10-94

E S LIGHTING

like character of the hotel

and are

HANDBOOK

flexible

and

easily coordinated with

any

decorative scheme.

INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
In 1915 the Illuminating Engineering Society prepared and issued a
Code of Lighting Factories, Mills and Other Work Places. According to the
procedure of the American Standards Association, revisions of the Code
were made in 1921 and in 1930. The 1942 American Recommended Practice
of Industrial Lighting, which is condensed here, is a development of the
earlier codes.

Illumination is an environment factor that affects every industrial establishment. The advantages of good illumination to employees and management are many.

Production and Quality Control

Under good illumination

it is

possible to see

an object

of

much

smaller

than is discernible under poor illumination. Continuous quality

control throughout the manufacturing process, made possible by good
illumination, permits early discovery and rejection of defective parts prior
size

to further processing or final inspection.

Floor space utilization. A uniform level of general lighting such as

in Fig. 10-66 makes possible the most efficient arrangement of

shown

machinery and conveyors and better utilization of floor space. Manufacturers have learned that in many cases more work can be achieved with
less floor space when the work flows in straight lines through assembly or
inspection sections.
Good general lighting facilitates the arrangement of
straight .production lines.

uniform level of general lighting permits the optimum utilization

FIG. 10-66.
of floor space and increases the flexibility of the production line plan in this shop.

INTERIOR LIGHTING

10-103

silhouette vision the illumination on the cloth from the observer side times
the reflectance of the cloth should be not more than one-tenth the brightness transmitted by the cloth.
Light transmitted through translucent materials such as glass, paper,
plastics, and liquids also may reveal certain kinds of faults, foreign material,
and defects. Large luminous panels can be built in conveyor lines over
which, or past which, the material flows. The illumination level required
varies with the task.
A panel brightness of the order of 100 footlamberts
often is adequate.
Bubbles, blisters, cracks, chips, and whorls may be

revealed as highlights or distortions caused by refraction when transparent

materials such as glass jars, bottles, bulbs, clear plastics, etc., are seen

Alternate dark and

large-area, low-brightness panel.
luminous backgrounds or black strips laid on a luminous background aid

moving before a
in locating

To

and identifying

defects.

cracks and bubbles in glass jars and the pin-point

bubbles caused by foreign material in carbonated beverages, a narrow beam
source is recommended. The mirror action of these defects reveals their
presence.
detect small

fire

A modification is the arrangement employed for the inspection of inner

tubes for air leaks. The partially inflated tube suspended from an overhead conveyor is passed through a trough filled with water under the surface of which there are light sources on each side of the inspector's stand.
Any air bubbles coming from the tube are made visible by the light they
refbct.

Polarized

mounted

illumination.

The

detection

of

internal

strains

in

glass,

lamp bulbs, radio tubes, transparent plastics, etc., may

by transmitted polarized light. The nonuniform spectral

lenses,

be facilitated

transmittance of strained areas causes the formation of color fringes that

are visible to an inspector.
With transparent models of structures and
machine parts, it is possible to analyze strains under operating conditions.
Nonspecular materials. Surface flaws, irregularities in surface shape, pit
marks, scratches, and cracks in nonspecular or mat materials are most
easily seen by lighting which strikes the surface obliquely in such a manner
that nonuniform surface contours cast shadows. Wrinkles in roofing
materials are revealed by small shadows which the wrinkles cast when the
sheet is illuminated by a narrow light beam incident at a grazing angle.
Directional light also has been found useful for the inspection of sandpaper and Venetian blinds. (See Fig. 14-6.) The light may be specular
for inspecting mat surfaces, but should be diffused at the source for examining polished or shiny materials.
Minute details and high precision. Careful inspection of very small
objects may be greatly simplified by viewing their magnified images.
For
production work the magnified image may be projected on a screen. Because the projected silhouette is many times the actual size of the object,
any irregular shapes or improper spacings can be detected readily. Similar
devices are employed for the inspection of machine parts where accurate
dimensions and contours are essential. One typical device now in common
use projects an enlarged silhouette of the teeth of a gear on a profile chart.

INTERIOR LIGHTING

10-95

Industry has found that cleanliness pays.

