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Ancientchroniclers,sincetheendoftheVIcenturyBC,gavethenameof
Iberians to the Iron Age populations living in the coastal areas of the
mediterranean, from the Rhone delta Camargue to Heracles's columns
Gibraltar and that were clearly distinct from the Celtic influenced
populationsthatlivedmoretotheinteriorofthepeninsula.
Was there only one Iberian people or many? Present day Andalucia
ancient Turdetania/Tartessania, the eastern coast of the peninsula,
includingpresentdayCatalunya,andthesouthofFranceareregionsof
diversified culture. Ancient Andalucia was the domain of the Tartessos
thesoutheasterncoastthecenteroftheElArgarcivilizationacivilization
of the early and medium Bronze Age and, as much in the south of
FranceasinCataloniathetraditionsfromthecivilizationsoftheChamps
d'Urnesbeginningcirca900BCandalreadyofpreCelticcultureremain
alive and well preserved until the Roman conquest. It's therefore
necessary to examine all elements of a civilization, as much the
archeologicalasthelinguisticdata.
Can we skip the elaboration of a chronological panel? The Tartessian
power, one of the Iberian components, it's the first to develop itself as
soonasthe10thcenturyBC.Nevertheless,thecelticexpansionbeginsin
the 9th century BC the Iberians sustain and are reinforced by this
probation and their civilization develops itself from the 5th to the 3rd
century BC, influenced by Greek and Punic cultural influences. The
Iberians mingle with the few Celtic populations in the area presently
known as Aragon and Castille to form the Celtiberians, with great
predominanceoftheIberianethnicityandculture.Fromthebeginningof
the3rdcenturyBC,theIberianregionsareoccupiedbytheRomansand
romanizationwilladvanceinapeculiarwayduetothepreexistanceofan
highlevelcivilizationinthearea.

Tartessos
Ancient chroniclers place the fabulous kingdom of the Tartessos,
identifiedasthebiblicalTarsis,inwestAndalucia,whereas,intheeast,in
the beginning of the Bronze Age, the Almerian civilization from the
present day name of the region = Almeria had its most brilliant period
clearly visible with the archeological area of Los Millares and its rich
megalithic thombs. Since the beginning of the II millenia BC that the
economical wealth was based in the exploration of the silver Sierra
MorenaandcopperminesRioTinto,aswellaswiththemaritimetrade
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thatwascenteredintheimportationoftinfromtheGalicianandCornwall
regions.ThePhoenicians,settledatGaderaroundthebeginningoftheI
milleniaBC,willenterinconflictwiththeTartessosbeingabletosubdue
them later. But, when the Phoenician power knows it eclipse around the
7th century BC, the Tartessian civilization reemerges, extending its
domain up to Cabo de La Nao the cape between present day Alicante
andValenciaandtriestonurtureagoodrelationshipwiththePhocan
Greeks it's from this era 630BC the fostering of Colais of Samos by
King Arganthonios. The defeat of the Phocan fleet before the
CarthaginianinthebattleofAlalia535BC,markedthedeclineofGreek
interestinthepeninsularcoast,andtheendofTartessianpower.
TheexactlocationoftheTartessiancivilizationcouldnotbethouroughly
circumscribed until now and its inhabitants remain poorly known. The
cremative thombs are, at times, monumental and remind us of the
Etruscanthombs.Theeasterninfluenceisquitecommonbythenumber
of bronze objects and jewels El Carambolo treasure, near modern day
Seville, representing in excess of 3,5 kg of pure gold. The relations
betweenIberiansandTartessiansremainobscure.
Both are indigenous populations with certain african influences dating
backtotheneoliticperiod.TheinscriptionsintheTurdetanianalphabet
aremarkedlydifferentfromtheonesinIberianinscriptionsandtranscribe
a language not yet decifered of nonindoeuropean origin, but also
different from the Iberian language. This ancient kingdom vanishes
aroundthe5thcentury,intheprecisemomentinwhichtheIberiansenter
history.Therefore,dothesetwopopulationsformonebeingtwodifferent
successivemanifestationsofthesamecivilization?

