Final Research Essay

Spencer Brown
GOVT 327: Ancient Political Philosophy
Professor Chupp
Regent University
May 10th, 2015

2
Introduction to Political Philosophy
Philosophy deals with the big questions in our lives, so naturally political
philosophy narrows those big questions down to the issues that are addressed by or
involve political life. Being than man is more of a political animal than is any bee or than
any of those animals that live in herds, according to Aristotle, we ought to have some
understanding of the philosophy behind our politics.1 As one of the most prolific thinkers,
Aristotle is careful to narrow down the topic: The matter of political philosophy is not all
kinds of questions and answers, but only questions and answers about politics.2 For
example, discussing and learning about how people ought to act in a city, and other
issues involving political opinion. Aristotle affirmed this idea in his writings, saying that
philosophys matter is questions and answers; its form is logical arguments; its power is
wonder; and its end is wisdom.3
While at times forsaken or cast aside to make room for more revolutionary or
contemporary theories, ancient political philosophy holds great truths for any student of
politics or philosophy. Reflection upon past philosophies is especially important in any
time of troubles political theory finds itself in, as it has in modern times, according to
Sanfords David G. Smith.4 Smith advises critical self-analysis as well as definition and

11

Peter L. Phillips Simpson, The Politics of Aristotle (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North
Carolina Press, 1997), 11.
2

J. Budziszewski, Written on the Heart: The Case for Natural Law (Downers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity Press, 1997), 15.
3
4

Ibid.

David G. Smith, Political Science and Political Theory, The American Political Science
Review 51, (September 1957), 734.

3
defense of methodological and philosophical positions.5 The at times long-winded or
extrapolated arguments may seem confusing, but even the heavily argumentative
nature of ancient political philosophy is key to the field. Due to context in the Greek
philosophers works, the guiding principle that a position is only as good as the
arguments that support it was brought to light. This principle represents the real and
lasting legacy they [Ancient Greek philosophers] left to the modern world.6
The modern practice of political philosophy has evolved as politics have done the
same, the needs of people have changed, and the abilities of cities and societies have
grown. The roots of ancient political philosophy are still evident, as not only current
political philosophers but also virtue ethicists artists theologians, novelists, and many
others still often variously refer to such a large legacy.7 While the ties to ancient political
philosophy may be visible, the modern practice has become not so much concerned
with the nuts and bolts of the empirical politics (the concern of political science), but with
discovering the most fundamental underlying principles of society and politics.8 That
said, Strauss highlights the common thread that runs throughout political philosophy,
saying, The meaning of political philosophy and its meaningful character is as evident
today as it has always been since the time when political philosophy came to light in
Athens. He continues:
All political action aims at either preservation or change. When desiring to
preserve, we wish to prevent a change to the worse; when desiring to change,
5

Ibid.

Giuseppe Mario Saccone, The Significance of the Ancient Greek Political

Philosophy, Prajna Vihara 15, no. 2 (July 2014), 56.
7

Ibid.

Ibid., 57.

4
we wish to bring about something better. All political action is then guided by
some thought of better or worse. But thoughts of better or worse implies thought
of the good. The awareness of the good which guides all our actions has the
character of opinion: it is no longer questioned but, on reflection, it proves to be
questionable. The very fact that we can questions it directs us towards such a
thought which is no longer opinion but knowledge. All political action has then in
itself a directness towards knowledge of the good: of the good life, or the good
society. For the good society is the completest political good.9
For Strauss, political philosophy os there to address the big questions that were
mentioned earlier, but to address them with a concern for what the completest political
good is or could be. It also creates a sort of do no harm principle for those engaged in
political philosophy: we are to engage and reflect, but we are to do so with the aim or
changing when betterment is possible, but remain constant to preserve existing good.
Certain philosophers like Aristotle propose a cohesive society with the family,
public education, and legal code all working together to create a strong city filled with
virtuous citizens. Predecessors in ancient political philosophy drew comparisons
between different kinds of laws stemming from the government, gods, or societal norms.
The revolutionary nature of the Gospel meant that political philosophy became
somewhat complicated by the eruption of the Christian church, but also meant a new
type of intellectual development from within its monasteries and universities. All the
thinkers and foundations combine to develop a picture of the issues being debated yet
today, starting with the earliest political philosophers from Greek and Roman culture.