Poor illuminamachinery and these dark

areas collect dirt and waste that would otherwise be cleaned out.
Where
In a well-lighted plant
dirt can be seen it is more likely to be removed.
dingy areas do not exist and much more sanitary conditions prevail.
Engineering for safe plant operation consists esLight and safety.
The environment
sentially of preparing a safe working environment.
should be designed to match and to compensate for the limitations of human
However, as revealed by an analysis of accidents and their
capability.
Most personal injury
causes, this is but one phase of the safety problem.
accidents involve a combination of personal and mechanical causes. The
chain of circumstances or series of causes which has led a workman to a
potential injury frequently can be broken only if be can see quickly and
accurately the causes and act to prevent the accident.
Cleanliness.

tion

makes

it difficult

Good

Factors of

to see into corners or under

Illumination

There are many factors involved in good illumination. These can be

summed up under the headings quality, which includes the direction and
diffusion of light, its color, etc.,

tion they

and

have

and

significant effects

quantity.

Separately and in conjunc-

on the ability to see

easily, accurately,

quickly.

Quality of illumination: light diffusion and distribution.

Some directional
and shadow effects are desirable in general illumination for accentuating
the depth and form of solid objects, but harsh shadows should be avoided.
(See Fig. 10-67.)
Shadows are softer and less pronounced when many
wide-distribution

lumiAlternate light
and dark areas in strong contrast
are not desirable because the adaptation of an observer's eye to first
one and then the other of the two
brightnesses is fatiguing. For this
reason, purely local lighting restricted to a small work area is
unsatisfactory; there should be sufficient general illumination throughout the room. High (30 to 60 per
cent)
reflectance
surfaces serve
several purposes.
They reflect light
toward the working areas, they
reduce contrasts between walls,
naires

are

diffusing

used.

windows, and luminaires.

Machinery with a high-reflectance

ceilings,

finish reflects light to otherwise sha,

dowed

areas.

FIG. 10-67. Uncontrolled shadows

usually interfere with vision. However, in some cases shadows may be
utilized also to simplify seeing tasks.

10-96

LIGHTING HANDBOOK

Clearly defined shadows, without excessive contrast, simplify the seeing

task in certain types of operations such as engraving on polished surfaces,
scribing on metal, and some textile inspection.
(See Fig. 10-67.)
Controlled shadows may be provided b^y supplementary luminaires.
Many of the seeing tasks in industry are on vertical or nearly vertical
surfaces.
Hence the amount and the distribution of light on vertical surfaces often are important.
(See Fig. 10-68.)
.

jf

FIG.

10-68.

In

^,^.,^

many

as horizontal planes.

industrial areas the visual problems occur on vertical as well

In such cases uniform illumination should be provided on the

vertical.

Quality of illumination: color.

With equal

variations in color quality of light have

little

or

illumination

no

effect

(footcandles)

upon the

visibility

do not involve color discrimination. However, in certain

industries color discrimination is important and in these the spectral quality
of the light on the work may be critical.
Some manufacturers paint stationary and moving parts of machines different colors to increase contrast
of tasks that

and prevent

accidents.

levels.
The illumination recoman installation depends upon the seeing task. The degree of
accuracy required and the size of detail to be observed, the color and reflectance of task and surround materially affect the brightness distribution
required for optimum seeing. As illumination on a task is increased, its
brightness and the ease, speed, and accuracy with which it can be accom-

Quantity of illumination: recommended

mended

for

plished usually are increased.

Surface brightness measurements may be made with a brightness meter

Brightness may be computed by multiplying the illumination by the reflectance of the surface.
(see Section 5).

INTERIOR LIGHTING

10-97

Most of the recommended illumination levels in Appendix Table A-l

apply to the average room. If it is desired to determine the level produced
by an existing installation, the measurement procedure outlined in Section
5 should be followed.
The majority of the recommended values of illumination shown in Table
A-l refer to the general lighting measured on a horizontal plane 30 inches
above the floor. In some cases where an illumination level of more than
50 footcandles is necessary, it may be obtained by a combination of general
lighting plus supplementary lighting at the point of work.
The Illuminating Engineering Society in recent years has been studying
If a more detailed discussion
the illumination needs of specific industries.
of the lighting specifications for a specific process is desired than it has
been possible to include in the handbook, the reports referred to should be
consulted.

