A Report

on
Sagarmatha Earth Station

By
Rajendra paudyal(06-488)
Sagar Mishra(06-497)
Sudarshan adhikari(06-463)
Ujjwal Mishra(06-496)

Submitted to
Er. Sachin Shrestha

Department of Electronics and Communication

Nepal Engineering College
Changunarayan, Bhaktapur, Nepal

Introduction:
An earth station, ground station, or earth terminal is a terrestrial terminal
station designed for extraplanetary telecommunication with spacecraft, and/or re
ception of radio waves from an astronomical radio source. Earth stations are loc
ated either on the surface of the Earth, or within Earth's atmosphere.Earth stat
ions communicate with spacecraft by transmitting and receiving radio waves in th
e super high frequency or extremely high frequency bands (e.g., microwaves). Whe
n an earth station successfully transmits radio waves to a spacecraft (or vice v
ersa), it establishes a telecommunications link.
Specialized satellite earth stations are used to telecommunicate with satellites
—chiefly communications satellites. Other earth stations communicate with manned
space stations or unmanned space probes. An earth station that primarily receiv
es telemetry data, or that follows a satellite not in geostationary orbit, is ca
lled a tracking station.
When a satellite is within an earth station's line of sight, the earth station i
s said to have a view of the satellite. It is possible for a satellite to commun
icate with more than one earth station at a time. A pair of earth stations are s
aid to have a satellite in mutual view when the stations share simultaneous, uno
bstructed, line-of-sight contact with the satellite.
Earth Station provides the communication pathway between the Geo-stationary Sate
llite and local networks. Signals from the all the local networks are send to th
e Satellite for long distant communication and signal received from the Satellit
e are send to desired location within a network is done by the Earth Station. In
ternational Calls, International Direct Dialing, Occasional TV Broadcasting, Int
ernet Access, Weather Forecasting, VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) Communica
tion are prominent benefits of an Earth Station. Intelsat-1 to Intelsat-4, ThaiC
om, Arabsat, TelStar, Early Bird, KoreaSat are some satellites send by many coun
tries to guide wireless long distant communication. A signal also termed as base
band signal or message signal is send via antenna to the Satellite by the unique
uplink frequency and signal are received from the satellite by the downlink fre
quency. Figure below shows the block diagram of the systems needed for efficient
and accurate communication inside the earth station.
Ku-Band Uplink Frequencies: 14 GHz – 14.5 GHz
Ku-Band Downlink Frequencies: 11.7 GHz – 12.2 GHz
C-band Uplink Frequencies: 5.925 GHz – 6.425 GHz
C-Band Downlink Frequencies: 3.7 GHz – 4.2 GHz
Up-link frequency is much higher than the down-link frequency because while send
ing information from the earth to the space, signal need to travel against the g
ravitational force of earth and need to penetrate the thick layer of atmosphere.
Baseband band or Message signal is first send to the Multiplexer through a comm
unication channel. Multiplexing is the process of combining a number of signals
into a single signal, so that it can be processed by a single amplifier or trans
mitted over a single radio channel. Multiplexing can be done at baseband or at a
radio frequency. The corresponding technique that recovers the individual signa
ls is called Demultiplexing. Multiplexing is a key feature of all commercial lon
g-distance communication systems, and is par of the multiple access capability o
f all satellitecommunicationsystems.
Multiplexed signal is send to the DACCS (Direct Access Cross Connect System) and
DCME (Digital Circuit Multiplication Equipment). In communications systems DACC
S performs following function, a digital system in which (a) access is performed
by T-1 hardware architecture in private and public networks with centralized sw
itching and (b) cross-connection is performed by D3/D4 framing for switching dig
ital-signal-0 (DS-0) channels to other DS-0 channels. Modern digital access and
cross-connect systems are not limited to the T-carrier system, and may accommoda
te high data rates such as those of SONET. In the EIA/TIA 568-A standard, a hori
zontal cross-connect is used to describe the distribution station when such a st
ation is separate from the main backbone, and accessed via horizontal cabling. D
igital Circuit Multiplication Equipment (DCME) was a type of voice compression e
quipment that is installed at either end of a long-distance link (typically comm
unications satellite or submarine communications cable). The main characteristic
s of DCME are defined in ITU-T recommendation G.763. DCME consists of a voice in
terpolation stage, which is a form of statistical multiplexer applied to voice-b
and signals, and a low rate encoding stage which exploits correlation between su
ccessive voice-band samples on an individual input channel to reduce the transmi
tted bit-rate from that required by PCM of equivalent quality.
Signal is then send to Modulator where signal is converted to high frequency cal
led IF (Intermediate Frequency) equals 170 MHz. Modulation is converting low fre
quency signal to high frequency where property of modulating signal changes acco
rding to either Phase or Frequency or Amplitude called as AM, PM or FM. Modulati
on helps weaker signal to travel longer distance and also help to decrease the l
ength of antenna needed for propagation. Frequency is inversely proportional to
wavelength of wave and antenna length directly depends on the wave length of the
baseband signal. Conversion of any signal to IF helps us in designing amplifier
s and filters easily for small range or frequencies.
IF signal is then converted to large frequency called as uplink frequency order
of GHz (C-Band uplink frequency is 6 GHz) by the Up-Converters. Larger the Signa
l frequency greater the signal has capacity to penetrate the thick atmospheric l
ayer and greater chance to travels to longer distance with minimum attenuation.
But frequencies greater than 12 GHz result in maximum rain attenuation hence sui
table frequency is chosen during satellite communication.
Up-Converted signal is then send to SSPA (Solid State Power Amplifier) to increa
se the power of signal to prevent any kind of attenuation and errors (Bit Error
Rate). Final signal is send to the antenna via a wave guide pipe. Wave Guide Pip