GenericfeaturesofIberiancivilization
The powerfull energy of the Iberians was reinforced by the Greek and
Puniccontributions,directlyorindirectlythroughtheIberianmercenaries
sent to Sicily or Carthage. The problem regarding the origin of the
Iberians remains as long as the origin of their language is open to
discussion. This language, poorly known and of difficult interpretation is
somewhat similar to the Tartesian language but also to the Pirenee
Cantabrian languages that still survive today in the form of the Basque
language. One of the most concrete characteristics of this research is
given by the inscriptions. We have today, in our possesion, hundreds of
inscriptions most of them from the 3th century on, encompassing
severalhundredsofsymbolsliketheonesintheAlcoyleadinscription.
These inscriptions remind us of the minoan, cypriot and phoenician
characters.TheworkofM.GomesMorenoallowedtherecognitionof29
alphabetical characters, encompassing, in turn, simple and double
symbols the remains of a syllabic writting give this configuration a
pronouncedarchaiccharacteristic.
The houses were rectangular and varied according to the available
space wood and raw brick are very rarely used and only as auxiliary
materials almost all constructions are made of cut stone tailored to fit.
Stone walls have depressions before the wall and are skillfully
constructedthereiseventhecaseofcyclopicwallsTarragona.
The economy centers around agriculture the wine and olive were
introduced by the Greeks. Breeding, specially regarding the horse, is
highlighted by the ancient chroniclers. Mining was very important,
specially in the region of Sierra Morena silver mines near Gader and
near Cartago Nova as well as the abundant iron mines in the Ebrus
valley.AtrueEldoradofortheGreeks,Punicsand,later,totheRomans.
Amongthetraditionalcraftsmanship,swordsmithsandarmourersenjoyed
an unmatched reputation. Romans would later adopt some of their
productions. In Andalucia, the most common and characteristic weapon
was the falcata, a curved heavytipped saber derived from the greek
machairawecanalsofindthesoliferrum,anallironheavyjavelinwithup
to 2m in length. Ceramic works shows many warrior's representations,
dressed in short tunics, with breastplate and helm. Ancient chroniclers
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mention many times the warlike nature of Iberians besides the excellent
mercenaries already mentioned, their thirst for fighting and banditism is
legendary.
It'stheceramicitself,byitsabundance,eveninpoorbuildings,thatgives
usthemostimportantinformations.Iberianceramicartmanifestsitselfby
semicircular, circular or segmented circular ornamentation. Geometrical
decoration, which corresponds to the older ceramic, it's very frequent in
theeverydayuseceramic.Later,althoughstillverysoon,representations
of plants, animals or humans appear. The archeological finds at San
MigueldeLiriahaveshowntheworldaseriesofceramicvasesinwhich
the artists dedicated themselves to represent in inscriptions the several
ocurrencesofeverydaylifeinIberia,likethedailyinhousetasks,hunting
and even religious ceremonies. The Iberian clothing looks inspired from
Greek clothing close fit tunic, long mantle and sandals or tall boots in
thecaseofhorsemen.Theseclothesarenormalyembroidedwithvaried
motifs, while women exhibit a pronounced predilection by barroque
jewelrycomplexandhighlyornate.
Religion is poorly known ancient chroniclers do not refer to it often and
votive inscriptions were not decifered. The objects found and the
sanctuariesindicateapolytheisticandnaturalistreligionofmediterranean
characteristics, strongly influenced by greek culture. Some known
representations of gods include the Maitre des Fauves greek Potnia
Thrn and a goddess of the AfroditeAstarte type. We can also find
representations of fabulous animals lions and sphinxes as well as of
bulls. The most important religious sanctuary is the one from Cerro de
LosSantos,arectanglewith20minlengthand8minwidthinantisin
the interior a stone platform was placed to recieve the statues eastern
influence is still very visible. Greek influence is also clear in sculpture
where the master piece of Iberian art is represented by La Dama de
Elche her face is elegant and refined, somewhat sad, but very classic
and it is in stark contrast with the barroque exhuberance of the jewelry
ornate detail, enormous necklaces and wheels in the hears this last
detailseemstohavetheirorigininCyprusandthecomplexwealthofthe
hairstyle, but are in harmony with the Iberian style. Whether she is a
priestessoraprincess,theproblemindatingistheoneofallIberianart.
