Notes from selected chapters of:

KARNS & MINGST INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: THE

POLITICS AND PROCESSES OF GLOBAL GOVERNANCE (2nd ED.)
Content

K & M Chapter 4: The United Nations Centerpiece of Global Governance..................1

K & M Chapter 5: Regional Organizations......................................................................5
K & M Chapter 6: Non-state Actors NGOs, Networks, and Social Movements...........20
K & M Chapter 7: The Role of States in Global Governance.........................................25
K & M Chapter 8: The Search for Peace and Security..................................................29
K & M Chapter 9: Promoting Human Development......................................................34
K & M Chapter 10: Protecting Human Rights...............................................................46
K & M Chapter 11: Protecting the Environment...........................................................50

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K & M Chapter 4: The United Nations Centerpiece of

Global Governance
In: Margaret P. Karns and Karen A. Mingst (Eds.). International organizations: the politics
and processes of global governance. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2010. 2nd ed. Pp. 95
143.

Notes:

UN is todays worlds central site for multilateral diplomacy

o The UN General Assembly is the centre stage; The UN Security Council is
the core of the global security system and the primary legitimizer of
actions dealing with threats to peace
Foundations
o 1941: the Atlantic Charter of August 14, 1941 Roosevelt + Churchill
Commitment to collaboration on economic issues and a permanent
system of security
26 countries agreed to replace the League of Nations foundation
of the UN
1

UN Conference in San Francisco 1945 the UN Charter drafted

The UN Charter
Only peace-loving nations = excluding the Axis of Evil
Veto for the Permanent Five on security issues
Sovereign equality of the member states, irrespective of their might
or size
Key provisions
The twin principles
1. Countries shall refrain from the threat or use of force
against territorial integrity or political independence of
any state
2. Dedication to peaceful means
Domestic sovereignty
o norm of non-intervention, but provision of exception
collective enforcement actions in international issues
In disputes countries shall attempt to resolve consensually by
peaceful means of their choice
Security council
o determines threats
o decided on resolution incl. sanctions and eventually
use of force
members do not lose right to self-defence
security council may delegate resolutions of issues to
regional instances
Issues:
Domestic sovereignty: domestic/international is a problematic
distinction
o Security dilemmas: ethnic conflicts, human rights
breach, humanitarian crises, failed states
Right to self-defence: Who fired the first bullet? Pre-emptive
strikes?
6 principal bodies
The General Assembly; The Security council; ICJ; ECOSOC; The
Trusteeship council; The Secretariat
+ Many others outside of the core (WHO, FAO, ILO, IMF, WB,
UNESCO, )
The General Assembly
Central hub with equal representation of members
Powers: decision-making over the functioning subsumed bodies,
making recommendations to governments; can order inquiries with
respect to conflicts
Functions:
Review of the UN budget
Admission of new members
Election of P5, members of councils, appointment of ICJ
judges
Most useful for symbolic politics, agenda-setting, mustering
large majorities in support of resolutions

The

Development of international law soft law (generates stock

of concepts that provide guidelines and may be referred to in
treaties and domestic law)
May initiate the UN Charter review
Achievements
Production of multilateral law-making treaties
o Non-proliferation; human rights conventions,
diplomatic conventions
Coalitions majority vote requires forming alliances
Tends to reflect the north/south and the east/west divisions
Since the end of the Cold War the US tends vote with the
larger northern group
UNCTAD G77, later split of G77 based on their economic
divergence
Resolutions recently being reached by consensus
Shifting agendas and relevance
Steady decline of the assemblys role
Shortcomings: large number of resolutions, many of the
ritual, too general or non-implementable
In need of a reform
security council
Responsibility: Maintenance of peace and security in the name of all
members
Chapter VI: Range of techniques of investigation of disputes
Chapter VII: authority to commit all members to take enforcement
measures (sanctions, military action)
Members
P5: US, China, Britain, France, Russia
10 Non-permanent members (Elected by the GA for 2 years
terms after nomination by regional groups)
No pre-set agenda meets in response to crises
Nowadays also periodical review of issues before they
emerge as crises
Presidency rotates among members
President facilitates consensus-making, facilitates discussion,
decides when the issue is ready to be concluded formally
Council elects the Secretary-general, participates in electing ICJ
judges and in introducing new members
Veto
Often abused by the USSR during the Cold War
Since the 1970s frequently employed by the US (mostly
related to Israel)
China often disagreed on measures but abstained from
blocking action
Rise in prestige and operability in the 1980s
Peace-making
Breakthrough in several regional conflicts

War crimes tribunals (Rwanda, former Yugoslavia, Sierra

Leone)
Measures against terrorism + monitoring bodies
Authority and legitimacy of the council
The council holds awesome power
Yet practice of its authority depends on acknowledgement of
its legitimacy by member states symbolic power
ECOSOC
Primary UN forum for addressing economic and social issues
Its activities encompass 70% of human and financial resources of
the UN
Functions:
Coordinates activities of specialized agencies and semiautonomous bodies
Makes research and gathers information, makes
recommendations
Facilitates conventions, conferences
Members:
19 27 54
Elected by the GA by regional blocks, those who contribute
the most usually selected
4 permanent members (from P5, excluding China),
ECOSOCs resolutions and recommendations are non-binding. Have
to be approved by the GA
Events
Each year there is a month-long conference either in Geneva
or NY
Annual Ministerial review Assessment of implementation of
goals agreed on at UN conferences and summits and
assessment of approximation to the Millennium Development
Goals
Development Cooperation Forum (biennial) brings together
relevant actors in development cooperation
Delegates tasks among:
Subsidiary bodies (such as expert groups)
9 Functional commissions
o Social dev., Narcotic drugs, Status of women, Science
and tech., Sustainable dev., Population, Criminal
justice, Statistics, Forests
o Data gathering and analysis as key responsibility of
funct. comms
o Commision on Human Rights moved under direct resp.
of the GA
5 regional commissions (Economic Commission for [Africa],
)
19 specialized agencies (ILO, FAO, UNESCO, WHO, WB group,
IMF, )
o Dispersed in capitals worldwide
4

o Equal voting, except for Bretton woods institutions

The Secretariat
The Secretary-general
Kofi Annan 1997 2006; Ban Ki-moon 2007 present
5 years (renewable), suggested by the Sec. Council, voted by
the GA (2/3)
Manager of the organization, its key representative, an intl
public figure
Participates in preparing the budget, submits annual report to
the GA, may bring up security issues at the Security Council
9000 international civil servants
Countries represented by appointed nationals
1/3 in Geneva, others involved in field operations
Responsibility: implementation of UN economic and social
programs
Enabling functioning of the UN, providing reports,
translations,
Divided into offices and departments, incl. internal audit
o ICJ
Impartial body of settling international disputes in accordance with
the intl law
Provides advisory opinions to the GA and Security council
Judges elected jointly by GA and Security council
Non-compulsory jurisdiction, no executive to enforce decisions
The optional clause allows countries to accept decisions as
binding
Had 114 contentious cases and issued 25 recommendations (by
2007)
Decolonization, territorial disputes, nuclear tests,
environmental protection, genocide
Unofficial, but recognized power to interpret the UN Charter
ICJ contributes to development of the constitutional development of
global gov.
o The Trusteeship Council
Oversees management and of non-self-governing trust territories
and facilitates their eventual release
Former German colonies, Palestine
Nowadays nearly inactive, new mission being sought
Global conferences and summits
o Ad-hoc events, proposed by members, authorized by ECOSOC or the GA
o Results in set of goals and aspiration or leads straight to development of
law-creating treaties (e.g. UNCLOS)
o Purpose: proliferate information and norms, build consensus, educate,
develop networks
o Parallel stage for non-governmental actors, development of intl civil
society
o Shortcomings: unwieldy, non-transparent, expensive, inefficient, media
circuses
Conferences summits (e.g. the Millennium summit)
o

The UN: Persistent organizational problems and need for reform

o Persistent problems with financing, coordination, management and
structural weaknesses, stemming partly from changing political realities
and partly from the difficulty of directing a multilateral behemoth
o Reform? Yes, but in which direction?
o Major reform in the 1980 with the demise of the Cold War
Establishment of Peace-keeping
Break of the bipolar stalemate
o Still incomplete, many processes still belong to former eras
Calls for transparency, reduction of staff, merging depts.
technocratic reforms attainable
Political changes in major principles extremely difficult
Amendment of the UN Charter? Almost impossible
o 1963 and 1971 enlargement of the member base of
the GA and Security council
o A real reform would require strong and weak countries alike to make
concessions in order to reach a grand bargain
The Security Council
At the moment the number and composition of members
doesnt correspond to the world realities and principles of
global governance
Distinction between permanent and non-p? Veto power?
A satisfactory reform seems almost impossible to reach
o How long will be the council able to retain legitimacy if
no change?
o Needs for reform in coordination and management
Globalization changed the nature and level of interconnectedness of
issues
ECOSOC particularly plagued
o The Secretariat administrative inefficiency, political bias, the OFFP
scandal
o Financing
Core budget: USD 1.6 billion in 2008, incl. specialized agencies etc.
USD 7 billion
Contributions formula based on the ability + voluntary
contributions
Takes into account GDP, GDP PC, other factors; ranges from
25% for the US to 0.0001% to the weakest members; 19
members contribute > 1%
States often fail to pay, which results in periodical crises
o 1980s US withheld payments, resulting in a large
deficit

K & M Chapter 5: Regional Organizations

In: Margaret P. Karns and Karen A. Mingst (Eds.). International organizations: the politics
and processes of global governance. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2010. 2nd ed. Pp. 145 203.

Notes:

Regions important loci of the new global landscape

146
o Historically regional cooperation has long roots
o In the modern era, while many IOs are intended to be global in reach,
security arrangements tend to be regional
o ECOSOC regional economic commissions
o Regional development banks
Regional orders vary to a significant extend (Europe strong institutions, courts
with enforcement powers; Asia loose arrangements based on consensus)
147
The rationale for regional cooperation: states are close to each other easier
economic cooperation, shared values and conditions
o But how important is geography vis--vis cultural proximity?
Defining a region
o Geographical proximity + interconnectedness
o Regionalism: sustained cooperation among governments, the non-gov. and
the private sector in three or more countries aimed at mutual gain
o Presumption: there are significant links privileging the cooperation within a
certain area
Essentialists: economic, security, religious, cultural links define a
region
Constructivists: region is a political construction based on shared
concepts and practices
o Regions are not stable, their constitution emerges with socio-political
processes; regions emerge and break into smaller units
o Decisions of what constitutes a region are usually undertaken by in-group
states
Often multiple overlapping conceptions
Political factors driving regionalism
o Deliberate policy choices are key to increasing economic and political
interconnectedness
o Power dynamics
Great powers often strive to shape their respective regional
arrangements
Countries form regional org. to counter influence of another regional
power
o Identity and ideology
Internal factors: common culture and religion
External factors: common security and economic concerns
E.g. ASEAN and the ASEAN Way
Ideology
the liberal world order
anti-colonialist unities in the third world
democracy
o internal and external threats
e.g. the Cold War blocks
hostility towards Israel is the primary source of unity of the Arab
League
7