To

ensure that a given illumination will be maintained (even where conit is necessary to design the system to give initially
at least 25 per cent more light than the required minimum.
In locations
where the dirt will collect rapidly and where adequate maintenance is not
provided, the initial value should be at least 50 per cent above the minimum
requirement.
Where safety goggles are worn, the light reaching the eye is likely to be
materially reduced and the general level of illumination should, therefore,
be increased accordingly in these locations.
ditions are favorable)

General Lighting in Industry

Modern

industrial lighting practice is to provide a uniform illumination

throughout every work area. This is called general lighting. The
general-lighting level should be uniform so that light will be available,
when needed, at any point. This is particularly desirable for interiors
where the production layout may be changed. If the general lighting
has been designed for uniform illumination, tables, machines, and conveyors often may be moved without necessitating a change in lighting
level

installation.

The purpose

system where there is also supplebetween the task and

the surround within a range that is comfortable to the eyes (not over 10
to 1) in order to provide sufficient light for safety and to illuminate secondary visual tasks.

mentary

of a general-lighting

lighting

is

to keep the brightness ratios

Luminaire Spacing and Layout

The lumen method

of design described in Section 8 is

used to design

general-lighting installations intended to provide reasonably uniform

il-

lumination over a given area. The footcandle level calculated by this

method is the average for the entire area. The level in a well-designed
system at any specific point near the center of the room may vary 5 per
cent even in an empty room with no equipment or other obstructions.

10-98

LIGHTING HANDBOOK

The variation may be as great as 30 per cent if points next to the walls are
considered, unless special attention is given these areas.
Layout suggestions.

The conventional arrangements

of electrical outlets

bay) have been adequate for a wide

range of footcandles because of the many incandescent-filament lamps
available in the 150- to 1,500- watt range with outputs of from 2,600 to
33,000 lumens each. By comparison, the fluorescent-lamp range, encompassing only a few ratings between 15 and 100 watts with outputs of 495
To obtain a lumen output per fluorescent
to 4,400 lumens each, is limited.
luminaire comparable with that of a 500- or 1,000- watt, incandescent-lamp
for lighting (one, two, or four per

it is necessary to use many lamps.

Fluorescent lamps, by virtue of their tubular form, suggest new layout
and installation methods: continuous rows of lamps and "troffer" systems.
Since the lamp lengths and ballasts are different for each of the fluorescent
lamp sizes, these lamps are not interchangeable. However, future increases
in illumination may be provided for by a wiring layout that will accommodate added luminaires or rows of luminaires to co-ordinate with the original

luminaire,

(See Fig. 10-69.)

It is possible, also, in some two-lamp
luminaires to add a third lamp of the same size, with an increase in illuminaWhere such luminaires are spaced
tion of approximately 50 per cent.
closely, or in continuous rows, the two extra lamps in adjacent luminaires
can be served from a two-lamp ballast located in one of them. Two-lamp
installation.

punched for lampholders for a third lamp

This potential capacity may serve several useful purposes. By
adding the third lamp almost 50 per cent increase in illumination may be
made available over a small area for especially difficult visual tasks, or
throughout the installation for a general increase in illumination. Illumination levels from a general-lightin"; system are low near walls when not

industrial units with reflectors

are used.

FIG. 10-69. This luminaire installation is arranged to minimize the complexity

and expense of future increases in illumination. Spacing plan permits addition of
units without disturbing existing installation.

INTERIOR LIGHTING
supplemented by natural
pended upon at all times.

light

10-99

from Avindows. The latter cannot be decompensate for the daily and

It is possible to

seasonal variations in natural illumination

by using the

third

lamp

in out-

end rows and in the two end reflectors of the rows between. In large
installations this can be accomplished by having all the luminaires in outIn incandescent systems, lamps of
side bays fitted with a third lamp.
higher wattage than in the center of the room should be used in
side

the outer bays.