SpecialistsestimatethefirstsignsofIberianarttotheendof6thcentury
BC and La Dama de Elche to the mid 4th century BC. This sculpture
cannot make us forget other impressive and significant works of high
quality like the Gran Dama d'El Cerro de Los Santos, that represents a
priestess performing a ritual, as well as an imense variety of different
statuesinstoneorbronze.
Inthisway,onecanhaveaviewofthelifeofarichfeudalsociety,where
life was separated in hunting, fishing and warfare. This life, that reminds
us of the life of Minos in Crete or of the Micenian chieftains, seems
anacronistic in the age of the Scipii. Ancient chroniclers designate this
rulling aristocracy by the name of "Senate". Kings are also known, as is
visible in the case of the Edetanii and Ilergetas the hereditary system
seems the normal rule. Sometimes suzeranity by a stronger overlord is
also recognized, and, as such, extensive but fragile confederations are
formed Strabo recognizes that the Iberians are rebelious against each
and every form of outside authority, which makes them similar to Celts.
Butthepracticeoffidelitybondsandcomittmentstakesonanexceptional
role:thefidesibericaisnotavainterm,itcanreachasfarasthesuicide.
The extent of Iberian civilization far surpasses the area of southeastern
Spain and Andalucia. In the Celtiberian area Aragon and Castille, the
mediterranen influence merges itself with the Halstattian tradition. The
best example of this situation is Numantia the ortogonal village is more
recentthan133BC.Beforethattime,over8squarehectometers,acityof
ruled planning developed on this plateau and, in its rim, the streets
followed the hill topology. The Numantine house had two rooms and a
domed basement. The ceramic presents a marked stylization, and has,
sometimes, a fantastic decoration, although the characters and figurines
arestillinfluencedbytheartofcoastalareas.
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In the northwest of the peninsula, in Galicia, Asturias and northern

Portugal, small fortified villages called castros are built. With round
houses,ofwoodand,later,stoneconstruction,theTartesianinfluenceis
feltlessandlessastimegoesby.Thesevillagesarealreadyinthisarea
althroughancienttimes.

TheLusitanii
Strabo defined the Lusitanii as "the greatest of Iberian tribes, that the
Romansfoughtforalongtime".ConsideredasthefinestIberianwarriors
in terms of guerrilla tactics, their influence extended through the fertile
lands around the river Tagus, comprising what is now north and central
Portugal, and wide regions of west central Spain. Independent and
warlike, Lusitanii tribes were also under strong influence of the Celtic
world both in religion and material culture and as their Celtiberian
neighbours,wereatconstantstrifeandcompetition.
Masterinambushes,andintheuseoflightandthrowableweapons,the
Lusitaniirarelyfoughtinanopenbattlefield,thoughtheywereabletodo
so,aswasknownonseveralocasions.Averyfrequenttacticconsistedof
harassing the enemy army using fast hitandrun incursions to strike
specific detachments at unexpected places and situations. This had the
objective of tiring and trimming down their forces before a previously
planned encirclement and assault was made by the whole army. These
disorientating tactics, enhanced by their supreme knowledge of the
terrain,theirdeterminationandsometimesblindruthlessferocityensured
thateventhewisestopponentwouldbeputonthedefensive.