e sends any signal with minimum attenuation and maximum efficiency and it is a w
ired communication channel laid from SSPA or any equipmemt directly to the anten
na for distant communication. Antenna provides directivity and Impedance Matchin
g to the signal for easy propagation over the air. Number of environmental facto
rs need to be considered like Rain, Solar Flares, Snow Fall, Clouds, Auroras e.t
.c for Satellite communication.
Satellite needs numbers of sophisticated equipment for receiving and transmittin
g the signal by FM technique to long distances. The payload of a satellite is al
l the specialized equipment needed to perform its designed function. A communica
tions payload act like a communications repeater. RF signals to the satellite ar
e received, converted, amplified, and transmitted back to Earth. The payload inc
ludes the antenna, wide-band receivers, input and output multiplexers, programma
ble attenuation devices, and amplifiers. Satellites designed with a single paylo
ad are only able to operate with a single band of frequencies, either C or Ku. S
atellites with dual payloads, also known as Hybrid Satellites, are able to opera
te with both C and Ku bands (1 band per payload). Each payload has a set of comp
onents that operates with a specific band of frequencies.
While receiving the signal passes via the same equipments but under lower freque
ncy than uplink frequency called download frequency. Signal received at the ante
nna is send to the LNA (Low Noise Amplifier) to remove all the noise and amplifi
es only the required signal. LNA is present at the antenna itself and present re
ceiving end of the antenna. Received signal at the downlink frequency (4 GHz for
the C-Band Communication) is send to the Down-converter from the wave guide pip
e to convert the signal to IF at the frequency 40 MHz. Intermediate Frequency is
send from the Demodulator to the Demultiplexer. Finally, baseband band signal i
s received with least attenuation and least error from the demultiplexer.
Equipments at Sagarmatha Earth Station
1. ARMA C400 SSPA
2. NEC UP/DOWN CONVERTER
3. STANDARD A OR B ANTENNAS
In Sagarmatha Earth Station we have two Standard ‘B’ antennas (11m and 9m) a
nd one Standard ‘A’ antenna,dsat,rsat and two microwave antennas .Both standard
antennas are linked with four IntelSat Satellites out of 24. These all are eithe
r Cassegrain Antenna or Gregorian antenna.
 * Standard ‘A’: Main purpose is International Calls, Internet Connection for
NTC, and Occasional TV for NTV. Its diameter is 16.4m and largest in Nepal.
* Standard ‘B’: There are two standard antennas. Used mainly for VSAT networ
k. Their diameters are 11m and 9m. Placed for 66º E satellite. Consists of two c
ircuits.
4. MULTIPLEXER: In Sagarmatha Earth Station, multiplexer are used for Occa
sional TV, VSAT communication and Telecommunication.
* STM Multiplexer: This multiplexer is used in VSAT network communication.
* PCM Multiplexer: Used for telecommunication.
* REP: Multiplexer used for telephone system. (Now-a-days not in operation o
r replaced).
5. MODEM
* DTX 240E System: Functional units are:-
a. TR-DLI (Trunk digital line Interface): It provides interfacing between
standard 1.544 Mbps or 2.048 Mb/s PCM signal and internal 2.048 Mb/s (NRZ) signa
ls. Provides synchronization, plesiochronous buffering and optimal format conver
sion.
b. TSI (Time Slot Interchange): This stage provides time slot mapping and
also, in case of 1.544 Mbps trunks enables up to ten 24 channel bit-streams to b
e re-grouped into eight 30 channel bit streams.
c. DSI (Digital Speech Interpolation): Voice compression using digital spe
ech interpolation technique.
d. ADPCM (Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation): Consists two paral
lel blocks of Voice-ADPCM and VBD Optimized-ADPCM (Voice Band Data codes). Under
normal traffic condition speech signals are coded with 4-bit per sample (32Kbps
). In order to cope with traffic overload condition, the ADPCM device can be aut
omatically instructed to use a 3-bit sample coding instead of standard 4-buit co
ding. In VBD-Optimized ADPCM codes, especially optimized for reliable transmissi
on of voce band data up to 96kbps. This DTX-240F system can process 57 voice ban
d data at a time.
e. VBR (Variable Bit Rate): To cope with traffic overload can be achieved
by dynamic allocation of 3 instead of 4 bits per sample for a number of ADPCM sp
eech channels when excessive traffic demand occurs.
f. Fax-Fax Demodulation and Modulation: Send information over the bearer i
n dedicated nibbles.
g. BR-DLI (Bearer Digital Line Interface): This stage provided the interfa
ce between the internal 2.048Mbps NRZ output from the ADPCM stage to a standard
1.544 or 2.048 Mbps bearer PCM line.
* PSK MODEM: Used for satellite communication using PSK technique. Few years
ago MODEM used BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying) technique but due to newer inve
ntion of modulation technique Sagarmatha Station uses QPSK (Quadrature Phase shi
ft keying) and 8PSK(Eight Phase Shift Keying) technique. This leaded to minimize
the bandwidth to be used in transponder and cost for communication is gradually
decreasing.
* SDM-309 Satellite MODEM: MODEM used for VSAT communication. Used TDMA tech
nique in the earth station.
* DVB Digital Video Modem: MODEM used for occasional TV used by NTV (Nepal T
elevision).
* N × 64Kbps Modem: Extensively used for Internet Access by NTC.
6. OCCASSIONALV TV EQUIPMENTS OF NTV
* Digital Video MODEM (DVB 3030)
* RCS-11 Redundancy switch
* Audio Video Distribution Amplifier
* Encoder
 * Digital Baseband patch for occasional TV
* Video patch and TV Test Signal generation
* TV sound monitor and webform monitor.
* Solid State Power Amplifier
* Extended Range DC Power Supply (0-60V and 20A)
7. DTX-360 ETHERNET HUB FOR VSAT
Can be called as the heart of the VSAT network. Signal coming from any VSAT
station from remote place is received by this HUB station and transmitted to des
ired place for efficient communication. Internet access, Local and International
telephone calls are sent from remote village via VSAT antenna to main earth sta
tion and here HUB receives the signal and transmits to the satellite for communi
cation. Efficient communication is possible in Sagarmatha Earth Station by utili
zing DAMA technology and dedicated technology in this HUB. E.g. Due to use VSAT
technology internet access in Base camp of Mount Everest has been made possible.