Hwa Yol Jung, Leo Strausss Conception of Political Philosophy: A Critique, The
Review of Politics 29, (October 1976), 493.

5
Ancient (Greek) Political Philosophy
The following philosophers sought to address enduring questions about social
and political organization.10 For a clear definition, the Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy provides a concise outline: Greek and Roman thought from the classical
period of Greek thought in the fifth century BCE to the end of the Roman empire in the
west in the fifth century CE.11 Political philosophy itself was created by Plato and then
reimagined by Aristotle, and in ancient times (similarly to today), it reflected on the
origin of political institutions, the concepts used to interpret and organize political life
such as justice and equality, the relation between the aims of ethics and the nature of
politics.12
Early Thinkers
Sophocles and Thucydides influence on the work of Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle are worth noting for their foundational role in ancient political philosophy.
Thucydides import is enhanced as we view him as the initiator of the school of political
realism [including] his account of law.13 Sophocles finds his gravity in affecting
Aristotles ideas of man as a political being, starting with his tale of Antigone.
Sophocles
In Antigone, Sophocles addresses some of the facets of his realist school such
as the ramifications of the power of law, truth, and free will in a society. For Sophocles,
10

Saccone, The Significance of Ancient Greek Political Philosophy, 60.

11

Melissa Lane, "Ancient Political Philosophy, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,

Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Updated April 2015.
12
13

Ibid.

Darien Shanske, Thucydides and Law: A Response to Leiter. Legal Theory 19 (September
2013), 283.

6
the good of the city is of utmost importance, and he sees the dictates of the powers that
be, even when executing unwritten laws, to be the right thing. This assertion was
challenged when Polynices corpse was not buried. Antigone is a textbook example of a
tragedy, with the main characters meeting harsh demise. A major contribution that
Sophocles made to the field of political philosophy comes from Antigone in the
contrasting of divine law and human law as it intersects with human life. Antigone
questioned the authority of Creon in relation to the mandates of culture and gods, and in
this the authority of the state or its ability to establish a rule of law, and the authorities
ability to breach that law. This was seen when Creon failed to bury Polynices and
entombed Antigone alive. Aristotle was probably influenced by Sophocles and thereby
influenced Aristotles assertion that man is by nature a political animal.14
Thucydides
In The History of the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides addresses concerns of the
state in regards to the image of a city or state and the power it wields. It is an
outstanding account of political imprudence.15 The way in which Athens ascended to a
position of power in such a meteoric manner caused many to take note and to become
wary of the large amount of power accumulated by Athens. This raises the questions
about the best kind of rule, how a people should be government, and how a city or
states power should be wielded. These are all addressed by the other foundational
philosophers, and reevaluated by the slightly more recent Christian political

14
15

Jyotirmaya Tripathy,Biopolitics in Sophocless Antigone, Explicator 71 (December 2012), 26.

Mauro Basaure, From the History of the Peloponnesian War to Leviathan: Hobbes and the
Knowledge and Wisdom for Peace, The New Centennial Review 13 (2013), 75.