Domestic politics
Similar types of political and economic institutions aid organization
and enhance effectiveness of cooperation (That is why the EU
achieved much more functional integration than ASEAN)
Strong domestic consensus needed
Regional arrangements influence the domestic politics in return
o Leadership matters
Economic factors driving regionalism
o High levels of economic interdependence
o Complementarity of economies and policies
o Availability of compensatory mechanisms
o Desire to attract FDI and trade (larger market)
o Intimately connected to FTAs
o Closeness in economic factors is by no means sufficient to create a feeling
of a community, but can facilitate integration and enhance benefits
o Economic globalization and regionalism are interrelated
Two waves of regionalism
153
o 1) the Cold War the initial stages of European integration
o 2) starting 1980s
Single Market and the EU
NAFTA
Impetuses
Global economic changes
Uncertainty stemming from global arrangements (e.g. the
shortcomings of the WTO)
The end of the Cold War, triumph of the liberal doctrine
Increased volume of trade
Increasing spill-over of national issues
New models of regional arrangements
Freer bonding after the Cold War tensions subsided
E.g. NAFTA, APEC, ASEAN+China
Associated with the growth of the importance of the civil society
Local resentment of the US global dominance
Anti-globalization backslash
Europes regional organizations
o After the WWII a dense network of economic, political and security
arrangements established
o The iron curtain divided Europe into two blocks, both internally intertwined
The Soviet bloc
the Warsaw pact (mutual defence obligations)
COMECON (economic cooperation)
Western Europe
Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC;
1948)
o Administering implementation of the Marshall plan
NATO (1949)
Council of Europe (CE; 1949)
o Goal: to facilitate economic and social progress
o

OEEC and the CE discontinued shortly, advances made on the

grounds of functional IOs
o The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC; 1952)
o The European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom;
1958)
o The European Economic Community (ECC; 1958)
o The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe
(CSCE/Helsinki Con.; 1970s)
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
Most highly organized regional security org. in the world
Cold war military alliance larger arrangement (but what
purpose?)
Treaty which bounds members to mutual protection (an attack on
one is an attack on all)
Structure
The North Atlantic Council
o Meets twice a year at the ministerial level and weekly
at the ambassadorial level + summits
o Decisions accepted on the basis of consensus
NATO secretary-general (chairmen of the Council)
o Supervises the activities of the secretariat
o Represents the org.
NATO parliamentary assembly
o an informal organ designed to facilitate connection
with national governments and citizen
NATO Military Committee
o Composed of chiefs of staff, all members represented
o Oversees military command
Military command: SACEUR + SHAPE
o Supreme Allied Commander of Europe (SACEUR a
post held traditionally by a US officer, a general of the
NATO)
o Supreme Headquarters of Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE
responsible for operations, located in Belgium)
o But forces remain under the direct command of
national officers
Innovations
NATO is now open to observers and non-members
156
o E.g. numerous non-members cooperating on the
operations in Bosnia
Complex structure of military and civilian coordination,
consultation and cooperation
Issues
Growing tension between the US and European countries
o US acting unilaterally
o EU members contributing too little
o Russia fiercely opposing NATO even today
Is Warsaw Pact and NATO an anachronism?
9

Post-Cold War Enlargement

Incentive for political change in post-soviet countries
To extend or to intensify?
1994: establishment of Partnership for Peace (PFP)
associating 25 European and Central Asian countries with its
then 16 members
1997: + Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary
2004: + Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania,
Slovakia, Slovenia
2009: + Albania, Croatia
But: missing enlargement of capacities or a substantial vision
Relations with Russia
1997: a pact with the Russia concerning mutual relations
o Creation of the Joint Council for consultation and
cooperation
Russia still has reservations for understandable reasons
o NATO bolsters western version of democracy
o Relatively enhances the standing of the US in Europe
o Protested fiercely to the proposed admission of Georgia
New post-Cold War roles
Reformed to be able to tackle more contemporary security
threats
o intervention in Bosnia + peace-making efforts
1995 the first military action of NATO ever
IFOR SFOR EU
o Kosovo (1999)
KFOR until 2008 EU
o Afghanistan and the war on terrorism
Military capabilities rethought to fit rapid and
flexible deployments in unpredictable contexts
ISAF
Controversial among Europeans
Lack of success in supressing the insurgents
o Iraq: assisting in training local military to overtake
control
o Darfur; Somalia: NATO providing technology to AU
forces
The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)
Originating from CSCE (1970s)
Played major role in organizing post-Cold War changes in Europe
With its cooperation with the EU it is the strongest regional org. in
Europe
Trained forces in Croatia, Serbia, Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan
Negotiated ceasefire in Moldova, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Tajikistan
Oversaw election processes within Europe
Concerned not only with military arrangements, but also with
democracy, rule of law and human rights
Significantly contributed to solving the Kosovo situation (UNMIK
force)

10

Development of civil soc., electoral assistance, human rights

protection, police development, reestablishment of the
judicial sys.
Lately concerned with organized crime, terrorism and human
trafficking
Issues
with Russia
o Selective focus on problems (east of Vienna)
o Uneven standards applied in various places in election
monitoring
o Not admitted to oversee Russian elections in 2007 and
2008
Central Asian states are suspicious of OSCE
The European Union
A supranational institution removes considerable part of
sovereignty from its members
Impetuses
Overcoming competitive nature of the European IR
Forming a unity against the threat of Soviets
Marshall plan creating obligation to cooperate on rebuilding
of Europe
Economic incentives
Visions of united Europe
The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC, 1950)
Motivation: to synchronize French and German production
Succeeded in boosting steel and coal production
1951: 6 members (France, Germany, Italy, Belgium,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands)
The Treaties of Rome (1958)
The European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom, 1958)
The European Economic Community (EEC, 1958)
Acknowledgement, that these functional issues cannot be
tackled in isolation from other issues (the neofunctionalist
spill-over)
The Common Market
o Abolishment of all inner tariffs and restrictions on trade
o Common tariff policy with regard to the outside
o Free movement of goods and services (+ people)
Remarkably rapid progress on harmonization
Common Agricultural Policy (1962)
Harmonizing of health and safety standards
Principles of economic and monetary union agreed in 1969
Enlargement
1973: Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom ( 9
members)
1981: Greece (10)
1986: Spain and Portugal (12)
1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden (15)
11

2004: Czech Republic, Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania,

Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia (25)
2007: Bulgaria and Romania (27)
The Copenhagen criteria: a benchmark for accession of new
members
o Respect for democracy, human rights, rule of law,
protection of minorities
o Functioning market economy
o The capacity to implement European rules and
legislation
o Provided incentives for making changes towards
consolidation of the economic model, political and
legal changes
Enlargement increased disparities and tensions
o Economic benefits for the new members not available
until after 7 years (free movement of labour,
agricultural subsidies)
Brought about questions: how to govern the enlarged EU?
Reforms
Single European Act (SEA, 1987)
o Established the goal of assembling a single market by
1992
o Removing physical and systemic barriers
o Harmonization of standards
Maastricht, Amsterdam, and institutional change
o The Maastricht Treaty on European Union (1987)
The EC the EU
3 pillars:
The EC
Common foreign and security policy
Justice and home affairs
A commitment to:
develop a single currency by 1999
develop EU citizenship (EU passports)
The Maastricht treaty rejected by Danes,
concessions had to be made
sparkled a debate about the
democratic deficit
o The Treaty of Amsterdam (1997)
Dealt with social policy, immigration, the
environment, consumer protection,
Number of seats in the European parliament
increased, modified weights underlying the
voting system
o The EU constitution
EU constitution drafted 2002-2003, addressing
structural problems brought about by the
enlargement
Later rejected in referendums
12

2007 Lisbon Treaty

Improved efficiency of institutions
Unitary legal status with regard to the
outside

Structure of the EU
Bicameral legislature
The European Council
o Composed of ministers and presidents
o Meets 4 times a year
o Gives political direction, doesnt go into details
o Chaired by the EU president (reforms of the institution
are on the way)
The European Commission
o Supranational executive bureaucratic body
o It has exclusive responsibility for advancing the goals
of the treaties and for initiating new community laws
o Designed to oversee the good of the community as a
whole (the conscience of Europe)
o Draws up the budget and spends the funds
o Oversees implementation of legislation by members
Monitors compliance
Has right to warn members if they fail to abide
May impose sanctions (cooperating with the ECJ)
o Promulgates regulations binding on states
o 27 members representing states
Nominated by national governments, but not
accountable to them for their actions
(accountable to Europe, rather than their home
countries)
5 year renewable terms
o Supervises work of some 30 000 civil servants
o Directorates on particular issue areas
o Resembles a cabinet of a national government
o The president of the commission
Functions as the chief executive of the EU
Assigns portfolios, can veto executive
candidates
5 year renewable terms
(usually former prime ministers)
The Council of Ministers (Council of the European Union)
o Made up of national ministers
o Represents intergovernmentalism
o Shares responsibility with the Parliament
Approves law proposals of the Commission
Approves the EU budget
Defence policy, security, common foreign policy,
coordination and judicial cooperation
Concludes treaties on behalf of the EU
o Presidency rotates every six months

13

COREPER a supporting body composed of

ambassadors which prepares agendas and support
ministers in negotiations
o Voting system depends on the area of negotiation
The European Parliament
o The only EU body directly elected by citizens
5 years renewable terms
o A very unwieldy body
785 members
Equal status of 22 languages
Three venues: Strasbourg, Luxembourg, Brussels
o Complex system of distribution of seats
Mainly based on population
o MEPs are seated according to their ideological
adherence, not by geographical distribution
The parliament encourages transnational unity
formation
o Parliament cannot:
Initiate legislation, enact laws
Raise revenues
o Lately the EPs importance increased
From a weak supervisory body to the main organ
of the EU assuring democratic legitimacy
o Has the power to approve and to threaten to dissolve
the Commission
In 1999 close to doing so
The European Court of Justice (ECJ)
o Has responsibility for interpreting and enforcing the EU
law (binding!)
o It has power to vote on constitutionality of all EU lawmaking
o Settles disputes involving states, other EU institutions,
corporations and citizen
o 27 judges appointed by member states
6 years renewable terms
+ 8 advocate-generals (providing preliminary
opinions, easing the courts burden)
o The Court of First Instance (1989)
Deals with cases brought by individuals and
companies
o EU Civil Service Tribunal (2005)
Disputes among the EU institutions and their
civil servants
o ECJ cases: two categories
Preliminary rulings in which the court is advising
governments on interrelatedness of national and
EU law
Direct actions brought by individuals and corps,
or by the EC against member governments
o

14

Essential role in promoting regional integration and

governance
EU common policies
Social policy
o Seeks to address inequalities within and among
member states
o The European Social Charter: guarantees social and
economic human rights (Adopted in 1961, revised in
1996)
o Efforts to make European higher education more
comparable; to encourage exchanges
Common foreign, security and defence policy
o EU is the largest contributor to the UN, through which
it administers much of its military matters
o Strong support for the ICC and for the Kyoto protocol
o 1999: EU peace-making corps
EU rapid reaction force of 60 000 troops
Enhanced EUs role in global conflicts
o CFSP and ESDP are intergovernmental areas of
common policy: countries retain their agency in these
issues
But there are pressures to unify the policy
making processes to be able to assert European
interests against the lead of the US
Justice and home affairs
o 1985 the Schengen Agreement: free movement of
persons
o For the large part intergovernmental
Future directions of the European integration:
Candidate countries: Croatia, Macedonia, Turkey, Iceland
Negotiations with: Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina
The controversy of Turkey
o The Commonwealth of Independent States and the Collective Security
Treaty Organization
The CIS (1991) unites the post-Soviet republics:
Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Moldova, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan (+ Turkmenistan, Ukraine)
Lacked and lacks a clear vision
Considerable amount of friction among the member states;
concerns, that Russia will dominate
Later converted into Collective Security Treaty Organization.
Motivated by the NATO operations in the area
Collective Security Treaty Organization
A common rapid deployment force
Modernized to address contemporary security issues:
environmental security, drug trade, trafficking, organized
crime
Regional organizations in the Americas
o The character of American regionalism
o

15

There has been activity in the field since the 19 th century:

International Conferences of American States
creation of the International Union of American Republics
(Pan American Union since 1910)
creation of the Organization of American States (OAS;
1948)
The Rio Treaty
Conflicting visions: Hemispheric regionalism or sub-regional (Latin
American) regionalism?
Intergovernmental character rather than EU style supranationalism
Many talk shops, lack of effective integration
Various rationales:
Unity of the continent
Balancing against the US
Functional relations
Dynamics of American regionalism always affected by the power
and development disparity of the region
Hemispheric Regionalism
Often flowing from the US towards the Americas
Periods of interest taking turns with periods of neglect
US and its anti-communist agenda
Interventions in Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala
US hegemony strongest in the 1950s and 1960s
H. Regionalism revived with the shift of most of LA countries to
democracy
New hemispheric initiatives in the 1990s
Lost momentum after the Guantanamo and Abu Ghraib
controversies
The Organization of American States (OAS; 1948)
More active since the Cold Wars end
Features Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man
A human rights document
Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (the Rio Treaty; 1947)
Mobilized by the US to counter communist insurgencies in
Latin America
o Cuban Gov. excluded from the OAS in the 1962,
readmitted in 2009
Structure
The General Assembly
o Meets annually, or on request, composed of high
ranking national officials (ministers)
The Permanent Council
o Analogous to the UN SC
The Inter-American Council for Integral Development
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights
The Inter-American Development Bank
The OAS secretariat (located in Washington DC)
The Secretary-General (traditionally a Latin American)
Specialized agencies

16

o The Pan American Health Org.

o The Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission
o The Inter-American Commission on Women
o
dimensions
Defence: Strengthening regional peace; common action
against aggression; limiting conventional weapons
Economic: promoting cooperation
Political: Promotion of representative democracy
Social: human rights, eradication of extreme poverty
Activity
Struggle against the evil communists
Border disputes settlement (but often superseded by ad-hoc
groups)
Promotion of democracy:
o 1991: a resolution adopted binding members to
respond to a sudden interruption of the democratic
process in other countries
o Suspension of memberships for governments
originating from a coup
o 2001: Inter-American Democratic Charter right of
peoples for democracy
o Nine interventions against coups, three times acted in
the case of democracy failure
But often failed to take action
Accused of shoring up low-quality democracies
Economic development (weak)
The Summit of the Americas process (renewed in 1993)
Broad agenda
Resulted (among other things) in negotiation of an FTA
Aimed at promotion and strengthening of democracy
Failure to produce tangible results since the Bush administration
Subregional integration
Motivation:
Response to gaping disparities between the North and the
South
Checking against the US hegemony
a means of creating larger and therefore more self-sufficient
markets (tackling underdevelopment)
2 waves:
1950s, 1960s an outright failure
1990s resulted in establishment of several regimes such as
Mercosur, NAFTA, CARICOM, CAMC, Andean Community
North America
NAFTA (1994)
o A major agreement removing barriers to trade between
the US, Mexico and Canada
o Accelerated flow of people, cultures, goods and wealth

17

A unique integration process: propelled cooperation

while omitting governance structures to manage it
Minimalist organizational structure involving
several functional organs and a development
bank
South America
Mercosur
o Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay + associate
members
o Response to NAFTA and EU integration
o Overcoming of rivalries to reach a larger benefit
o Light legal framework, largely dependent on the will of
presidents of the member states
o Common market (customs union and common external
tariffs policy)
o Support of political stability of the member states
o Ambiguous success: boosted economies, but failed to
negotiate clear and strong rules
The Andean Community (1969)
o Founding members: Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, Peru,
Venezuela
o The Andean Integration System of Institutions
Andean Presidential Council
Council of Foreign Ministers
Court of Justice
Commission, Parliament
Social conventions, business and labour advisory
councils
o Common external tariffs, common policy guidelines
(1994/5)
o Common security policy (2002)
o Charter for the Promotion and Protection of Human
Rights
UNASUR
o An attempt to bridge the South American division
o The EU as a blueprint
o Championed by Chvez
o Aims to create a single market by 2019
o So far a dream
Thwarted by conflicting policies (nationalization
of industries) and animosities (Colombia x
Venezuela)
Asias regional organizations
o No pan Asian organization is in sight
Diversity, ideological polarization, competing national and
subregional identities
Historical issues: gaining to independence late, Japans conquest,
divided by the Cold War
Rivalry between Japan, the US, China
o

18

o
o

Shifts to be expected growing China and India

ASEAN, APEC, ARF, SCO
Specifics:
Asian regionalism tends to be loose, informal, without binding
commitments, with small secretariats
The initiative for regional organization comes more from the weak
and insecure states seeking mutual protection, than from the
inward looking Asian giants
Complicated IR landscape
Emerging Chinese leadership
The US engagement
Asian IGOs often seen by establishments as a tool to mutual
guarantee of support to stay in power many (semi)authoritarian
regimes concentrated in Asia
Regionalism driven by
professional groups,
business leaders,
government bodies
Regionalism propelled by
the triple shocks (e.g.
the 1997 crisis)
ASEAN
(the Association of South
East Asian Nations; 1967)
Impetuses: concern
about the outcome of war
in Vietnam, the role of the US, communist insurgencies (external
threats)
Core norms: non-intervention, peaceful settlement of disputes,
avoidance of military alliances, consultation and consensus building
(+ avoiding of disagreement, focusing on things where they agree,
laying aside things where agreement is not easy to come by) = The
ASEAN Way
No binding commitments guiding accession, two-tiered functioning,
possibility to opt-out from common activities
Structure
Dense pattern of informal and formal meetings of leading
officials
Increasingly institutionalized following various crises
Secretary-General weak, in charge of a small secretariat
Membership expansion
Originally: Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines,
Thailand
+ Brunei (1984)
India, Sri Lanka, Australia, Papua New Guinea rejected
+ Vietnam (1995)
+ Laos, Myanmar (1997)
+ Cambodia (1999)
Evolution
19

First 20 years focused on stability, peace, security

1971: Zone of Peace and Neutrality attempt to avoid getting
implicated in the Cold War
1978: Vietnam invades Cambodia the norm of nonintervention threatened
1990s: responding to globalization
o Establishment of ARF (1994)
o ASEAN Free Trade Area
o Membership in APEC
o 4 new members
o South East Asian Nuclear Weapons Free Zone (1995)
New roles
o Facilitating solution to territorial disputes
o Emergency preparedness schemes (epidemics,
catastrophes, )
o Capacity to address non-traditional threats
Economic cooperation
Regulation and reinforcement of outward aiming growth
strategy
Need to unite more: loss of FDI to China
Economic coop. thwarted by reluctance to integrate,
economic disparity
1997 crisis exposed shortcomings
Surveillance Process established: negotiation and
commenting on domestic policies of each other
ASEAN+3
Creation of AFTA (2002)
ASEAN, ASEAN+3, ASEAN+6
ASEAN+3: China, ROK, Japan
ASEAN+6: China, ROK, Japan, Australia, NZ, India
Also cooperation with the EU, Canada, US, Pakistan, Russia,
A+3 institutionalized (1999)
o Covers range of issues
o Initiated East Asian Summit (+6)
Developing ASEANs institutions
2007: ASEAN Charter
o ASEAN Community (2015)
Economic, security and socio-cultural comm.
o Legal personality
o Commitment to human rights and democracy
The ASEAN Regional Forum
First Asias multilateral security institution Cooperative security
Problem: securing cooperation of China
China concerned that neighbours would team up and
advance against Chinese interests in the case of Taiwan and
territorial disputes
China reluctant to share information about its doctrine and
deployment

20

ASEAN members originally reluctant too, then changed their

position
Spearheaded by small and middle powers
26 participants: Australia, Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam,
Cambodia, Canada, China, European Union, India, Indonesia, Japan,
Democratic Peoples' Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, Laos,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Mongolia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New
Guinea, Philippines, Russian Federation, Singapore, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Timor Leste, United States, and Vietnam
Decisionmaking based on consensus
Small secretariat founded in 2004
2 bodies: ARF-ISIS and CSCAP
ARF-ISIS a research body composed of scholars and
policymakers
CSCAP a comprehensive security research forum
Activity:
Confidence building, information sharing, regional
surveillance regimes
Settlement of disputes, denuclearization, maritime security,

Not active in the NK issue (ad-hoc Six-Party Talks instead)

The Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC; 1989)
Incubating since the 1960s, hindered by the Cold War situation
Initially supported by Japanese and Australian policymakers
open regionalism advancing regional cooperation while not
ostracizing outsiders
Structure
Ministerial meetings
Annual summits
Specialized meetings, committees and working groups
A small secretariat (based in Singapore)
Goals: ambiguous
Liberalization of trade and investment
Facilitation of trade
Economic and technical cooperation
Lacks efficiency, failed to produce tangible results
Envisioned as an economic forum, but the agenda dominated by
security issues (mirroring ARF)
Primary achievement: building trust and a sense of a region in Asia
The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO; since 1996)
Tackling security situation in Central Asia
Addressing reduction of arms, extremism, separatism,
terrorism
Reaction to US presence in Uzb., Taji., Kyrgyz.
Also functional issues: pipelines, hydropower, transportation
Annual summit meetings between: China, Russia, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan (+ India, Pakistan, Iran, Mongolia)
Marked shift from unilateralism to multilat. In China

21

Different from other multilat. arrangements in Asia: driven by great

powers
2002: formal charter and an anti-terrorist body located in
Uzbekistan

K & M Chapter 6: Non-state Actors NGOs, Networks, and

Social Movements
In: Margaret P. Karns and Karen A. Mingst (Eds.). International organizations: the politics
and processes of global governance. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2010. 2nd ed. Pp. 219 254.

Notes:

Emergence of the non-state actors as important actors of global governance

o ICBL International Treaty to Ban Landmines (1993 1999)
o OECD MAI permanently halted
Rules dealing with multilateral investment, aiding the spread of
MNCs and FDA
o Role: framing and reframing an issue discourse at hand, dissemination of
information
The dark side of non-state actors
o 9/11
o Terrorist groups and networks, the Mafia, drug traffickers, pirates,
paramilitary forces
o New technologies, decentralization, rapid adjustment of roles and
strategies
o Al-Qaida loose network of terrorist organizations committed to Islam
fundamentals
Lets define: Non-governmental organizations
o = Voluntary organizations formed by individuals to achieve a common
purpose, often oriented beyond themselves or to the public good
221
Do not possess a mandate from government, do not wish to share
gov. power
o Vary in
the width of issue areas
in terms of being local/regional/global
in sources of funding (member contributions/governments/trusts
and benefactors)
o Provide pressure on governments, services, advice and intelligence,
development assistance
o Subject to the law of the state under which they operate; may be
supported/restricted or banned/monitored and regulated
Typology
o NGO/INGO voluntary organizations formed by individuals pursuing
common purposes and/or policy positions; often active in support of public
good;
differences in position and funding:
22