"TheysaythattheLusitaniiareskilledinambushesandchasses,swift,quick
and sthealthy they wield small shields two feet wide and concave in their
outside,beingmanouveredwiththehelpoftwostrapsaroundtheneck,and,
soitseems,withoutgrips.Beyondthattheyusedaggersorknives.Mostof
themwearlinenarmoursandleathercaps,veryfewothersmailarmoursand
threefeatheredhelms.Someinfantrymenalsousegreaves,andeachofthem
carriesseveralshortspearssomeofthemwithbronzetips".
StraboofAmasya(Pontus),Greekhistorian,63BC24AD
"The Lusitanii are the strongest amongst Iberians to war, they carry very
smallshields,madeoutofesparto(anaturalhardvegetablefiber),withwhich
caneasilydefendtheirbodies.Duringbattletheywielditskilfully,movingit
fromonesidetotheotheroftheirbodies,defendingthemselveswithability
fromeveryblowthatfallsuponthem.Theyalsousespears,entirelymadeof
ironwithharpoonshapedtips,andwarehelmsandaswordverysimilarto
the Celtiberians they throw their spears with precision and to a great
distance, very frequently causing grevious wounds. They are swift while
movingandfastwhilerunning,sotheyfleeandchasequickly().Withthese
lightarmours,beingabletorunveryfastandbeingverysharpminded,they
canonlybedefeatedwithdifficulty.Theyconsidertherocksandrangestheir
homelandandsoseekrefugeinthem,becausetheyareimpracticabletolarge
and heavy armies. So, because of that, the Romans, who have organized
countless expeditions against them, although being able to counter their
daring, have not, dispite of their commitment, been able to end their
pillaging".
DiodorusSiculusofSicily,Sicilianhistorian,80BC20AD
A unique characteristic about the Lusitanii was their ability to adopt
foreignersintotheirownpopulation.ThiswasknownbytheRomansas
hospitium and led them to believe that among Lusitanii there was
something similar to the devotio. In particular, among the Lusitanii, we
must mention a very special protection given by the powerfull, the
Ambactii that, according to Julius Caeser, were soldiers linked to their
respective patrons by oaths of personal dependency, sworn in religious
vowsandfaithfultothedeathtotheirchiefs.
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Lusitaniiwereknownbytheirneighboursasexpertpillagersandraiders.
Thisbehaviourwasmotivatedbytheunevendistributionofwealthamong
them,thelackofopenandfertileagriculturalfieldsintheirownterritory,
aswellasthegreatermaterialwealthdisplayedbytheirmoreindustrious
and commercial southern and coastal populations. It is this permanent
stressthatwillserveasacatalisttothelaterRomanconquest.
Although their social organization was built up of noble and nonnoble
classes,intimesofwartheirmilitaryleaderswerechosenbyanassembly
of the whole population. Contrary to many other tribes or tribal
confederations, the caudilho military commander of the Lusitanii could
be or not of the noble class. He was choosen for his bravery, skill in
battle, inteligence and popularity amongst the population, before his
ascendency was taken in to consideration. The Romans and Greeks
designatedthemasDuxorHegoumenosrespectivelly.
Romanswerenotwelcome.Theylearnedtheerrorsofchallengingsome
of these famous caudilhos like Punico, commander of an alliance of
Lusitanii and Vetonii that devastated the Beaturia and Betica in 154BC.
Or of the likes of Cesaro, commander of the northern Lusitanii tribes,
whose victories against the Romans motivated the Celtiberian tribes and
the southern Lusitanii commanded by Caucenos to join in their efforts
against Rome. These victories lead to the pillaging of Turdetania that
wouldcontinueduringthetimeofViriatus.
In 150BC, a group of Lusitanii tribes forced by war devastation to seek
fertilelands,werepromisedpeaceandlandsbyconsulServiusSulpicius
Galba. He invited the Lusitanii to attend unarmed to an open field, and
once there, he ordered his troops to attack and annihilate the
defencelesscrowd.Veryfewsurvivedtotheslaughter.Oneofthemwas
abrillianttacticiancalledViriatus.