8. ANTENNA STEPTRACK CONTROLLER

Used to operate in different modes of antenna. It is fully automated system
and software oriented control system. Controller works according to values of Lo
ok Angles i.e. Azimuth and Elevation. Azimuth is measured eastward (clockwise) f
rom geographic north to the projection of satellite path on a (locally) horizont
al plane at the earth station. Elevation is the angle measured upward from the l
ocal horizontal plane at the earth station to the satellite path. Operated by 72
00 Antenna Control Unit, which is fully software oriented control system.
9. OTHER SUPPORTIVE INSTRUMENTS
* Cables and Power Supply
* 1:8 Modem Protection Switch and APX 801 Auxiliary Protection Switch.
* RCU-20 Redundancy control unit.
* DCME-DX 500 unit
* GCE Controller and status
Terminologies
8PSK: Eight Phase Shift Keying
ADPCM: Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation
AM: Amplitude Modulation
BPSK: Binary Phase Shift keying
CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access
CELP: Code Excited Linear Prediction
DACCS: Digital Access Cross Connect System
DAMA: Demand Assigned Multiple Access
DBS-TV: Direct Broadcast Satellite Television
FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access
FM: Frequency Modulation
GEO: Geo-Stationary Earth Orbit
GPS: Global Positioning System
GPRS: Global Positioning Radio System
IF: Intermediate Frequency
IntelSat: International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
ITU-T: International Telecommunications Union
LHCP: Left Hand Circular Polarization
LEO: Lower Earth Orbit
LNA: Low Noise Amplifier
MEO: Medium Earth Orbit
NTC: Nepal Telecom
PCM: Pulse Code Modulation
PSK: Phase Shift Keying
QPSK: Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
RHCP: Right Hand Circular Polarization
SCPC: Single Channel Per Carrier
SSPA: Solid State Power Amplifier
TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access
TTCM: Telemetry, Tracking, Command and Monitoring
VSAT: Very Small Aperture Terminal