GONGO = government organized; GRINGO = government

regulated; BINGO = business and industry; AGO = antigovernment; DONGO = donor dominate
NGOs by involvement
Humanitarian relief (Red Cross, Doctors Without Borders,
Oxfam)
o + development, healthcare, agriculture, reforestation,
microcredit, education
o Sometimes replace state-governed provision of public
goods (state failure) - E.g. Bangladesh, Somalia
Lack of government often filled by dark side
NGOs too
Advocacy
o Human rights, peace, disarmament, indigenous
peoples rights, labour rights, climate change,
o New ideas into policy debates, framing of issues in
public discourses,
o Share the centrality of values or principled ideas, the
belief that individuals can make a difference, the
creative use of information and employment of
sophisticated political strategies to in targeting their
campaigns
226
o Focus: human rights abuses, wildlife protection,
regulating types of human activity (weapons, pollution,
)
o Aim at making a difference: changing behaviour of
governments and IGOs, adjusting policies, changing
law
Roles
o Gather and publicize information
o Frame issues for public consumption
o Create and mobilize networks; enhance public
participation
o Advocate changes in policies and governance
o Promote new norms; monitoring
o Participate in global diplomacy
o Perform functions of governance in absence of state
authority
Transnational networks and coalitions informal and formal linkages
among NGOs and ad hoc groups on behalf of a certain issue (e.g. ICBL)
Era of communication: multi-level linkages to other organizations
across the globe
Enhances power, information transfer, reach
Equivalent of sub-contracting: INGO outsource relief delivery to
grassroots organizations; specialization among nodes (fundraising,
intelligence, provision of goods, coordination, )
Experts, Epistemic communities experts drawn from governments,
research institutes, IOs, and non-gov. community, usually gathered to
ponder about a specific issue and propose policy
23

in the complex world we live in, knowledge cannot be taken for

granted; needs to be assembled, nurtured, exchanged
formation of epistemic communities linkages between experts in
particular areas; sharing and refining of normative beliefs,
understanding causes, seeking policy solutions
scientific, environmental, health issues knowledge intensive issues
global warming, corruption,
o Foundations: non-profit organizations established for charitable or
community purposes (e.g. Wellcome Trust)
funded by individuals, families, corporations; serve public purpose
o MNCs: private actors doing business in three or more countries for profit
Important part of the global economy
States strive to regulate them; mutual influence
o Multi-stakeholder actors: Loose alliance of actors affected by or
interested in an issue or a decision
Inc. government. agencies, IGOs, NMCs, NGOs, religious groups,
individuals
Sort through conflicting perspectives, establish a communication
platform
o Social movements: Large, generally informal coalitions of mass public,
individuals and organizations aimed at social change
May form around
major social cleavages: class, religion, language and ethnicity
progressive goals: human rights, development, responsible
government
frame issues, help to forge new collective identities
o A global civil society?
Civil society = not just advocacy groups, but also communities of
professionals, labour unions, chambers of commerce, religious
groups, ethnic associations, cultural groups, sporting associations,
political parties, media,
An arena in which people engage in non-legalistic,
spontaneous, customary forms of association to pursue goals
The growth of non-state actors
o Earliest occurrences:
the Anti-Slavery campaign (1787) societies dedicated to abolition
of slavery in Pennsylvania, England, France
Peace societies in Europe (1849) origination of what later became
the Permanent Court of Arbitration
1900 425 peace societies worldwide
o 19 century
Labour unions, promotion of free trade, intergovernmental
cooperation
Functional international regimes
Red Cross (ICRC 1860s) War casualties, rights of POV, neutrality
of medical personnel
The idea of League of Nations supported by non-state actors
League to Enforce Peace, the League of Nations Society of
London

24

The UN covenant: promotion of NGOs and grassroots civil society

orgs.
Between 1930 1945, the influence of NGOs diminished; world
preoccupied with security threats
Post-war rise: 1200 NGOs participated in the San Francisco
conference (UN)
Explaining the acceleration
Since the mid-1970s an exponential growth in NGOs and other NSA
WWI, WWII human rights, peace
Globalization: Advances in communication technologies,
issues increasingly spill over into surrounding areas
everything is everyones concern
Secularization of the West; rise of democracy
relationships to IGOs
Types of NGO activities in IGOs
Consultation in regime creation and implementation
Lobbying
Surveillance of governmental activities
Involvement in international program implementation
Participation in decision-making
Socializing into and synchronizing with the global governance
regime
The UN
Nationwide NGOs granted consultative status in ECOSOC and its
agencies, roster NGOs may participate on the basis of invitation
NGO liaison office in Geneva
Access to committees in the GA 4 NGOs have privileged access
(observers):
ICRC, the Inter-parliamentary Union, International Federation
of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, the Sovereign
Military Order of Malta
Security council consultations with NGOs on certain issues (e.g. the
Great Lakes region of Africa crisis; Sudan)
The UN agencies
The UNs 19 specialized agencies provide additional access
points for NGOs
The ILO a unique tripartite system rooted in its constitution;
labour organizations are its inseparable part
UNESCO committed to consultation and cooperation with
NGOs
Many UN agencies subcontract to NGOs
Major INGOs serve in the Inter-Agency Standing Committee,
chaired by the Undersecretary-general for Humanitarian
Affairs
Many states and IGO secretariats feel intimidated by the NGO
pressure, NGOs not always welcome; rivalry among NGOs
The major economic institutions
the World Bank

NGOs
o

25

NGO
o
o
o
o
o
o

lobbied into taking into account environmental consequences

of its programmes and to adopt women-in-development
agenda
the Bank publishes working papers, contributes to
information sharing
1990s shift to civil society opening to cooperation with
NGOs
o formal and informal links to NGOs
The IMF
Somewhat less friendly towards civil society groups and
NGOs
GATT and The WTO likewise
The WTO
Symposia, regular secretariat meetings with NGOs
Relationships with the EU
Well-developed civil society culture, many influential NGOs
CSOs = civil society organizations (NGO + advocacy groups)
CSOs focus on the EC and the EP
CSOs help to make the European decision-making bodies effective
and legitimate
Open and decentralized processes, big influence of CSOs
influence and effectiveness
Almost impossible to measure, considering the vast scope and multiple
levels of interaction
No conventional power, limited resources, dependent on the use of soft
power
Gain power from credibility in information gathering, expertize, moral
authority
Possess operational flexibility compared to governments and IGOs
Possess alternative source of (democratic) legitimacy
Measuring NGOs influence
Number of NGOs
Prestige and recognition of NGOs
Effectiveness
Measuring differs in levels of operation and on whether it is
advocacy or provision
Depends on openness of government, maturity of civil society,
moral authority
Evaluation: long-term and practical in terms
Limits: fragmented agendas, failing communication, countering
interests, money
NGOs problems
NGOs are just another political actors they promote their interests
first
have a democratic deficit, are often unaccountable and not
transparent enough
emergence of the humanitarian industry competition over
resources, rent seeking
NGOs may misbehave
26

Large NGOs oligopoly; grassroots voices lacking

NSA and state sovereignty?
o Liberals: sovereignty is being compromised and challenged by the global
civil society
o Constructivists: important in norms setting, ergo critical actors; may help
to shape state interests and therefore enter international politics from
within
o Realists: not impressed.

Chapter 7: The Role of States in Global Governance

In: Margaret P. Karns and Karen A. Mingst (Eds.). International organizations: the politics
and processes of global governance. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2010. 2nd ed.

Notes:

Despite the development of multilateral regimes, states remain central actors in

global governance; the international system remains fundamentally a system of
sovereign states
States and global governance
o States relative power matters
o IGOs often favour the powerful
Power privileges (e.g. 5 permanents in the Security Council,
weighting in the WB and IMF)
Funding is a powerful leverage
o Studying global governance requires understanding of interaction between
states and other pieces of global governance
IGOs can only exist when states delegate authority to them through
agreements
o Sovereignty
Unfettered right to act
But also responsibilities: State is a servant of its people, not
otherwise
Domestic sovereignty ability to exercise control over internal
issues
Power doesnt make a state more or less sovereign
limited by international law (customary and treaty) and increasingly
by multilateral regimes
The role of the US
o A hegemon, played a central part in shaping the post-war developments
o Stimulated establishment of many IGOs
Incl. UN, IMF, WB, IAEA, NATO, WTO
o UN charter, for example, blatantly congruent with the US interests, served
as an extension of the national politics
Used to legitimate the Gulf War (1990), the Korean War (1950),
Afghanistan (the aftermath of 9/11)
o But also abstained from building certain multilateral regimes
League of Nations, proposed International Trade Organization, UN
convention on the Law of the Sea (1982), CTBT, ILO, UNESCO (19781980)
27

Other
o
o

Ambiguous approach to multilateralism

Assumed a dubious stance towards the UN, especially after the
failure of the missions in Somalia, Rwanda and Bosnia; caused its
financial crisis by withdrawing funding
Rejection of the ICC (1998), Kyoto protocol (1997), landmines ban
(1997), undermined the Geneva convention by exempting its secret
detention facilities
Failure to secure consensus on the war in Iraq (2003)
The Bush governments unilateral turn
Often bullied weaker countries into granting the US a veto power or
a proportional advantage
Undermined legitimacy of multilateral regimes, caused frustration in
allies
After 9/11, acknowledgement of the need to address certain issues
multilaterally
Championing of WTO and NATO, promoting Non-proliferation
Dynamic factors
US power in the international system
Hegemony
Exceptionalism, exemptionalism
o US norm and values regarded as unique and universal,
to be promoted elsewhere and left unconstrained in
the US
Little internalization of international norms
Domestic politics
The relation between the legislative and the executive
Domestic pressure groups, public opinion
Characteristic of the pieces of global governance
The US embraced certain regimes easier than other ones
o The financial liberalization under the orchestration of
the WTO easily accepted
o Multilateralism on the issues of economic, social and
environmental policies, however, not so much
The US has the power to act alone, but by acting unilaterally it
undermines the very multilateral system it established, the system that is
congruent with the US interests 95% of the time
261
IOs act as the chief legitimizing agents in the global politics. When
undermined, the whole international order is in jeopardy
powerful states
Permanent UN security members: US, Russia, China, GB, FR
The Soviet Union/Russia
Competing hegemonic power during the Cold war
The Warsaw pact (response to NATO)
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON
response to Marshalls plan)
Often blocked the working of the UN
Collapse in 1991
Since 1999 (Putin) expansion of multilateralism
28

OSCE, G8, partnership with NATO

A distinct regional power offering alternative economic and
military arrang.
Bypassing IGOs, undermining of multilateral regimes (e.g.
Georgia 2008)
Great Britain and France
Both continue to occupy positions of global importance
disproportionate to their size and economic resources
Major players in IMF, WB, UN, NATO
Keep nourishing their formerly colonial ties
Commonwealth, Francophonie
Britain
Key positions in ECOSOC, ICJ, ILO, WHO
France
Key positions in UNESCO, IMF, WB, IAEA
Integration of Europe
Indicated their importance by addressing the 2008 financial crisis
Rising China
Nuclear state, potentially huge economy, aid donor in Africa,
borrower from WB
Expected not to comply easily with current western leaning
international standards
In 1977 multilateral opening in China, entering UN
Still remained relatively isolated until 1980s; 1980s joining
multiple I(N)GOs
Since mid-1990s china pioneered IO in the east Asian region
APEC, ASEAN+3 forum, ASEAN FTA, Shanghai CO
2000 on rise in power and confidence
Personnel in UN peacekeeping operations
Has been supporting the contemporary international regime
when weakened
Implementation of international norms into the domestic
body of law
o Socialization into the intl community
Selective multilateralism
Human rights and labour standards
Deliberate failure to enforce certain standards (e.g.
intellectual property)
Chinese multilateralism
Multipolarism
Responsible great power
Germany and Japan
Defeated factions in the WWII
Underrepresented in the executives of IOs, but economically
important
Large financial contribution spend their way into political
decision-making
Germany

29

Strong drive towards multilateralism, supporting the

unification of Europe
Both dedicated to championing environmental issues
o India and Brazil
India + Brazil + Russia + China = BRICs growing influence in the
world economy
India
worlds largest democracy, but not a permanent member of
the UN SC
founder of the Non-Aligned Movement and the G77
large contributor to the UN, but problems with Pakistan, a
nuclear rebel
favours underdogs over the superpowers
o together with China blocked the Doha rounds
Brazil
Oil reserves
Pan-Americanism, Free trade area of the Americas
o Middle-power states
(in terms of power and size)
E.g. Canada specialized services for the UN
Nordic countries, Australia and the New Zealand,
Specialized tasks, consensus-brokering, often well-represented in
IGOs
o Small states, developing states
Coalition building, issue linkage strategies
Multilateral agreements to constrain powerful states
Can have large impact in world politics if skilled enough; at the
same time they often lack resources and expertise to participate
efficiently
State strategies
o Forum shopping:
Multiplicity of forums creates overlaps, countries choose forums
where they can expect the most favourable reception
o Coalition building
Pooling of power of the like minded
o Ad-hoc multilateralism
Usually no charter, no precise operating procedures, easily dissolve
and change
Security
Groups of states often forming group to inquire into a certain
issue and assist the UN Secretary-general in its solution
Finance
E.g. G20
Explaining state policies and state strategies
o Systemic factors
The structure of the international system and the states relative
position within it
Hegemonic theory (realist)

30

the existence or absence of international organization can be

derived from interests of dominant powers
Most of the IOs crafted in the 20th century reflect
US/European norms
Distribution of power explains a countrys ability to use range
of policies, tools and forums
Dependency theory
Dependent states locked in the periphery of the world system
Dependency is a condition, not a choice
System shocks
Can encourage experimentation and new institution building
Can also lead states to withdraw from intl commitments to
protect themselves
o Domestic politics
(liberals, constructivists)
E.g. authoritarian states shun interference into domestic issues,
ideological congruence of policies
Mobilization of civil societies
o Characteristic of the pieces of global governance
Formal/informal
Autonomous/dependent
Scope of jurisdiction; (non)binding?
May induce penalty, exert authority?
o Why do countries to give up autonomy and seek IO?
Predicament of functional division of labour and specialization
Expertize, information gathering, non-partisanship
Challenges to multilateral diplomacy
o Cultural differences
Mind-systems, modes of thought
High-context/low context
o Leadership and facilitating agreement
E.g. preference of consensus-making over voting
Power-steering agreement within a group of key states, then
extension
Leadership makes a difference favours skilled over simply
powerful

K & M Chapter 8: The Search for Peace and Security

In: Margaret P. Karns and Karen A. Mingst (Eds.). International organizations: the politics
and processes of global governance. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2010. 2nd ed. Pp. 289 385.