Viriatus never forgot the treason. He rose as a popular leader and
persuaded his countrymen to resist Roman rule. Gathering the Lusitanii
under his command, he defeated the Romans in 147BC and started an
elusivewarthatsurprisedandhumiliatedtheRomaninvaders.Duringthe
next two years he established control over a vast area. One Roman
defeat followed another. Legion after legion crushed. The victories of
Viriatus encouraged the Celtiberians to renew their resistance to Rome.
Then, in 140BC, the senate sent an army under Fabius Maximus
Servilianus, which Viriatus succeeded in trapping. Instead of destroying
this army, he concluded a peace and allowed the Romans to leave. But
he demanded to Fabius that he and the Lusitanii would be considered
amicus populi romani and that their conquered territories would have to
be recognized by Rome and never attacked again something that had
never happened, Rome being dictated peace terms, that are analogous
toadmittingdefeattoabunchofbarbarians.Withinayearthehumiliated
RomanSenatewouldbreak,asusual,thattreaty.
Finally, in 139BC, a tired and disenchanted Viriatus sent three men to
negotiatepeacetotheRomanquarters.Whentheygotback,thebribed
emissaries killed Viriatus. They never enjoyed their reward. When they
got back to consul Quintus Servilius Scipio, he ordered them to die,
saying: "Rome does not reward traitors". The death of Viriatus marked
thebeginningoftheendofLusitaniiresistance,butnotofitsmyth.

TheCeltiberians
The Celtiberians were tribes who inhabited an area in present north
central Spain from the 3rd century BC onward . These Celtiberians
inhabited the hill country between the sources of the Tagus Tajo and
Iberus Ebro rivers, including most of the modern province of Soria and
muchoftheneighbouringprovincesofGuadalajaraandTeruel.
In historic times the Celtiberians were mainly composed of the Vaccei,
Vetoni, Arevaci, Belli, Titti and Lusones. The earliest population of
CeltiberiawasthatofthesoutheasternAlmeriacultureoftheBronzeAge,
afterwhichcameHallstattinvaders,whooccupiedtheareashortlybefore
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600BC.TheHallstattpeoplewereinturnsubjugatedbytheArevaci,who
dominated the neighbouring Celtiberian tribes from the powerful
strongholds at Okilis modern Medinaceli and Numantia. The Belli and
the Titti were settled in the Jaln valley, the Sierra del Solorio separating
themfromtheLusonestothenortheast.
The material culture of Celtiberia was strongly influenced by that of the
IberianpeopleoftheEbrovalley.Horsebits,daggers,andshieldfittings
attest the warlike nature of the Celtiberians, and one of their inventions,
the twoedged Iberian sword, was later adopted by the Romans. To the
west and north of the Iberian peninsula developed a world that classical
writtersdescribedasCeltic.Ironwasknownfrom700BC,andagricultural
and herding economies were practiced by people who lived in small
villagesor,inthenorthwest,infortifiedcompoundscalledcastros.
The warriors of Celtiberia enjoyed a reputation as the finest barbarian
mercenary infantry in the western world. They were believed to possess
the finest qualities of the Celts, savage battle lust and great physical
courage,alongwiththesteadinessandorganizationofthemorecivilized
Iberians. Their reputation was such that after the rout of the
CarthaginiansbyScipioAfricanusattheBurningoftheCampsin203,the
arrival of a band of only 4,000 CeltIberians encouraged the
Carthaginianstotakethefieldoncemore.
The Celtiberians first submitted to the Romans in 195 BC, but they were
not completely under Roman domination until 133 BC, when Publius
CorneliusScipioAemilianusdestroyedNumantia.TheMediterraneanway
oflifereachedtheinterioronlyaftertheRomansconqueredNumantia.