7
philosophers. The lessons from Thucydides are important in order to learn from history,
to acquire political prudence, short of which no political system can survive.16
Socrates
We are discussing no small matter, but how we ought to live.17 These are the
words of Socrates as he reached to the heart of the matter of why he and so many
others have studied political philosophy. Recognizing the gravity of the field he was
working to develop meant deep, meaty thoughts that can, at times, be difficult to
understand. This shouldnt be an excuse to gloss over Socrates work, but a reason to
dedicate extra time and work to try and understand the foundations of Socratic thought.
Perhaps in doing so in the same spirit Socrates had: As long as I breathe and am
able to, I will certainly not stop philosophizing, and I will exhort you and explain this to
whomever of you I happen to meet, and I will speak just the sorts of things I am
accustomed to.18
Arguably the founder of the realist school of political thought, Thucydides based
his interpretation of events on the idea that those with political power set the moral
codes.19 The relationship between politics and morality, then, is whatever is accepted by
the majority (or strongest) body politic is considered the status quo. In this, the
normative action becomes the law in lieu morality or ethical judgments.20

16

Ibid.

17

Saccone, The Significance of Ancient Greek Political Philosophy, 59.

18

Thomas G West, Four Texts on Socrates, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998), 81.

19

Thucydides, The History of the Peloponnesian War, (Accessed via classics.mit.edu, 2009).

20

Spencer Brown, Politics and Morality (Accessed via regent.blackboard.com, 2015).

8
Plato
Plato speaks about those fit to rule or lead in The Republic, bringing the idea of
philosopher kings to the forefront.21 For Plato, the philosophers within the city were to
rise up and lead, even if they did so unwillingly. Have you any other life that despises
political offices other than that of true philosophy? Plato asks.22 But men who aren't
lovers of ruling must go to it; otherwise rival lovers will fight.23 So while its a bit
counterintuitive, Platos theory is sound, regarding the motivations of those within the
city who are to lead. That city in which those who are going to rule are least eager to
rule is necessarily governed in the way that is best and freest from faction, while the one
that gets the opposite kind of rulers is governed in the opposite way.24 That is to say
that people within a city who seek to rule, the real politicians, aspire to rule for the wrong
reasons, and end up fighting shadows as Plato states. Rather those who dont seek
acclaim or high office, meaning philosophers, are better equipped and adjusted to
handle the office without turning inward and deteriorating into a mess of factions at war.
Aristotle
The Catholic Social Science Review credits the tradition of Aristotelian political
philosophy for laying the foundation of all Western legal structures [and] provides a
helpful guide to understanding the proper relationship between faith and politics.25

21

Allan Bloom, The Republic of Plato (New York: Basic Books, 1968).

22

Ibid., 199

23

Ibid.

24

Ibid.

25

Brian Jones, Aristotelian Political Philosophy, the Wise Many, and Catholic Social
Teaching, Catholic Science Review 19, (October 2014), 145.

9
Aristotle held that if you want to know what something is, you have to know four things
about it: its matter, its form, its power, and its end or purpose.26
Regarding the role and nature of people in society, Aristotle is clear that within a
city many individuals do not lead virtuous lives, but those lacking virtue are not
excluded from the rules of the city.27 In his Nichomachean Ethics, Aristotle further
explains his thoughts that virtues are neither feelings nor predispositions. What
remains is that they are active conditions.28 Aristotles thinking implies that the city has
a role to play in encouraging virtue: The city, like any community, aims at some good,
but the city is the controlling community and so must aim at the most controlling good of
all.29
Asserting that man is a political animal in society, Aristotle emphasizes the
importance of a peoples involvement with a citys government. Wide participation can
help foster a degree of good and just political actions through common, public
deliberation, since a body may make better, wise, and abler decisions through the
benefit of each persons knowledge, experience, judgment, and insightwhich they can
synthesize into collective knowledge, experience, judgment, and insight.30
Medieval (Christian) Political Philosophy
The transitional period that existed after the collapse of Roman civilization and
saw the rise of Christianity was of significance to the political philosophy community as
26

Budziszewski, Written on the Heart: The Case for Natural Law, 15.

27

Jones, Aristotelian Political Philosophy, the Wise Many and Catholic Social Teaching, 147.

28

Joe Sachs, Aristotles Nichomachean Ethics, (Newburyport, MA: Focus Publishing, 2002), 28.