Notes:

Changing nature of conflicts

o Since the 1950s the nature of war changed along with meaning of
concepts of security
Changing nature of conflicts and humanitarian disasters
o Sharp decrease of interstate wars
31

increase of intra-state (civil) conflicts

Peaked between 1985 and 1995
Struggles for determination, collapse of week states
Civil wars in Rwanda, Yugoslavia, Sudan,
Long-standing conflicts, which threaten to erupt in open violence
unpredictably
Palestinians, Tamils
o Security
In the Westphalian system it meant state security = security of
borders, control of population, freedom and non-interference into
governments sovereignty
Increasing stress on human rights over sovereignty human
security
Responsibility to protect = legitimacy for an armed
intervention to protect people from violence and
consequences of a state failure
o Evolution of warfare
Weapons of mass destruction (since the WWII)
Terrorism (since 1950s)
Pieces of security governance
o Global IGOs
o Norms on the use of force
o International conventions
o Regional security organizations
o Enforcement mechanisms
o Peaceful settlement mechanisms
o Peacekeeping
o Humanitarian intervention
o Peace-building
IGOs and security
o The idea of IGOs protecting security came from the experience of WWI and
II
o The League of Nations and the UN
Based on the concept of collective security as an alternative to
balance of power
Article 51: SC may authorize the use of force and to obligate
members to undertake sanctions
Article 53: No enforcement action shall be taken under regional
arrangements or by regional agencies without the authorization of
the SC
Article 54: Regional organizations must inform about their actions
towards peace and security
SC often authorizes regional org. to undertake action; regional org.
often cooperate with UN forces
o Regional IGO venues for security
Europe: EU, NATO, OSCE, CSTO
Asia: ASEAN, ARF, SCO
Middle East: Arab League, GCC
Africa: ECOWAS, AU, SADC
Latin America: OAS
o

Sharp

32

NGOs and security

o NGOs vary by mode of functioning
Think tanks, aid other organizations by research and provision of
information (e.g. SIPRI)
Channelling policy research and advice into IGOs (e.g. IPI)
Mobilization of effective international action, crisis alert (e.g. ICG)
Norms setting and specific issue monitoring (e.g. disarmament
groups)
Humanitarian relief operations (e.g. ICRC)
Norms related to the use of force
o Outlawing war
UN charter bounds its signatories to refrain from the use of force for
dispute settlement
Use of force to annex territories is now widely accepted as
illegitimate
Use of force as self-defence is, however, an accepted principle and
legitimized the military action in the aftermath of 2001 (but it must
be proportional!)
o Promoting human security and humanitarianism
Four 1949 Geneva conventions + 2 additional protocols
International refugee law, taboo on use of nuclear, chemical and bio
weapons
The Geneva conventions
Designed to protect civilians, POWs, wounded soldiers as well
as to restrict means of warfare
Legal basis for defining war crime
International human rights law
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Intl Covenant on Political and Civil Rights
Principle of non-discrimination enshrined in the UN charter
ICCs Rome statute
Humanitarian intervention
Evolution of international human rights and norms along with
development of media led to increased demands on
preventing atrocities without regards to borders
The genocide convention (1948) grounds for UN
enforcement
But does suffering of people justify recourse to armed
invasion?
The rights to interfere
o International accountability
o But also a pretext for self-serving military intervention,
deployed selectively and achieving ambiguous ends.
o Undermined by the failure of missions in Rwanda and
Kosovo
o ICISS (2001) criteria for military intervention: right
authority, just cause, right intention, last resort,
proportional means, reasonable prospects
o R2P issues
33

Who may authorize intervention? Just the UN

SC?
Humanitarian intervention rejected by the G77
and the Non-aligned Movement
Gender now as part of human rights but idea
of rights of genders not shared over the board
Mechanism for the peaceful settlement of disputes
o Hague Conferences 1899 and 1908 Conventions for the Pacific
Settlement of Intl Disputes: Foundations of the mechanisms still in use
today
Acknowledgement of dead-end streets need for mediation
International communitys stake in preventing war
o Preventive diplomacy
Intended to change the calculus of the involved parties and steer
the situation towards peaceful settlement
Studies suggest that it is possible to prevent conflicts from spinning
out of control
Therefore need for timely alert system (the UN + cooperating
bodies)
The rising prevalence of culture of prevention
o Mediation
May work only in situation of ripeness = all parties see their cost in
case of a conflict high enough to seek for alternatives
Mediators: States, IGOs, NGOs, individuals + multiparty mediations
Roles: organizer, educator, risk-taker, catalyst for change,
conciliator, policymaker, discipliner (mediator with muscle)
Distinct role of ad-hoc mediators and regional organizations
Central role of the UN Secretary-general
o Adjudication and arbitration
Impartial third-party tribunals
Finding the basis for settlement in the international law rather than
in political negotiation and diplomacy
The Hague peace conference Permanent Court of Arbitration
Famous arbitrations: Argentina x Chile (Vatican), Israel x Egypt
(Taba), Etiopia x Eritrea (PCA)
But: issues may be deemed as inherently political and therefore
inappropriate for arbitration by one or more sides
Important case: The US x Nicaragua the US contested the ICJs
arbitration, withdrew from compulsory jurisdiction, contested its
right to judge issues in the Americas. ICJ overruled and constituted
a moral victory for Nicaragua
Territorial and maritime disputes
Collective security, enforcement and sanctions
o The notion of collective security relies on the idea that peace is indivisible,
and that aggression may be deterred by international organizations and
pacts between nations
o League of Nations already laid down the grounds for enforcing collective
security, but failed to respond to Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931)
and Italians in Ethiopia (1935).

34

UN Charter provides legal means for collective security, but restricted

during the Cold War
Chapter VII provides the SC with the option to authorize the use of
force
Opportunities to invoke the Chapter VII expanded with the evolution
of security threats
o Collective security efforts involving armed force
Korea; The Gulf War; Bosnia and Kosovo; Afghanistan; Anti-piracy
enforcement
o Enforcement and sanctions
International forums enhanced opportunities to negotiate
sanctions
Growing use since the end of the cold war
Used in 15 situations (1990 2001); 14 involved intra-state
conflict, 4 terrorism, 3 proliferation
Often also unilateral sanctions by the US embargoes
Cheap and effective, if comprehensive
Flat or targeted
Lifted when change of behaviour occurs, often accompanied
by a restructuring plan; inducements for step-by-step
development in the desired direction
BUT: May trigger humanitarian crises (such as in Iraq in the 1990s),
may bring about state failure, may bolster the popularity of
sanctioned leaders
Unsuitable in cases of failed states and armed factions. Unlikely to
work unless it directly affects the leaders. Hence smart sanctions
(Iraq 2002) targeting elites, alleviating the consequences of
sanctions on civilians
Requires intelligence to identify flows of goods and capital; success
depends on its comprehensibility and monitoring
Large-scale use of sanctions in the war on terrorism
Difficult to evaluate effectiveness of sanctions
Peace operations
o Function: to maintain cease-fire agreements, to stabilize conflict
situations, to create an environment conductive for a peaceful settlement,
to help to implement peace agreements, to protect civilians
o Enforcement/peacekeeping
Chapter VI and a half of the UN Charter
Traditional peacekeeping/multidimensional
peacekeeping/peacebuilding
Peacekeeping: impartiality, military force as a last resort
But, in contemporary inter-state conflicts it is often
impossible to secure consent of the warring factions, and
there is often no peace to monitor
Therefore nowadays both chapters VI (peaceful resolution)
and VII (intervention) are invoked
Advantage of peacekeeping: no one is being identified as the
aggressor
o Organizing peacekeeping operations
o

35

UN dept. of peacekeeping operations (DPKO)

UN SG appoints a force commander and top officers
Size of operation varies from small to major
Realization relies on voluntary contribution of military and
supporting personnel
Middle powers preferred, especially in the context of the Cold
War
In early 2009 the UN had more than 90 000 deployed all over the
world
Traditional peacekeeping
First used in the 1950 in Israel, still invaluable in the Middle East
Mostly deployed in the context of inter-state conflicts
Requires consent of the host state, which can be withdrawn
Complex, multidimensional peacekeeping
Intrastate conflicts, often accompanied with humanitarian crises
Military, police and civilian components laying foundations of
sustainable peace
Involvement of other bodies and NGOs
Repatriation of refugees, organizing elections, monitoring
disarmament, disabling landmines,
Peace-building
Namibia the stress-test of peacebuilding. Administration of
emancipation of Namibia from occupation by South Africa
Cambodia (1993) Peacekeeping and total reconstruction of
institutions of governance by the UN. The whole country
administered for a period of 18 months
Former Yugoslavia (1991 1996) Chapter VII invoked for the first
time along with a peacekeeping mission, marking the beginning of
the ambiguity of peace-making and enforcement
DRC Africas First world war. Messy situation, little political will,
danger of Somalia repeating itself, country levitating on the brink
of a state failure, Deployment of EU rapid reaction force
Is it better to undertake a weak and insufficient operation or
none at all?
Kosovo and East Timor

K & M Chapter 9: Promoting Human Development

In: Margaret P. Karns and Karen A. Mingst (Eds.). International organizations: the politics
and processes of global governance. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2010. 2nd ed. Pp. 387 446.