The different type of antenna present at Sagarmatha earth station is:

Inelsat standard ‘A’:
Globecomm Systems Intelsat Standard A product line provides flexibility within t
he context of a standard set of options available with the standard design. This
terminal line provides Intelsat compliant antenna sizes from 13 meters to 21 me
ters, with High-Power Amplifiers (HPA) from400 Watts to 3,000 Watts depending on
the capacity of the earth station. Standard rack designs and Globecomm Systems’
computerized AxxSysTM Earth Station Management System minimize both space requi
rements and cost. Industry standard 70 or 140 MHz Intermediate Frequency interfa
ces provide flexibility in choice of baseband modulation equipment. Both SCPC an
d TDMA baseband equipment options are available as part of the basic offerings.
Other options include carrier power monitor system and an IESS compliant Enginee
ring Service Circuit (ESC) system for IDR carriers,deicing, uninterruptible powe
r system/ backup generator, and fully equipped equipment shelter.
FEATURES
•G/T range of 35-39 dB/K at 4 GHz
•EIRP based on IESS requirements for traffic
•Ease of use through Advanced AxxSysTM Earth Station Management System
•Converter design supports up to four transponder operation
•Reliability through environmental stress screening of critical components
•Full turnkey services worldwide
•ITU/Intelsat/FCC compliant
UPLINK SYSTEM
The uplink system consists of the up converter and High-Power Amplifier (HPA) su
bsystems.
The up converter subsystem is supplied in a redundant configuration. Each up con
verter input path allows for monitoring. The IF input level to each up converter
is adjustable in 0.25 dB steps over a 25 dB range.1:N redundancy implementation
allows for automatic replacement of a single failed up converter. Each up conve
rter is a synthesized dual conversion unit capable of automatically tuning in 12
5 kHz steps to a locally or remotely selected frequency. The RF output of each u
p converter can be monitored through a suitable coupler. The output of the onlin
e up converter is connected to the HPA subsystem. Wideband up converters with IF
equalization are available as an option for wideband carriers like Intelsat TDM
A or analog video.The HPA subsystem is comprised of redundant TWT amplifiers, wi
th power output based on customer requirements. The online HPA feeds a waveguide
transmission line which is connected to the antenna OMT through the RF Inter-Fa
cility Link (RFIFL). The output of the standby HPA is connected to a dummy load.
The online HPA output is monitored by a per carrier power monitor system to meet
IESS requirements.An optional feature of the AxxSysTM Earth Station Management
System is individual carrier power level and bandwidth monitoring.
DOWNLINK SYSTEM
The downlink system consists of the Low-Noise Amplifier (LNA) and down converter
subsystems.The RF signals from the receive port of the antenna OMT are fed thro
ugh a Transmit Reject Filter (TRF) to the Low-Noise Amplifier subsystem. LNA out
puts are connected through a coaxial transmission line to the down converter sub
system.The LNA subsystem consists of redundant GaAs FET amplifiers with a noise
temperature consistent with the G/T specified at order. The 1:2 subsystem is mou
nted on a plate with transmit reject filters and input/output waveguide switches
.The down converter subsystem is supplied in a 1:N redundant configuration. Each
down converter input is monitorable through a suitable coupler. The IF output o
f each down converter is available for signal monitoring. The IF output level of
each down converter is adjustable in 0.25 dB steps over a 25 dB range.1:N redun
dancy implementation allows for automatic replacement of a failed down converter
. Each down converter is a synthesized dual conversion unit capable of automatic
ally tuning in 125 kHz steps to a locally or remotely selected frequency. The RF
input to the down converter subsystem can be monitored.Wideband down converters
with IF equalization are available as an option for wideband carriers like Inte
lsat TDMA, or analog video.