Mounting height. For practical purposes the average illumination level

produced by general-lighting installations of spread distribution luminaires in large areas (room index > 5) is independent of luminaire mounting
height.
In small areas the average varies in proportion to the coefficient
of utilization, not inversely with the square of the distance from luminaires
Spacing between luminaires usually should not
to illuminated plane.
greatly exceed their mounting height.
Supplementary Lighting
Extremely

in Industry

difficult seeing tasks require illumination levels

which are

not always easily or economically obtained by standard general-lighting

methods. To solve such problems supplementary luminaires often are
used to provide high levels for small or restricted areas. Also, they are
used to provide a certain brightness or color, or to permit special aiming or
positioning of light sources to avoid shadows caused by workmen or machinery.
A reasonably comfortable interior usually results when the general-illumination level is at least one-tenth that of the supplementary
level.
Employees using their eyes for critical visual tasks glance away from
If the brighttheir work at frequent intervals for momentary relaxation.
ness contrast between task and surround is too great, instead of being
rested, the eyes are fatigued.
Supplementary luminaires. Two types of supplementary equipment will
take care of almost all requirements: (1) Small, concentrating projectors
augment the general lighting on a seeing task and provide directional
quality.
low-brightness diffuse sources may provide
(2) Large-area,
either general lighting for small areas or "plus" lighting for a more difficult
All supplementary
seeing task such as inspection.
(See Fig. 10-70.)
luminaires and projector lamps should be shielded, louvered, or mounted
Where adjustable fluorescent
so as to minimize the possibility of glare.
luminaires are used, they should be of the two-lamp type to minimize
stroboscopic effects.
Portable luminaires.
in airplane

Portable equipment can be used to good advantage

hangars and garages and wherever internal surfaces must be

viewed. A typical unit consists of five angle-reflector luminaires mounted

on a portable rack with outlets for electrical tools. Two-hundred-watt,
inside-frosted incandescent lamps are recommended.
A "trouble light"
consisting of 50- or 100- watt rough-service lamps in a guarded socket
attached to an extension cord often is provided for internal inspection.
Similar devices have been developed for fluorescent lamps.

10-100

E S LIGHTING HANDBOOK

FIG. 10-70. Typical supplementary- and portable-lighting equipment designs

Portable-lighting equipment often is useful for repair work and for increasing illumination on surfaces which are inaccessible and not reached by general lighting.

Hazardous locations. Vapor-proof, explosion-proof, and dust-tight

uminaires each are designed for a specific type of location where either
corrosive vapor, inflammable gases, or explosive dusts are likely to be enlcountered from such processes as oil refining, paint and varnish making,
or lacquer spraying.
(See Fig. 10-71.)
Special equipment such as this
usually is mandatory also in locations with moisture-laden atmospheres
such as steam processing, engine rooms, and shower baths. The National
Electrical Code requires the use of these special types of luminaires in cer-

INTERIOR LIGHTING

10-10)

VAPORTIGHT
GLASS GLOBE"

GLASS
REFRACTOR

FIG.
c.

10-71.

Luminaires for hazardous locations:

a.

dust-tight; b. vapor-proof;

explosion-proof.

Both angle and symmetrical types of reflectors in the 75- to

500-watt size range are used.
tain areas.

Lighting for Industrial Inspection

In most production processes there are one or more inspection operations

that involve checking some characteristic of a material or product against
a previously established specification or standard. Although inspection
or checking sometimes is accomplished by the use of devices requiring little
visual effort or skill on the part of an operator, acceptance or rejection
often depends on the accuracy of the visual observations of a skilled inspector.
Usually, because of the importance of the inspector's decisions
in such cases, it is worth while in planning a lighting installation to treat
an inspection area as a special problem. The following examples suggest

ways

in which a variety of typical inspection problems have been solved.

Highly polished surfaces. Chrome or tin plate, aluminum sheet, and

other specular surfaces frequently are inspected visually to detect scratches,

and other flaws. It has been found that an inspector
can locate such flaws when he views an image of a low-brightness luminaire
in the polished surface.
The image should be at least as large as the area
to be inspected and its brightness should be not more than 400 footlamberts.
(Surround brightness should be not less than 1/10 image brightness.) The
area to be inspected should be so screened that images of other sources,
windows, machinery, or personnel are not in the inspector's field of view.
dents, bare spots,

10-102

LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Opaque bands

of

uniform

width

equally spaced in parallel lines, rectangular grids, or concentric circles are

of assistance in detecting surface contour irregularities. These are revealed
by a distortion of the image pattern

which

some cases may be

in

able only
his head.