Notes:

Case study: Economic globalization in Africa

o Africa experienced a huge progress in alleviating poverty (50% 26% of
popul.)
o Aid, Millennium Development Goals
o Economic growth: 1997 2002 4.1%, since 2003 over 6%
o Much of African debt forgiven, FDI from Asia
36

$53bn in private capital investment (of $6,4tn)

The amount of FDI surpassed foreign aid
African Union taking lead, developmental initiatives from the inside
NEPAD New Partnership for Africas development the first
substantial self-help plan, initiated by the G8
o The 2008 Economic crisis: Africa less involved in the global economy, but
fragile
An evolving global economy: We live in a very different world today than in the
1945
o 1945 50 sovereign states, colonies; competing modes of governance
connected to ideologies; tariffs, barriers to trade; mercantilism, statist
economic management; underdeveloped IO, missing mechanisms of
support and cooperation
o 2010s 192 sovereign states; complex interdependence, global markets;
influential TNAs; liberal market capitalism unchallenged; IOs promoting
peace and development
o Big challenge: benefits of global development distributed unequally
The globalization of liberal economic norms
o Liberal economic norms
Going back to Adam Smith: self-interested individuals generating
market through their composite behaviour, competition ensures
regulation of prices, individual consume on markets and enhance
their wellbeing; government provides security and stability
At the intl level: unhindered flow of capital, development for all,
interdependence guarantees peace
o But:
Unequal distribution of gains
Difficulties in construction of liberal markets; masses of losers
States failing at designing foundations for development
o Bretton Woods institutions: Washington consensus and beyond
WB: integration of war-damaged economies; provision of capital
IMF: short-term loans to compensate for balance shortages
GATT-cum-WTO: facilitation of growth through establishment of
trading regimes with low barriers
Washington Consensus Liberal economic ideology originating in
the 1990s
Cornerstones:
o Growth through public expenditure education, health,
infrastr.
o Fiscal discipline; privatization; small state
o Liberalization of trade and FDI
o MNCs
the vanguard of the liberal world order
392
Spread technologies, open markets, create jobs, provide capital,
fuel industrialization
Facilitate globalization through internationalizing production and
consumption
[See Davidson for extensive discussion]
o
o
o

37

Critics of liberal economic norms

UN ECLA (Economic Commission for Latin America) in the 50s:
Latecomers will be forever mired in dependency
UNCTAD + NIEO (1960s + 1970s) Group 77
G77 challenges the liberal order
Declaration of the Establishment of a New International
Economic Order + Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of
States (1974)
1975: confrontation of the north and the south
Changes sought by the G77
Intl trade stabilization of prices of vital export items
Greater authority over resource exploitation in the developing
countries
Improved means of technology transfer
Increased foreign aid + less strings attached
Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) applied in GATT
o Half successful (only in terms of prices stabilization
really)
Debt relief
Restructuring of intl financial inst. realignment of voting
shares
o Half successful minor realignments: increased share
for China, Mexico, ROK, Turkey
o BRICs + BRICSAM call for more changes
Liberal status quo persisted, UNCTAD pacified
Statist mercantilists
Insistence on state sovereignty; state-building
National self-sufficiency, product substitution, tariffs as vital
tools of economic policy
E.g. Taiwan, Park Chung-Hees Korea
Growth with human face
Adjustment of criteria: not just growth, but also happiness,
mortality, life expectancy, equality, education, environmental
standards
State security security of individuals
Pieces of global economic governance
o Development and finance: The WB and IMF
Dedicated to reducing barriers in trade to enhance development
The World Bank
Primary task: to facilitate restructuralization in the post-war
Europe
o Financed largely by the US through the ERP
50s: proposing major development projects, funding through
loans
o Complement to private capital: funding key projects
that private banks would not be interested in
(education, infrastructure, government restructuring)
Subsidiary groups
o IFC (the International Finance Corporation)
o

38

Loans to promote growth of private enterprises

in developing countries (1-100m, up to 20% of
est. costs)
o MIGA (the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency)
Insurance of investments against losses
stemming from expropriation, civil war, etc.
o IDA (International Development Association)
No-interest soft loans to 80 very poor countries
$182m of cumulative lending a very large body
Countries lose eligibility as they mature ($1000
GDP PP)
o ICSID (International Center for Settlement of
Investment Disputes)
Activities of the WB often combined with multilateral aid and
the assistance of the non-gov. and private sector
Shifts in strategies
o 1950s, 60s: large infrastructure projects
o 1970s: basic needs housing, education, healthcare
o 1980s: private sector involvement; support of
marginalized populations and the environment
o 1990s: good governance
o Trends Shift towards:
private sector as the bearer of growth
good governance as the precondition for growth;
increasingly addresses political issues
International Monetary Fund
Originally established to maintain short-term loans to help
countries unable to balance the books
Expanded its scope to balance shocks (conflicts, disasters,
shortages), help to consolidate debt
Maintains stability of currencies and its convertibility
Structural adjustment programs:
o helping states with chronic indebtedness and inability
to cover expenditures to restructure bailouts +
assistance
o inflation regulating measures
o proposing economic reforms; designing trade
liberalization; reforming government
surveillance and consulting crisis anticipation
Economic support
o played a large role in the 1990s transition of Eastern
European states
later supported the countries during their
financial crises
Russia received $11bn
o Active in the 1997-98 AFC
Indonesia $36bn, ROK $58bn, Thailand $17bn
Imposed liberal economic solutions
Public backslash

The

39

Misjudgement, especially Indonesia

suffered

Criticism
o Lack of transparency in negotiation
o Misjudgement in imposing liberal economic solutions
despite their inapplicability
o Excessive mingling with economic processes
IMF and WB and debt in poor countries
HIPC Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative
Providing 41 countries unable to manage their debts
opportunity to reschedule conditions or cancel debt
MDRI Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (2005)
Initiated by the G8
Debt cancelled for 14 very poor countries
Collaboration with NGOs
1990s pressure on the institutions to open up and become
accountable
In 1990 NGOs involved in 20% of projects. In 2007 70%.
Monitoring activities, whistleblowing, consultation, cooperative
execution of projects
WB more open than the IMF
Criticism of the Bretton Woods institutions
Accused of being a tool of great powers
Because of its weighted system of voting
The institutions refused funding of the enemies of the USA
during the Cold War
Technocratic rationality
Clubby elitist culture
Concerns over effectiveness of policies and functions
Calls for new architecture of global economic governance
The UNs approach to economic development
Normative function
GA providing general direction and supervision for economic
activities
o E.g. defining sustainable development
Operational function
Creating a series of regional commissions to decentralize
planning and programs
o 5 regional commissions producing information on
possibilities of stimulating growth in their respective
areas
Making a commitment to technical assistance and training
programs
o people, skills and technologies
o grants, not loans
UN Development Programme (UNDP) Est. 1965
o Less significant than Bretton W. institutions, declining
funds
The UN important in:
40

Setting norms regarding dimensions of sustainable

development
o Setting standards for statistical measurement,
disseminating info.
Partnerships and the Millennium Dev. Goals
Private sector recognizes that poverty and underdevelopment
is bad for business
MDG
409
o Goals:
Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Achieve universal primary education
Promote gender equality
Reduce child mortality
Improve maternal health
Combat HIV, malaria, other diseases
Ensure environmental sustainability
Develop global partnership for development
o Bilateral Aid
OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC)
Record 107bn redistributed
Bilateral aid often connected to political considerations, strategic
concessions often required, which decreases the value of aid
Trade: From GATT to WTO
o How does WTO relate to human development? Trade is a large factor in
global wealth
o Central principles of WTO
Non-discrimination
Most-favoured-nation treatment/national treatment: articles
shall not be discriminated according to their country of origin
o MFN means that every time a country lowers a trade
barrier or opens up a market, it has to do so for the
same goods or services from all its trading partners
whether rich or poor, weak or strong
Reciprocity changes in policies are equivalent, protection through
tariffs only (quota not possible)
Transparency trade regulations must be analysed by countries and
published
Safety valves protection against sudden drops in prices/protection
of key sectors (security, health) from shortages
Enforcement of obligations disputes settled through WTO
o GATT
Not a formal organization rather a forum
Decisions adopted bilaterally, then multilateralized
1960s-1970s GATT concerned with reducing trade barriers (mainly
tariffs and subsidies)
The Tokyo round: better treatment for LDC; large leap forward
in elimination of subsidies and rules creating non-tariff
barriers
The 8th round of Uruguay talks: the conception of the WTO
o

41

WTO

WTO

Very comprehensive treatment regarding various articles,

services, intellectual property rights, agriculture and textiles
+ another reduction of tariffs (39% on average)
(est. 1995)
A formal organization
Embraced GATT + comprehensive legal framework, TRIPs and GATS
Governance innovations
Ministerial Conference composed of government members
(trade ministers or equal); meets once in two years
Equal voting system - One member one vote
o Unlike the IMF or WB
o Decision-making done by consensus; excl. non-present
and abstaining representatives
o But relative power matters
Strong states have easier access to dispute
settlement mechanism
Strong states may go forum shopping
Weak states may be unable to enforce sanctions
States create networks (eg. G20)
Small secretariat (in Geneva)
o Limited powers the WTOs agency rests with member
states, strong secretariat would be perceived
illegitimate in such a political issue as intl trade
o Director-General rather a broker
Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM)
o Purpose: to promote understanding of the provisions of
the EA among members
o Assesses activities of the members and the WTO itself
with regard to intl trade
Dispute Settlement Unit (Dispute Settlement Body - DSB)
o Appellate Body
An organ composed of 7 members; decision
delivered within 60 90 days
Its decisions have to be approved by DSB
o Used frequently; most often EU/US against somebody
else or against each other
o Helped to settle a US/EU dispute about hormonally
enhanced beef and Corporation exporter tax
policy areas
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
Designed to protect intellectual property
Supported by powerful MNCs interested in harmonisation
and raising of standards
Cooperation with WIPO
o WIPO lacks enforcement system, so the relevant
stakeholders pursued inclusion of intellectual property
protection into the WTO
Especially heated discussion in terms of medical patents
Trade in services (GATS)
42

Expanding the global trade system

The Doha rounds failed over the perception of unfairness
2001-now, collapsed in 2008, attempts to restore since then
Contentious issue of trade barriers in agriculture the global
North failed to produce substantial concessions
Not much economic benefit was lost, but it set the
consolidation of the world trading regime backwards
Chinese accession (2001)
Complex sheer size of economy, still in the midst of
transition
China had to open banking, telecommunications and other
sectors
Inflow of FDI
China had to develop a complex network of institutions to
facilitate the transition to the WTO trading regime
China still struggles with maintaining the conditions,
particularly in the intellectual rights are a problem
Vietnams accession (2007)
Relatively comprehensive adoption of the conditions
Drastic and rapid reduction of tariffs and other barriers to
trade
Made Vietnam economically vulnerable in the short run,
hopefully stronger in the long run
Russian disinterest
Russia negotiated accession for 16 years
When confronted with threats regarding the war with Georgia
(2009) Russia stated that it no longer seeks membership
o Criticism of the WTO
Seen as the epitome of economic globalization
Usurping state sovereignty, domestic interests, favouring
MNCs
Anti-globalization NGOs critique of lack of transparency
Undermining the application of labour and environmental standards
o The WTO, along with the WB and IMF remains a cornerstone of the world
liberal order
Macroeconomic policy coordination: the role of the G7
o G7 Italy, France, UK, Germany, US, Japan, Canada (+ Russia)
o Self-appointed leaders; the club of the rich
o Began in 1975 initiated by a French president
Ad-hoc summits, later institutionalized
Expanded into ministerial meetings, very intensive cooperation
o Role of the G7
Economic vision-making
Addressing crises
Proposing remedies for the worlds problems
Joblessness, consequences of globalization, transnational
crime and terrorism, financial panic, debt relief, world poverty
The G7 proved to be ill-disposed to handle the 2008 FC, gradually
being replaced by G20
o

43

Need to consult emerging players, government and non-gov.

o Expert groups
Financial Stability Forum
Response to the 1997 AFC
Composed of representatives of the WB, IMF, international
banks, central banks, the Bank of International Settlements
Purpose: disseminating the best practices worldwide =
strengthening and installing Western international financial
codes and standards globally
Financial codes governing the practices of the OECD, the
International Accounting Standards Board, banking
supervision (e.g. the Basel committee), the Financial Action
Task Force
Functional regimes in transportation
o Lubricate the global trading regime
o International shipping and air transport
95% of the articles being shipped (2/3rds in price)
o Shipping
Most important norms considering shipping date to the 19c.
Freedom of the high seas
Innocent passage through territorial waters
The International Maritime Organization (IMO)
A UN specialized agency designed to facilitate technical
cooperation in shipping
Committees approve technical standards (E.g. pollution,
safety, )
The International Maritime Bureau (IMB)
Private organization facilitating exchange of information
between governments and shipping companies
o Air transport
Countries give consent to usage of airspace
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
A UN agency (1945)
The International Association of Transport Airlines (IATA)
Created by airlines (1945)
The US plays a hegemonic role in setting aviation standards
Together create regime which contribute to reduction of barriers in
international transfer of persons and cargo
Intergovernmental resource cartels
o OPEC
Founded by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela
Controls estimated 2/3 of worlds oil
Original purpose: to regulate the workings of oil companies in their
territories, stabilization of prices
Political use of the monopoly to pressure other governments (e.g.
punishing support for Israel)
Challenge to the liberal world order (particularly from the
NIEO)
Undermined by the non-participation of Russia
44