Cassegrain antenna:
In telecommunications and radar, a Cassegrain antenna is an antenna in which the
feed radiator is mounted at or near the surface of a concave main reflector an
d is aimed at a convex secondary reflector slightly inside the focus of the main
reflector.
Note 1: Energy from the feed unit illuminates the secondary reflector, which ref
lects it back to the main reflector, which then forms the desired forward beam.
Note 2: The Cassegrain antenna design is adapted from optical telescope technolo
gy and allows the feed radiator to be more easily supported.
FEATURES:
•  Low VSWR
•  Aluminum or Fiberglass Construction
•  Low Loss Performance at Millimeter Wave
• Frequencies
•  Available from 2Ghz to 140Ghz
• APPLICATIONS:
•  Radar and Satellite Tracking
•  Communication System
cassegrain antenna consists of a parabolic reflector, a primary feed, a sub refl
ector,
and a feed support assembly of four low profile aluminum spars that are attached
to the rim and the reflector to position the feed. cassegrain antenna feature a
precision aluminum main reflector that provides excellent performance at millim
eter wave frequencies between 18 to 140 GHz. The CCGI series antennas feature me
talized fiberglass reflectors and are available from 12.4 to 140 GHz. They offer
very high performance in a lightweight antenna structure. These antennas are av
ailable in effective diameters of 10 to 120 inches. Because of the low surface t
olerance (typically 0.0025 inch RMS) they provide excellent high frequency radia
tion characteristics.

Gregorian reflector antenna:

Features / technical details
• Contoured Beams by Reflector and Sub-Reflector Shaping
• High Polarizations Decoupling for Dual Polarized Applications
• Combined Tx/Rx operation
• High Power Applications
• Wide Band Applications covering the complete Ku frequency band (10.7 to
18.6 GHz)
• Dual Deployment Applications with Two Gregorian Antennas on one S/C Side

Fig: intelsat Cassegrian antenna type

Microwave antenna:
A combination of an open-end waveguide and a parabolic reflector or horn, used f
or receiving and transmitting microwave signal beams at microwave repeater stati
ons. These antenna
were used as a backup for communicating with main station of NTC. If the optical
fails then this would be a backup for communication

Fig:microwave antenna present at balambu

The antennas are operating in two bands:
C band: C Band is the name designated for the frequency range of 4-8 GHz . The l
ower frequency ranges of C band provides better tv reception under adverse weath
er conditions than KA or KU band, hence C-band is used for re-broadcast. Typical
Satellite Antenna size range from 7.5 ft to 12 ft though dishes as low as 3 ft
have been known to pick up a C band signal. Big Ugly Dishes or BUD is a name use
d to designate the visual aspects of the larger antennas.
The only C Band Digital Receiver with a decoder moduale for encrypted programmin
g is the 4DTV receiver. Free To Air "FTA" Boxes have C-band decoders in them als
o but they will not handle encrypted programming. The advantage of using a FTA b
ox for C-Band is that FTA receivers can rotate up to a 120 cm dish with a Horizo
n to Horizon Diseque Motor. Simply put, you do not have to run expensive C band
ribbon cable and you have access to much of the free C band programming availble
with a smaller Dish.
Receivers | Remotes
Antennas
Dish Movers
Feedhorns
LNB - LNBF

Ku band :
In satellite communications, Ku band is the frequency range from 10.5 to 17 GHz;
where 13.75 to 14.50 GHz is for transmission and 10.7 to 12.75 GHz is used for
reception.
The Ku band (Kurtz-under band) is primarily used for satellite communications, p
articularly for editing and broadcasting satellite television. This band is spli
t into multiple segments broken down into geographical regions, as determined by
the ITU (International Telecommunication Union).The Ku band is a portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum in the microwave range of frequencies ranging from 11.
7 to 12.7GHz. (downlink frequencies) and 14 to 14.5GHz (uplink frequencies).
When frequencies higher than 10 GHz are transmitted and received used in a heavy
rain fall area, a noticeable degradation occurs, due to the problems caused by
and proportional to the amount of rain fall (commonly known as known as "rain fa
de").
The higher frequency spectrum of the Ku band is particularly susceptible to sign
al degradation- considerably more so than C band satellite frequency spectrum, t
hough the Ku band is less vulnerable to rain fade than the Ka band frequency spe
ctrum.
Also, the Ku band satellites typically require considerably more power to transm
it than the C band satellites. However, both Ku and Ka band satellite dishes to
be smaller (varying in size from 2 to 5 in diameter.)
Ku Band Satellite Service Downlink Usage Frequency Range
The Ku band downlink uses frequencies between 11.7 and 12.7GHz
Ku Band Usage Downlink
Fixed Satellite Service 11.7 - 12.2GHz
Broadcast Satellite Service 12.2 - 12.7GHz