29

Simpson, The Politics of Aristotle,, 8.

30

Jones, 147.

10
well. There were indeed a few dark centuries during this period of Roman dissolution
and the birth of Christian civilization which rose up to take the place of the Roman
civilization.31 This exchange from Roman Culture to Christian culture pervaded political
philosophy, but it also complicated it.32 The new Christian civilization had a powerful
intellectual culture of its own centered in the leading monasteries and universities. The
Medieval Political Philosophy was often an attempt to influence public events and is a
reference to the development of institutions such as the legal system and the
universities.33 This carried over as political philosophy as a whole underwent
considerable development in the course of the middle ages, as religious and political
thinking was modified by cultural developments and the stress of events.34
Augustine
Augustine played a vital role in bringing Christianity to a point of cultural
prominence in ancient civilization. This is not to say that Christianity was not relevant or
a moving force in the world, it was transformative. However, prior to Augustines
revelation and adoption of Christianity, it was not adopted in a broad manner that
transformed culture the way its integration did after Augustine legalized Christianity. His
work, The City of God was a sort of rebuttal to the ideas and message that was
circulating which placed blame on the adoption of Christianity for the sacking of Rome

31

Budziszewski, 53.

32

John Kilcullen, "Medieval Political Philosophy, The Stanford Encyclopedia of

Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Updated 2010.
33

Ibid.

34

Ibid.

11
and other calamitous events.35 He works to rebut these assertions made by pagans by
showing historical examples that prove calamities have come before Christianity, and
happen to both those judged good and bad. Besides refuting the pagans and
polytheist traditions, Augustine goes on to present two cities: one being the city of God,
the other being the city of man. The first is depicted as a city of the elect made up of
those chosen by God who in live out a life of service to him.36 The latter is a city if Gods
damned as a result of their unrepentant, sinful lives. In this explanation lies Augustines
rationale for government. That is, because man is fallen, he needs to have some sort of
earthly accountability to complement the accountability to God. In Augustines opinion,
complete self-government will not yield positive results. Instead, a moral government is
needed to help citizens live justly.37 That is, it is more than just a governing body, the
idea Augustine puts forth is for a ruler [that acts as] a director of souls.38 Anything else,
Augustine argues, does nothing more than hold together a precarious earthly peace,
and that only an earthly city oriented to the true God can be genuinely described as just
and legitimate.39
Augustines impact on philosophy has been significant, and even today he is
invoked in discussions on just war.40 Proponents of this theory identify Augustines

35

Augustine, The City of God, accessed via newadvent.org, 2009.

36

Ibid.

37

Spencer Brown, Augustine and Plato, (Accessed via regent.blackboard.com), 2015.

38

Brian T. Trainor, Augustines Glorious City of God as Principle of the Political, Heythrop
Journal 51 (July 2010), 544.
39
40

Ibid.

Cian ODriscoll, Rewriting the Just War Tradition: Just War in Classical Greek Political
Thought and Practice, International Studies Quarterly 59 (March 2015).

12
efforts to justify Christian participation in Roman wars as his main contribution.41 Its
worth noting that Augustine is even in this vein, still building upon Aristotles earlier
mentions of war that is by nature just, but that modern political philosophy continues to
debate what a systematic theory of just war would look like.42
Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas writings were part of a time of ferment, a term explained by the fact
that previously unavailable works of Aristotle had come to Europe from the Middle
East (Budziszewski 1997, 53). He saw political philosophy as a strong field, quoting
Aristotle: the philosophy that deals with human affairs finds its perfection in politics.43
Aquinas contributes considerably to the dialog by analyzing the work of Aristotle,
explaining Aristotles ideas on the city, society, and the way people interact to create a
cohesive society. His critique first analyzes the idea of a virtuous society as put forth by
Aristotle.
Every society is established for the sake of some good. But every city is a society
of some kind. Therefore, every city is established for the sake of some good.
Since then the minor premise is evident, he proves the major as follows. All men
perform everything they do for the sake of that which is seen as a good, whether
it is truly good or not. But every society is established through the work of
someone. Therefore, all societies seek some good, that is to say, they aim at
some good as an end that good to which the city is ordered is the highest
among human goods by means of the following argument. If every society is
ordered to a good, that society which is the highest necessarily seeks in the
highest degree the good that is the highest among all human goods.44

41

Ibid.