Other cartels proved to be far less successful as there always are

substitutes, which leads price elasticity
o Private governance
Self-regulating mechanisms
Various motivations (e.g. fear of government regulation,
pressure from shareholders, ethical considerations)
Rating agencies
Production cartels and alliances (e.g. diamonds)
The regionalization of economic governance
o Proliferation of regional pieces of governance
NAFTA
AFTA (ASEAN Free Trade A.)
The EU
APEC, Mercosur
o Boost in preferential trade agreements as the Doha rounds came to a stall
Is it a stepping stone or a stumbling block to global trade
arrangements?
Reduce complexity of negotiations, enhance competitiveness for
selected domestic industries, liberalize (even though bilaterally)
But also allows stronger actors to force-open markets for their
goods and diminish will for maintaining freer global trade
o The EUs single market
1958 1968 attempt to cut down tariffs and dismantle import
restrictions; establishing common external tariffs and agriculture
policy (among the initial 6 members)
1970s 1980s enlargement of membership, key institutional
changes
Single market coming to existence with the Single European Act
An amendment to the Treaty of Rome
Free movement of goods, capital and persons (although some
restrictions initially placed on Eastern Europe)
Difficult process: removing barriers and harmonizing trade
Remaining effective barriers to trade:
o health standards and regulations
o domestic companies given preference in government
contracts
o longstanding monopolies
Agriculture as a problem
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) extremely complicated
Most of the budget goes to handling surpluses
In 2007 the EU paid EUR 43bn to subsidize 13m farmers
429
Agriculture does not function on the free trade basis
o Production is subsidised, prices artificially held on a
high level, surpluses are unsuitable for export,
surpluses bought out for set prices
CAP as it is now is unsustainable, reform planned
Moving to monetary integration
1979 1992 - weak monetary institutions

45

The European Monetary System a structure for

financial policy coordination
o The European Currency Unit a means of settling
accounts
o The Exchange Rate Mechanism providing fixed bands
of currency exchange
The Maastricht Treaty (1992)
o Provision for founding the European Monetary Union
o Individual states no longer make individual decisions
on currency policies
o The euro
o High level of institutionalization
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
431
Substantially differs from the EU system a free trade area, not a
common market
Served north American MNCs allowed them to move production to
Mexico and to build up large conglomerates
The Treaty of Rome (1994) the US, Canada, Mexico
Has extensive provisions intended to avoid conflicting
interpretations in the absence of governing institutions
highly legalized
Dealing with trade in goods and services, financial services,
investment, intellectual property rights, technical barriers,
sanitary measures, safeguards and disputes
o Social, political and security dimensions are absent
Just one institution: the Free Trade Commission
Oversees the implementation of the agreement,
recommends, settles disp.
Purpose: to eliminate tariffs and quotas, spur investment
Success: trade in goods and services tripled in 1992-2007
(1bn)
But evaluation of economic consequences is difficult as there
are many interfering variables
Controversies:
Loss of jobs and wage standards in the US
Companies dodge US environmental regulation by relocating
to Mexico
Mexicos agricultural sector suffered by the US imports
Causes concentration of certain production in the most
advantageous region, the art is lost in other areas cultural
impoverishment
The ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA)
Purpose: to eliminate tariffs and quotas, spur investment
In 2008 tariffs were reduced to 0-5% in 99% of trade
commodities, by 2012 abolished altogether (except for staple
food products)
But neither it boosted intraregional trade nor it attracted
investment so far
o

46

Problems to integration: vast cultural differences, troubled

histories
China would like to join AFTA
ASEAN crafted numerous preferential trade agreements with outside
parties
E.g. Australia, New Zealand, India
Regional multilateral development banks
Reason: dissatisfaction with the working of the WB
Purpose: to promote regional integration and spur development
while being more sensitive to regional needs and specifics
The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB, 1959)
Specialized in social sector lending (providing microloans
etc.)
Recently adopted a broader approach to development (like
the WB)
o = improvement of governance, promotion of
democracy
Consists of separate agencies which facilitate lending
Has capital base of USD 101bn and lends 7-9bn annually
Well connected to the civil society sector, praised for being
sensitive to local needs, reasonably flexible and transparent
The IBD closely connected to governments, the US holds 1/3
of the voting power; China is a member
The Asian Development Bank (ADB, 1966)
5 core areas of operation: infrastructure, environment (+
climate change), regional cooperation, financial sector
development, education
Involved in energy, investment, transport, and water resource
managem.
2 major shareholders: Japan and the US
The African Development Bank (AfDB, 1966)
53 African nations + 25 non-regional members
Shift from unconditional project funding to regulated sector
development programmes
Major revamp in 2002 renewed emphasis on poverty
reduction, increased emphasis on social and infrastructure
development
The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD,
1991) 436
Purpose: to aid transition of the non-market economies
mainly in Eastern Europe to market systems (27 states)
Allocation of EUR 25m on average
Monitors enterprise restructuring and establishment of
appropriate legal frameworks
Distinguishing features
o Imposes political criteria: multiparty democracy and
pluralism, capitalism

47

Promotion of environmentally sound and sustainable

dev.
o Transparency
o As countries graduate, they no longer require support.
Future of the EBRD?
Critics of the liberal economic system and its governance
o Criticism coming traditionally from developing countries
o The UNCTAD as a forum
o Rooted in Marxism and dependency theory
o Challenges from mass social movements
Jubilee 2000: advocating revocation of global debt to overcome
injustice
Problem: debt made by oppressive dictators and governments
(odious debt)
See: Burkina Fasos former president Sankaras speech on debt
Protests against intl financial institutions and G7/8
o Approach to MNCs
Problem: insufficient regulation of NMCs
Seeking to provide developing countries with an international code
of conduct throughout the 1970s and 1980s failure
The OECD
MNC encouraged to operate, but restricted by local rules
Dispute settlement mainly through WBs International Centre
for Settlement of Investment Disputes
Combating bribery
The Global Compact on Corporate Responsibility
Championed by Kofi Annan
A network of about 5000 entities designed to share intel. on
how to tackle the challenges of corporate responsibility
9 principles (abolishment of child labour, discrimination,
respect for intl law, etc.)
Criticism
o No compliance mechanism
o Companies can cherry-pick and boast with compliance
with some non-problematic principles while refusing
others
Case study: the global financial crisis and the need for economic reform
o Periodic crises occur a characteristic of the liberal capitalist system
o The 2008 crisis
Originating in the US: imbalance of equity, highly leveraged new
financial instruments (derivatives), trade (and liquidity) imbalance
with regard to China and oil exporters.
Subprime mortgage market began to crumble, crisis spilling all over
the world
Response: Unilateral bank and industry bailouts; Central banks
engaged in currency swaps (?)
Insufficient credit quashing investment and consumption; shrinkage
Eastern European countries virtually collapsed in consequence of
rapid withdrawal of foreign investment
o

48

Developing countries faced with the prospect of reversal of

globalization-driven growth
Stimulus packages adopted by governments, short-term liquidity
facilities created
International financial institutions failing?
Early warnings missed
Inability to impose regulation on financial markets (creating
bubbles)
Call for reform
China has to be given more substantial role in the global financial
governance; it holds on to USD 2tn, which could be recycled through
the IMF in order to maintain stability
IMF surveillance and risk assessment
strengthening of intergovernmental and quasi-private regulatory
arrangements
G7 G20
Dollar should be replaced as a reserve currency
Better corporate governance and transparency
Control of globalization, stronger global governance

K & M Chapter 10: Protecting Human Rights

In: Margaret P. Karns and Karen A. Mingst (Eds.). International organizations: the politics
and processes of global governance. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2010. 2nd ed. Pp. 447 496.

Notes:

The idea of human rights is of a relatively new origin

Case study: childrens rights issue
o 1989 Convention of the Rights of the Child (CRC)
193 states ratified (excl. the US)
Implementation fraught with problems resuming existence of
child soldiers
o Childrens rights in the UN
IGOs and NGOs brought the issue of child soldiers to the UN
S-G Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1992 1996) appointed Graa Machel to
investigate, first comprehensive study UN Special Representative
for Children in Armed Conflict
NGOs such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International
advocated and monitored ban on employing soldiers under 18 and
facilitated rehabilitation
In 2000 introduction of Optional Protocol (ratified by 121 countries)
Monitoring through state-based systems elicits information from
states, enables conformity with the norm
Involvement of the ICC, African warlords wanted
Issue adopted by UNICEF, expanded its scope towards caring for
childrens rights broadly
The roots of humanitarian and human rights norms

49

The idea of human rights = every person by the virtue of being human is
endowed with social, civil and political rights, and must be granted
freedom and dignity
o HR concept has an expression in every religious and cultural tradition
known to man, but relative importance of principles varies
o First generation: Magna Charta 1215; The French Declaration on the
Rights of Man 1789; the US Bill of Rights 1791 essential liberal rights and
freedoms
o Second generation: Social rights, cultural rights, economic rights
o Third generation: Specific rights
children, animals, disabled, refugees, migrant workers,
right to political participation; right to democracy
o Universalism/relativism?
Western/Muslim tradition conflict in terms of relative weight of
individual freedom and collective existence
Position of women?
Relativism often asserted by totalitarian governments that do not
find principles of human rights convenient for their cause
Human rights institutions and mechanisms
o NGOs and movements
History
Anti-slavery groups in the late 18th century
Red Cross 1860s
WWI, WWII relief organizations; CARE, Oxfam
1970s: Human Rights Watch, The Mothers of the Plaza de
Mayo, National Endowment for Democracy
Functions and roles: educating the public, gathering and
disseminating information, doing research, drafting conventions,
monitoring, naming & shaming, mobilization, operational tasks
o The League of Nations
Covenant lacking proper mention of human rights, mostly because
most of the founding nations wouldnt qualify themselves
Establishment of the norm that territories may not be annexed
following wars, move towards emancipation of nations
Study of slavery Intl Convention on the Abolition of Slavery and
the Slave Trade (1926) ground-breaking, but weak in terms of
enforcement
Declaration on the Rights of the Child (1926)
ILO rights of workers, ILO later provided grounds for HR discussion
within the UN
o The UN
The preamble reaffirms the faith in fundamental human rights, in
the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of
men and women and of nations large and small
457
Provisions do not define human rights though open to
interpretation
International obligation towards human rights vs. the principle of
non-interference
o

50

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (passed by the UN GA in

1948)
ECOSOC
The commission on the Status of Women
The Sub-commission on the Protection and Promotion of
Human Rights
The Commission on Human Rights (until 2006)
o Major UN hub for negotiation and drafting of human
rights conventions
o Even though largely accepted as impartial, it was often
criticised for focusing on some violators while
neglecting others
o Countries with abysmal human rights record often
present in the board
Human Rights Council (replaced the Commission on Human Rights
in 2006)
Reports directly to the GA
47 members elected for 3 years
Responds to complaints, appoints working groups
UN HCHR (high commissioner, reports to the Secretary-general)
International advocate of human rights
Responsible for agenda-settings in the UN, promotion,
coordination, distribution of information
Dependent on voluntary contribution to compile its budget
The GA by virtue of being the central decision-making body also
contributes to the HR debate (e.g. the South-African apartheid,
Palestine issue, )
Constitution of ad-hoc tribunals
Inclusion of HR concerns in peace-making efforts
The Security Council blocked from addressing HR issues, the ICJ
avoids it
Processes of human rights governance the global HR governance
o Standards and norms setting
The prominent role of NGOs
The UN defines and elaborates what constitutes human rights
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights; International Covenant on Civil and Political rights
Drafted in 1950s, approved in 1966, operative since 1976
Regional HR standards
Relative importance varies
EU as the leading faction in terms of establishment of HR
procedures
o European Convention on Human Right and
Fundamental Freedoms (1953, revised in 1996, ratified
by all 47 members of Council of E.)
Inter-American HR regime - Organization of American States:
Inter-American Convention on Human Rights
The African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights (1981)
o Stress on collectivism, ethnic determination