FIG. 10-72. Flaws such as grind

marks in highly polished surfaces form
distorted images of regular patterns
superimposed on the low-brightness
surface of the inspection table or inspection luminaire. They may be

when

notice-

the inspector

moves

(See Fig. 10-72.)

comand metals used for

Printers' imposing stones, type

position

cases,

scribing present similar seeing problems

may be solved in this manner.

Refractive flaws in transparent materials may be detected by viewing the
image of such a source or the source itself through the material.
The following rules of thumb are applicable to the inspection of plate glass
1. The glass should be viewed against a combination of light and dark
which

detected easily by this method.

areas.
2. The light source should have a brightness of less than 1,800 footlamberts (4 candles per square inch).
3. The light source preferably should be rectangular in shape with a
width of 5 to 6 inches and a length of 24 to 30 inches. "With luminaires of
this size the width of the dark spaces between should be of the order of 2

to 3 feet.

Trough-shaped luminaires are located approximately 6 feet behind the

support for the glass plate. The supporting framework for the glass plate
should be raised or lowered to bring the glass area between the eyes of the
inspector and one or more of the luminaires.
Open-weave fabrics and
other

The

translucent

materials.

and removal

location

of any defects in openweave fabrics previous to

the final finishing process

accomplished best by observing the defects in silhouette against a large-area,
uniformly
low-brightness
panel such as shown in Fig.
10-73.
The brightness of
the panel should be suffiis

cient

to

show up

defects.

should not exceed 400

foot lamberts.
The surround brightness should not
.,
v
,,
na 0If
De iess Inan i1/10
/ iU
It

FIG. 10-73. Low -brightness source for silhouette

inspection of translucent materials such as fabrics,
glass, plastics, paper, liquids, etc.

the

panel.

For the best

10-104

E S LIGHTING

HANDBOOK

The meshing of these production gears with a perfectly cut standard is

examined on the chart.
Color control and classification.
Many manufacturing operations in the
paint, lacquer, enamel, dye, textile, paper, tile, and printing fields include
careful color-control procedures.

Section 4 includes detailed discussion of

these problems.

Moving

sometimes necessary to inspect and study moving

This can be done with stroboscopic illumination which can be adjusted to "stop" or "slow up" the motion of
constant-speed rotating and reciprocating machinery. Stroboscopic lamps
give flashes of light at controllable intervals (frequencies). Their flashing
can be so timed that when the flash occurs, an object with rotating or
reciprocating motion is always in exactly the same position and appears to
parts.

It is

parts while they are operating.

stand

still.

METAL WORKING
Some very difficult seeing tasks are encountered in metal- working shops.
The difficulties are a result of many different causes, including the following
1. Low-reflectance metal surfaces result in low task brightnesses.
The
rapid collection of oil and dirt further reduces reflectance and makes good
maintenance difficult.
2. Work and machine surfaces are of similar character and reflectance
and consequently provide poor contrasts.
3. Specular metal surfaces in the process of fabrication form images
of luminous areas in the surround.
4. Much metal-working machinery is bulky, and obstructs the distribution of light flux.

Dimensional tolerances often are extremely narrow.

In many industrial processes the seeing task may be greatly facilitated
by painting various parts of the working areas, including the machines,
5.

in contrasting colors of

Lighting for

good

reflectance.

(See Section 4.)

Heavy Industry

The heavy-industry type

done in foundries, steel

manufacture of such
products as ships, locomotives, engines, turbines, structural steel, and
automobile bodies. This work is carried on in high-bay buildings covering
Materials are moved from place to place by means of traveling
large areas.

and iron

mills,

of metal working
and fabrication assembly plants

is

in the

General illumination usualh^ is provided by high-bay luminaires,

employing a high output light source such as the incandescent lamp or highintensity mercury lamp.
(See Fig. 10-74 and Fig. 10-75.)
Incandescentand mercury-lamp combinations sometimes are installed on alternate outThe illumination from this arrangement is whiter than that of either
lets.
source alone; radiation from the incandescent alone is yellowish and from

cranes.