FIG:A antenna working in ku band

Comparison between c band an ku band:
Ku band:
The Ku frequency is designated solely for communications use via satellite. That
means no competition or signal interference from other communications systems.
Typically, the Ku band operates at a higher frequency (11.7 - 12.2Ghz) for downl
inks and (14.0 - 14.5Ghz) for uplinks. This higher frequency produces a signal w
ith a shorter wavelength that s more powerful and focused.
With greater power and a more focused signal, a smaller satellite dish can be us
ed to receive service. Usually all that s needed is a 1.2 or 1.8 meter dish for
most locations. That s about 4 or 6 feet in diameter, depending upon the service
location in relation to the satellite delivering the signal.
Consequently, the ku band is excellent in delivering spot beam coverage from the
satellite. The downside is the service coverage area is not as broad as C band.
Additionally, the higher frequency spectrum of Ku band operation makes this ser
vice more likely to be affected (usually from atmospheric conditions) by signal
degradation than C-band satellite service.
Ku band satellite equipment costs about half as much as C band equipment. Also,
because Ku service utilizes more powerful transponders on the satellite for oper
ation, bandwidth capacity is more expensive which means that ku band service pac
kages generally cost more.

C-band
C-band satellite dishC-band, on the otherhand, operates at a much lower frequenc
y (3.7 - 4.2 Ghz) for downlinks and (5.9 - 6.4Ghz) for uplinks offering a wider
coverage area.One disadvantage of C band satellite service is that it shares the
same frequency as terrestrial microwave radio systems. As a result, some VSAT l
ocations may be restricted so as not to
interfere with these radio systems (i.e.- mobile phones).
The C band frequency employs a larger satellite dish. For most locations around
Afghanistan, usually 2.4 meters (about 8 feet in diameter), is sufficient to rec
eive service. The dish size is determined by the geographic location where servi
ce is required in relation to the satellite providing C band service. For Afghan
istan, it s most likely TelStar-10 @ 76.5°E.For other locations around the world
, antennas as large as 3 to 3.7 meters (about 10 to 12 feet in diameter) may be
required to receive C band satellite service. Two factors are considered in this
determination, geographic location in relation to the servicing satellite and l
ocal atmospheric weather conditions. As a rule of thumb, locations subject to he
avy rains or snowfall usually require larger dish antennas.
The biggest advantage of a larger dish is that it offers minimal interference fr
om severe weather conditions resulting in consistent, reliable service for pract
ically any location. The downside - how do you make a satellite dish this large
look inconspicuous
Different feed mechanism used by satellite antennas are:
Center Feed Antennas:
Simplest form of axisymmetrical configuration is a paraboloidal reflector with a
primary feed horn located at the focus (Figure 3.1).However, this leads to a lo
ng waveguide-run between the feed and the electronics box for antennas whose dia
meter is greater than about 3 meters.This is undesirable because it leads to red
uction in signal power, and increase in noise. A more compact configuration,espe
cially for larger antenna diameters, can be realized by the introduction of a su
b reflector. The feed horn is located at the rear of the main reflector, elimina
ting the need for long, potentially loss,waveguide runs. This is known as Casseg
rain antenna and is shown in Figure 3.2. The subreflector is a section of hyperb
oloid situated within the focus of the main reflector

However, the subreflector and associated support legs cast aneffective shadow th
at affects the antenna efficiency and its sidelobeenvelope. Typically, for a Cas
segrain configuration, a decrease inpeak gain of 0.1 to 0.5 dB can be expected.
Also, the subreflectormay not intercept all that is radiated from the primary fe
ed, and thiscould lead to degradation of the antenna sidelobe performance.To inc
rease the percentage of energy intercepted by the subreflector,the feed is confi
gured to give a tapered illuminationdistribution at the subreflector. However, d
ecreasing or tapering thesubreflector edge illumination reduces the overall ante
nna efficiency.This would require some compromise between the sidelobe performan
ce and the antenna efficiency.It is feasible to achieve a reasonable wide-angle
sidelobe performance and high-antenna efficiency. An improvement in antenna effi
ciency can be achieved by shaping the reflector profiles and controlling the ape
rture amplitude distribution while still maintaining a uniform phase distributio
n. The near-uniform aperture distribution achieved will, however, lead to higher
sidelobes close to the boresight direction.

