers
Then there were better organization of labor, division and specialization of
tasks, factory system, power-driven machineries
Latter part of 18th century: growth and spread of system to other fields

Mid 19th century: limit to the expansion was its instability. There was
insufficient share of goods or opportunities for the vast new population of
wage laborers
Booms were followed by slumps of increasing severity and the competition
for limited markets provoked international rivalries
Open breakdown of the system began in 20 th century

Technique and Science

The first stages of the change in technique (that took place because of
economic needs) did not need the involvement of science; however, following
the trend creates an unexpected demand and difficulties (for example: an
increased production of clothe increases the demand for dye, which creates a
problem if vegetable dye runs short, so to solve it involves science, by
creating an artificial dye)
By the end of 19th century: ancillary role of science in the industry was
replaced by -> ideas originating from science to form new industries (1 st and
most important example: steam-engine, which was later absorbed into
practical engineering when its general principles became familiar)
Also by the end of 19th century: chemical and electrical industries began to
take form but development was not seen until the 20 th century
New method of production proved to be a great forcing house for
scientific knowledge
In 19th century, the situation altered, its now science that became a
major agent for affecting technological developments
The new form of society based on money exchange was taking form with its
emphasis on liberty and individual enterprise in contrast to the fixed status
and social responsibility of the Middle Ages

Phases and Aspects of the Growth of Industry and Science

Early nineteenth century 1690-1760

Science in renaissance, curiosity, and scientific effort seemed slowly dying

away
The prestige of Newtons Principia in 1687 had turned science in a direction
that was to be sterile for many years because of the very finished character
of Newton's own work and the distance by which he surpassed his
contemporaries.
To a far larger extent, however, the slackening of scientific advance in
England, and to a lesser degree in the rest of the learned world, was due to
social and economic factors. The class that had started the seventeenthcentury scientific drive, the gentlemen merchants who were then concerned
with using new methods based on science in navigation, trade, and
manufacture, had been succeeded by a new generation, wealthier, less
enterprising and curious, and much more complacent.
though science somewhat languished, technical change had not ceased.
Some of these lines of change which were well under way in Britain during

the early part of the century were to be of the utmost importance for the
future both of industry and science. (agricultural practices, rapid expansion of
new heavy industry based on coal)
Science and the Revolution 1760-1830

The first forty years 1760-1800: the pneumatic revolution, (which is linked
with the discovery of the production of the electric current) was virtually to
create a new and rational chemistry.
The second part of the phase, from 1800 to 1830, though not so fruitful in
new scientific or political ideas, remained one of immense vigor and
expansion in all fields of practical human activity.
The two basic transformations of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
which made those of the eighteenth possible were the birth of experimental
quantitative science and of the capitalist methods of production.

Industrial Revolution

Given by Engels in 1844, and was later sanctified by A. Toynbee

Closely limited to its origin. Nearly all major developments occurred in central
and northern Britain (and mostly in near neighborhoods)
It has all the characteristics of an explosive process set off by a particular
combination of circumstances
Economically, it seems to have been determined by the steady growth of
a market for manufactured products (mainly textiles) which was
largely a consequence of extended navigations and colonial
developments of the seventeenth century

Coal and Iron

Britain has a shortage of wood. It forced them to develop the use of coal.
Their production then rapidly increased in the later 18 th century.
Engines, mining, and metallurgical methods were vastly improved (thanks to
Roebuck, Black, Smeaton, and Watt)

The Mechanization of the Textile Industry

Industrial revolution came and could come only from developments within the
major industry of the country (all countries up to that time), the textile
industry
Both internal and foreign demand for cloth increased, but the old merchant
and guild-bound industry of southern England could not expand rapidly
enough. So demand for low wages and freedom from restrictions drove the
production north of England (Yorkshire, Lancashire, etc)
1750s new industry, Cotton. Cotton is imported from India, but when it was
prohibited, they had to produce their own. Raw cotton could be grown in new
American plantations.
There had been attempts at using machineries and power-driven machinery
in the textile trade like Stocking frame and Lombes silk mill in 1719.

Substitute machinery for hand work: Harvagreaves spinning jenny of 1764,

Arkwright water-frame of 1769, and Cromptons mule of 1779

Industrial Capitalism

For the revolution in production to begin, priming both capital and labor was
needed.
Capital was derived from great merchant profits of the preceding century
(resources of the newly-discovered in the mines and plantations, both worked
by slaves or from the almost undisguised loot of India)
Labor came from the land through enclosures. No longer cramped by the
guild restriction of the medieval towns.
There was not much of labor hence the incentive to labour-saving machinery,
those which could be worked by the unskilled (esp women and children)

Concentration of Industry

Market for textile determined the outbreak of the Industrial Revolution

Market for textile machinery and textile processing stimulated the iron and
chemical industries (these called for an ever increasing supply of the
universal provider, coal. Which also provoked new departures in mining and
transport)
By mid century, cast iron is already available (Darvys invention)
There was shortage in wrought iron (met by Corts method of puddling
introduced in 1784)
Old age dependence on wood as raw material was ended. Iron industry from
the forests to the coalfields.

Agricultural Revolution

The agricultural revolution was a mixture of empirical breeding and crop

rotation and mechanization with the beginnings of drill ploughs, horse
harrows, etc.
A radical change in human affairs as it required less labour to farm and
produce food.
"Beginning in England, mechanized agriculture was soon to spread to the
newly opened lands of America and then, many decades later, to the more
populous agricultural parts of Europe.
The search for tropical products and possible colonies led to further voyages
of discovery. These were no longer the semi-piratical ventures of the
seventeenth century, like those of Dampier, but properly equipped
scientific expeditions in which many nations engaged in polite rivalry.

The creators of the Industrial Revolution

Industrial revolution on its first stages did not depend on science.

Artisan inventors were the architects of IR. Their success was possible with
exceptionally favorable economic circumstances

Like.. central developments in textiles did occur without the application of

any radically new scientific principle.

Steam-power

It was the use of the steam-engine for power in the textile industry
that joined together the two originally separate strands of heavy
and light industry and created that modern industrial complex that
was to spread from its origin in Britain all over the world.
The steam-engine is a conscious application of scientific thought. To that
extend, science played an essential part in the Revolution
IR was to stimulate and support a new scientific activity, movement towards
a conscious utilization of science for the improvement of arts and
manufactures

French Revolution and its Effect on Science

Revolutionary governments formally recognized importance of science

The first task was the reform of weights and measures and the establishment
of the metric system, finally achieved in 1799.
The second great task was the creation of modern scientific education, the
first real educational change since the Renaissance.
The revolutionaries built systematically on a large scale on a foundation that
had already been laid in the dissenting academies of England and in the
military schools in France, despite the opposition of the old universities.
The foundation of the Ecole de Medecine, and of the greatest of all, the Ecole
Normale Superieure, of the Ecole de Medecine, and of the greatest of all, the
Ecole Polytechnique, gave models for the scientific teaching and research
institutions of the future. By choosing only the most eminent men to teach in
them they created the type of salaried scientist
professor
that was,
throughout the nineteenth century, gradually to replace the gentleman
amateur or the patronized client scientist of earlier times.

Napoleon: Patron of Science

The Napoleonic period speeded up and concentrated the scientific drive.

Napoleon was the first ruler and the only important one for more than a
century with a scientific education
British blockade destroyed Frances overseas markets. Their supply for soda
and sugar were cut off, promoting the French chemical industry which helped
give French chemical predominance for thirty years.
Developments in Britain were different. There was almost desperate clinging
to the old forms of Church and State and a rejection of the liberalizing
tendencies of the Whigs