Thenortherntribes
The rich in iron northern provinces of the Peninsule were inhabitated by
several tribes known by their fierce character. While the Galaeci that
settled in the Northwest had been under the strongest Celtic influence
amongstallIberians,theAsturesandCantabriithatlivedinthemountains
neartheNorthcoastwerepoorandprimitive,andformedgynaecocratic
clans that made bread from acorn flour, and lived on cattle and on
plunder,oftenofferingthemselvesasmercenariesorraidingthelandsof
theirsouthernCeltiberianneighboursinsearchofgrain.Allofthembuilt
unaccessible strongholds, similar in all to a Celtic castrum, and were
experts in hit and run tactics. These were the last cultures in the
PeninsuletobesubmittedbytheRoman,Augustoftenleadingthearmies
whofoughtthelastgreatrebellionsofthenortherntribesinthesocalled
Cantabrian Wars 2919 BC, where the legions learned to fear the
unforgiving rough terrain, the ruthless ferocity of these people ready to
suicidebeforebeingenslavedandtheirguerrillatactics.
The northern tribes adopted many celtic uses, specially in religion and
warfare, but had strange uses in the eyes of the Roman chroniclers.
Althoughwarriorshadimmenseprestigeandtherewasakindofcouncil
of elders, women had huge power, and in fact, they were the ones that
inheritedpropertyandownedtheland.Cantabrianscelebrationsincluded
a number of fierce dances around the fire, medicine consisted in
forsaking the ill ones by a road so they could hear the advices of the
travelers, and law couldn't be simpler: the punishment for any infraction
wasdeathbybeingthrowntoachasm.

TheIberianprovincesofRome
The Punic, that knew for quite some time the shores of the Iberian
peninsula, wanted, after their first defeat against Rome in 241BC, to
remaketheirstrengththankstoanoverseasempirecenteredinthearea,
throughtheeffortsoftheBarcidslikeHamilcar,HannibalandHasdrubal
Barca.SuchisthecaseofthecityofSaguntoArsthatdeclenchedthe
2ndPunicWar219BC.Inthatsameyear,Romansoldiers,disembarked
inAmpuriasEmporiontheirpresencewillrevealitselfdecisive,as,since
206BC, after having conquered Gader and all Carthaginian cities, Scipio
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creates Italica not far from present day Seville, first example in a long
series of foundations that will accelerate roman colonization and
subsequent romanization. After the rulling of Cato 197195BC, all of
easternandsouthIberiaareinRomanhands.
But the resistance of Iberians, and especially Celtiberians, was long and
ferocious.Ittakestheshape,inthe2ndcenturyBC,ofendemicguerrilla
warfare lead by the mountain tribes of the west and center of the
peninsula against the sedentary urban centers in the plains. The most
famous commander of these incursions is Viriatus, who is able to bleed
Rome's armies during the period of 147139BC. On the other hand, the
CeltiberianswillmeettheirAlesiainNumantia,havingpreferedtovanish
insteadoftastingdefeatatthehandsofScipioEmilianus133BC.
This violent refusal to kneel to the foreign power is, nevertheless,
changeable in the presence of a chief that is able to seduce by his
victorious virtues. The renown of Scipio comes precisely from this the
future African, by the claim of his divine nature and also by his
moderation, will be homaged with the title of king by the Edetanii. In the
1stcenturyBC,withthegrowthofthegeneral'spowerinthelateperiodof
theRepublic,Sertorius8073BCandhisadversaryPompeus,and,after
them, Caesar, will know how to exploit this curious characteristic. This
profounddevotiontothechiefwillalsoserveOctavianAugustuswellby
the strengthening of the relation between commander and soldier, the
Iberian provinces were in a more advanced situation than Rome, and
playedadecisiveroleinthebirthoftheImperialcultintheWest.
OctavianAugustuswillfinishtheconquestofthePeninsulabysubmitting
the Cantabrii 19BC and will organize the 3 Roman provinces of
Terraconensis, Lusitania and Betica. The northern and northwestern
areas, less evolved, where tribal organization still persists, make a stark
contrast with the coastal and plains areas, where the indigenous
populationshavetakentothePunicandGreektasteforprofitforthisis
the birthplace of the spectacular economical development and of the
romanization based on the exploitation of mines, fishing and olive tree
planting.

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