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Asia: ASEAN Charter; ASEAN Human Rights Mechanism

Monitoring Human Rights
The UN
ILO first to establish monitoring mechanisms set a
precedent
ECOSOC commissions appoint working groups
Various treaties assume monitoring responsibilities
HR monitoring often attached to peace-keeping missions
Increased since the 1990s, but still limited in its impact
o Impossible to enforce conformity with norms against
strong actors
Regional
The European Commission on Human Rights; European Court
of Human Rights (ECHR).
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights; Inter-American
Court on Human Rights usually deals with intimidation of
political opponents
NGOs
Amnesty International (1961)
o Won Nobel Peace Prize (1970)
o Moved into cross-national issues in the 1970s
o Focused on states such as China, the US, Russia,
Indonesia
o Funded through mass membership
Human Rights Watch (1978)
o Originally Helsinki Watch monitoring compliance with
the Helsinki accords support of East European
dissidents + Americas Watch
o Supported the creation of ad-hoc tribunals within the
UN
o Relies on benefactors
International Commission of Jurists; the Lawrence Committee
for HR
Promoting human rights
The UN
Promotion of democracy along with state-building assistance
and peace-keeping
NGOs
Provide education, raise awareness, pushes HR to curricula
Regional organization
Training programs for judges, policemen,
Enforcing human rights
National courts e.g. Pinochet
Coercive measures
Sanctions
o ending the practice of apartheid in SA
o but failing to tackle the Tiananmen square massacre
UN enforcement

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Security Council may reign in when infringement of

human rights is seen as a threat to international peace
o Bosnia/Kosovo, Darfur, Rwanda, Somalia, DRC
Ad-hoc war crimes tribunals
o 1990s: Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Cambodia, Sierra Leone
The ICC (the Rome statute 2002)
o Compulsory jurisdiction, jurisdiction against individual
o Anyone can bring up a case
o But challenged by missing states, mainly the US
Hybrid courts
o Combine national and international procedures
o Sierra Leone, Iraq, Cambodia (Khmer Rouge)
NGOs boycott and dissemination of information, provision of
funds
o

K & M Chapter 11: Protecting the environment

In: Margaret P. Karns and Karen A. Mingst (Eds.). International organizations: the politics
and processes of global governance. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2010. 2nd ed. Pp. 497534.

Notes:

Case study: Global Warming

o In 1992 more 100 countries acknowledged the existence of human-driven
global warming and the need to act Global warming is an indisputable
fact
o Kyoto protocol expires in 2012; talks on its renewal run from 2007
There is consensus that the successor agreement should regulate
also India and China, who were formerly freed from having to
respect restrictions and limits
The US (missing from the original agreement) must join if the
successor agreement is to have any value (US currently produces
twice as much greenhouse gasses than an average EU country)
o The global warming issue is an instance where the need for multilevel
global governance is urgently needed
Relating environmental problems to security, economics and human rights
o Global warming changes functioning of ecosystems, have impacts on
agricultural production
Activity of people on one side of the globe burdens people on the
other side with serious and tangible externalities
o Effects of global warming constitute serious threat for human security. As
resources get scarcer, violent competition over essential resources
threatens to erupt
Competition over non-renewable resources already sparked war on
several occasions in the history
Oil wars
Access to water Israel x Jordan
The struggle for diminishing essential resources can and will cause
instability of and changes in the current world order
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Environmental issues are not merely environmental have far ranging

economic, human rights, and security implications
Emergence of the environment as an issue area
o Only in the 1960s
o Emerged thanks to:
Better understanding of how the environment works and means to
verify environmental degradation (i.e. science)
Rise of the environment-oriented civil society
+ especially grave industrial catastrophes
+ rising perception of the planet as one single entity (seeing the
planet from space)
o Sparked debate: the tragedy of the global commons
How to manage the commons? How to share responsibility? How to
prevent over-exploitation?
The pieces of global environmental governance
o The UN sponsored conferences have played a key role in the evolution of
the global environmental governance
The Stockholm conference (1972)
(Preceded by the First international conference on the env.
1968 (UNESCO))
The UN Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE) +
parallel NGO forum
Initiated the environmental debate
Planted the concern over the environment into the popular
consciousness
Problem: LDCs concerned over the deceleration of the
economic growth. Environmental damage considered to be a
problem caused by rich countries and therefore to be
attended to by rich countries
The Stockholm Declaration
o Soft-law statement
o 23 principles binding states to attend to the problem
o Call for creation of a new UN environment programme
The World Commission on Environment and Development: Our
Common Future
Coined the idea of sustainable development (development
that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs)
The South cannot develop the same way the North did,
because humanity would not survive that
The Rio Conference (1992)
Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro
Convened in the aftermath of scientists publishing series of
articles stating the discovery of the ozone hole, depletion of
fisheries and loss of biodiversity
Accomplishments:
o Integration of environmental and development policies
(and gradual greening of the WB projects)
o Establishing Direct NGO participation
o

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Tackled the issue of common responsibility vs. national

sovereignty
o Creation of the Commission on Sustainable
Development (1993)
Several conferences followed that reinforced the sustainable
development discourse
The Johannesburg Summit (2002)
The UN World Summit on Sustainable Development (Rio Plus
10)
Problems:
o The South representatives arrived only to lobby for
more aid
o The US was quite uncommitted to taking significant
steps
o There was disillusionment with the notion of
sustainable development many concerned only about
the latter part
Outcome: Plan of Implementation
o Targets: access to clean water; restoration of fisheries;
reduction of biodiversity loss; better use of chemicals;
more renewable energy
The mega conference proved to be a disappointment
o The role of NGOs
NGOs vary in their preference of approaches, paradigms they
subscribe to, stance towards institutional status quo
NGOs fulfil roles
Research and creation of knowledge
o Documenting the situation
Independent, therefore potentially critical
assessment
o Developing policy proposals + direct work with
policymakers
Monitoring
o pushing for compliance where there are laws in action
o publishing when there is a gap
Working with the public
o Discourse formation
o Mainstreaming into the media
o Rallying the public
o The role of epistemic communities
Networks of professionals providing officials with awareness and
policy options
Develop vital data, expose problems
E.g. the Intergovernmental Panel on Global Change
Have to be nurtured. Legitimacy has to be won by including experts
from peripheral countries
Global environmental regimes and institutions
o Principles of an environmental regime (customary law)
o

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No significant harm: states activities must not burden neighbours

with extensive externalities
Good neighbour: states cooperate should an environmental
problem arise
The polluter pays principle
The precautionary principle: take action on the basis of scientific
warning
The preventive action principle
The non-discriminatory principle: domestic and intl problems to be
treated the same way
Sustainable development
Global environmental agreements
More than 500 multilateral agreements
Mostly treating specific issues, only lately there has been treaties
proliferated having a global reach
Mostly call for establishment of a small secretariat with one or more
subsidiary bodies. Few include dispute settlement or enforcement
mechanisms weak
International environmental institutions
A legacy of the UN sponsored conferences
Help to set standards and monitor state behaviour
The UN Environment Programme (UNEP, 1972)
The chief product of the Stockholm conference
Headquarters in Nairobi (first to be headquartered in an LDC)
Responsibilities
o Promoting international coop. on env. issues,
overseeing the Regional Seas program (related to 140
countries), Overseeing the development of dams
o Early warning; monitoring international env.,
conducting research,
o Provide direction to UN environmental programs
Problem: funding depends on small UN Foundation
contributions and donations (major powers perceive it to be
captured by LDCs)
The Global Environmental Facility (GEF, 1991)
Created by the WB
Most prominent funder of env. projects in low and middle
income countries
Goal: covering incremental costs of env. friendly projects that
may not bring immediate economic return
2000 projects in 160 countries, USD 8bn disbursed
The Commission on Sustainable Development
Outcome of the Rio conference, designed to implement the
Agenda 21
Task: monitoring through collecting and dissemination of
reports from states, UN bodies, non-gov. actors
No authority, rather a talk-shop
The WB getting green

56

A mixed account: the Bank often privileged economic aspects

while environmental aspects were completely neglected (e.g.
dams)
Environmental related staff expanded
Environment added to the annual World Development Report
2008: Banks Independent Evaluation Group examined 7000
projects; found that in each step there has been insufficient
focus on the environmental impacts
Q: did the bank fundamentally alter its attitude towards the
environment?
The world trade getting green
GATT also reluctant to embrace the environmental agenda
o Ethos: nothing must stand in the way of trade
The WTO
o Gradually forced to address the conflict between
growth and sustainability
o 1994 agreement on sustainable development
Countries can ban imports from particular
countries if concerned about production
processes
o The WTO dispute settlement body has ruled in favour
of environmental concerns on several occasions
France banning the import of asbestos
US banning import of shrimps harvested in a
way that damages sea turtle communities,
o Yet the WTO is far from being green
No commitment to environmental protection
Multi-stakeholder governance
Commissions being composed of representatives of business,
government, research institutes, NGOs, civil society, ;
Together they devise norms and approaches
o E.g. the World Commission on Dams
Hybrid governance
Regional environmental governance
o Many env. issues require regional rather than global response
o There is a number of regional organizations concerned with the
environment, a number of treaties exists
o Subsidiarity principle: decisions are most effective when taken at the
lowest possible level
o The EU
Has the strongest environmental regime
Speaks for the cause abroad
Two principles:
The polluter pays for restoration
Preventive action should be taken (the precautionary
principle)
The EU sets environmental standards for all steps from production
to consumption
The EU environmental law
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Various bans and regulations

Movement from regulations to directives (regulation
immediate, directives comprehensive long term objectives,
countries decide how to implement)
Consumers given power to do informed choices (eco labels
etc.)
Monitoring: the European Environmental Bureau
Mechanisms developed to support environmental initiatives
with funding (e.g. LIFE)
The rich-poor countries divide complicates the efforts
Over-all, the EU has been effective in maintaining environmental
standards
The Court of Justice is ready to take measures in case of
noncompliance

NAFTA
Approached the env. problem from two different angles
Sanitary and phytosanitary measures each country
established its own level of protection
Explicit linkage between trade and the environment more
comprehensive than in the WTO
o Each party is entitled to place ban on imports if
compliance with environmental standards is in
question (as long as it is not an attempt to
discriminate)
The North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation
Addresses regional environmental issues
Encourages compliance with domestic law and promotes
cooperation (but doesnt set standards itself)
Concerns of both MNCs and NGOs are taken into account
o conflicts settled by the WB International Centre for
Investment Disputes
unclear enforcement
mixed account in prevention of environmental damage
o has sufficient institutional structure, but fails in certain
instances
e.g. export of hazardous waste to Mexico
ASEAN
Incorporated the environmental issue in its agenda,
cooperates extensively with NGOs, yet fails to act
multilaterally in the case of crises
The region is extremely environmentally fragile
o Haze caused by Indonesian forest fires
o Poor farming practices involving lots of chemicals
o Urban pollution
o Little environmental consciousness
o Economic competitiveness has much bigger weight
than protection of the environment
Regional networks developed in cooperation with Western
governments and NGOs in 1990s
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Little success in tackling crises countries not interested or

incapable to respond
o But crises mobilized the civil society sector more
pressure
o 2003 ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze
Pollution
o Regional environmental agreements
In many cases environmental issues are settled on the regional
level
E.g. rivers crossing boundaries of states
Regimes and institutions on the global, regional and local levels all contribute to
environmental governance
o Provide principles and rules that become embedded in organizations; they
help to develop capacities, are used to create comprehensive policies
The challenges of implementation, compliance and effectiveness
o Conflicting claims:
A. There is a need to restructure environmental governance, more
centralization, new architecture
B. Instead of building new structures we should focus on defining
underlying notions of care about the environment, such as
sustainable development.
o Political struggle rages over the design of environmental protection
Bottom up? Top down?
Strengthening institutions? Enabling governments? Empowering
non-state actors?
Innovative solutions needed

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