Offset Feed Antennas:

The offset feed antennas, such as the offset Cassegrain and Gregorian, achieve a
better radiation pattern because of lower aperture blockage. They are often kno
wn as nonsymmetrical antennas, and are generally used in small Earth stations be
cause of construction problems and higher cost. The ITU-R handbook on satellite
communications discusses offset feed antennas. Figures3.3 and 3.4 show different
antenna types
.
The feed mechanism that was seen at Sagarmatha Earth Station was cassegrian feed

Cassegrain feed:
A cassegrain-type feed for a parabolic antenna is a dual-band feed and employs a
waveguide feeding a dielectric cone feeding a subreflector. The waveguide has a
n end-portion adjacent a narrow end of the cone. The impedance of an inner wall
of the cone is modified by the inclusion of a dielectric sleeve of thickness bet
ween 1/6 and ¼ of a wavelength relative to propagation in the sleeve at a mean
value of the upper of the two frequency bands concerned. The sleeve helps to pro
vide a rotationally substantially symmetric illumination of the subreflector in
the upper frequency band and, when used with a parabolic main reflector, a simil
arly symmetric illumination of the main reflector also. The sleeve may be replac
ed by a series of grooves formed in the inner wall of the waveguide end-portion,
these grooves being nominally ¼ of a mean wavelength deep.
the incoming radiation is collected by the dish (the bigger the better), reflect
s off of its parabolic surface (the smoother the better) and (most of it we hope
) comes to a common focus at the "knobby widget". The knobby widget, located at
the prime focus of the antenna, can be either another reflector or a receiver. T
he knobby widget primarily serves as a secondary reflector (although there is a
low-frequency dipole receiver mounted there as well). The common, though far les
s technical ;-), term for the reflecting type of knobby widget is "subreflector
". The subreflector does just what its name suggests -- it reflects the radiatio
n back down to the center of the dish where the feed horns are located. In each
different position the reflected radiation is directed to a particular feed horn
, the feeds being arranged in a ring in the center of the dish (the Cassegrain f
ocus). The subreflector moves up and down axially as well, in order to bring the
incoming radiation of differing wavelengths to a focus at the desired feed.

After being directed into the desired feed horn (which is basically a conical ho
rn with a corrugated inner surface made from aluminum whose diameter and length
is determined by the wavelength being detected) the radiation travels through a
"wave guide" (a metal tube circular or rectangular in shape) down to the front-e
nd in the vertex room, a room directly below the dish. The front-end is the firs
t part of the receiver system, responsible for separating the incoming radiation
into its right and left circularly polarized components, and then amplifying it
. The front-end components are enclosed in a dewar which is cryogenically cooled
(to about 15 K) in an effort to minimize thermal "noise", the result of heat pr
oduced by the electronics. The radio emission that is being detected is relative
ly weak, which explains why it is so important to both keep noise from being int
roduced into the signal and to amplify the signal.
A cassegrain-type feed for an antenna, comprising: a) a waveguide section having
an end-portion, the waveguide section having internal dimensions which support
a propagation of a fundamental quasi-TE 11 mode in lower and upper frequency ban
ds; b) a dielectric cone having a small-diameter end and a large-diameter end, t
he small-diameter end adjoining the waveguide end-portion; c) a subreflector adj
oining the large-diameter end of the cone; d) a multi-stage step transformer att
ached to the small-diameter end of the cone for matching an impedance of the con
e to the waveguide section; e) the feed being a dual-band feed covering the lowe
r and upper frequency bands; and f) the waveguide end-portion being provided at
an inner wall thereof with a wall-impedance changing means comprising grooves fo
rmed in the inner wall of the waveguide section, and operative for changing an i
mpedance of the inner wall to couple the quasi-TM 11 mode in the upper frequency
band, to thereby achieve a rotationally substantially symmetric illumination of
the sub reflector in the upper frequency band.