42

Ibid.

43

Ernest L. Fortin and Peter D. ONeill, St. Thomas Commentary on Aristotles Politics,
accessed via dhspriory.org, 1951.
44

Ibid.

13
This is similar to Aristotles understand of good. Aquinas understands the
common good as involving partnership in a good life; therefore, like Aristotle he believes
that the purpose of the laws is to train the citizens in virtueto make people good.45
In his On Kingship to the King of Cyprus, Aquinas provides a primer on the kinds,
manner, and means of ruling. Aquinas asserts that, it is best for a human multitude to
be ruled by one person.46 This conclusion was reached by looking at every natural
governance.47
In the multitude of bodily members there is one which is the principal mover,
namely, the heart; and among the powers of the soul one power presides as
chief, namely, the reason. Among bees there is one king bee and in the whole
universe there is One God, Maker and Ruler of all things. And there is a reason
for this. Every multitude is derived from unity. Wherefore, if artificial things are an
imitation of natural things and a work of art is better according as it attains a
closer likeness to what is in nature, it follows that it is best for a human multitude
to be ruled by one person.48
Aquinas is careful to note that while rule by one is the best way, rule by a tyrant is
the worst way. He does quantify the wrong perpetrated by different systems of rule and
places a tyrannical monarch as a lesser evil when compared with a corrupt
aristocracy.49 Being a thinker that contributed to the integration of Christianity with
political philosophy, Aquinas added the importance of a heavenly reward based on
accountability to God. This reward is more adequate than anything man could offer or
give up as some sort of reward to a monarch, and therefore somewhat alleviates the

45

Budziszewski, Written on the Heart: The Case for Natural Law, 77.

46

Thomas Aquinas, On Kingship to the King of Cyprus, accessed via dhspriory.org.

47

Ibid.

48

Ibid.

49

Ibid.

14
risk of rulers seeking to fulfill their desires through earthly, bad acts. Aquinas seeks to
further integrate Christianity by instructing a consideration of what God does in the
world, for in this way we shall be able to see what it is incumbent upon a king to do.50
Conclusion
In seeking answers to lifes big questions, the thinkers analyzed above provide
myriad scenarios to think about and highlight a common thread about the nature of
man, government, and the interaction between those two. Ancient philosophers were
right to recognize mans inability to create perfect government, a conclusion enhanced
by the medieval philosophers who added mans fallen nature to the list of reasons why.
All were concerned about the kinds of leaders that would rise up within cities, some
preferring philosopher kings like Plato, and anecdotal warnings about what can go
wrong when people and ruler collide from Sophocles Antigone. The thinking about how
best to take political action creates a clear line stretching from the ancient and medieval
philosophers to today. Platos discussion of factions and the problems they can cause
could just as easily be a monologue by a modern political pundit. For reasons such as
this, political philosophy has remained a key part of our intellectual society. And the
continuation of past issues proves that consideration and application of ancient political
philosophy today is vital to the continued development of ideas and ideologies, and may
even be critical to the success of mans efforts within government today.

50

Ibid.

15
Bibliography
Aquinas, Thomas. On Kingship to the King of Cyprus. Accessed via dhspriory.org.
Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica. Accessed via dhspriory.org.
Augustine. The City of God. Accessed via newadvent.org. 2009.
Basaure, Mauro. From the History of the Peloponnesian War to Leviathan: Hobbes and
the Knowledge and Wisdom for Peace. The New Centennial Review 13 (2013),
71-91.
Bloom, Allan. The Republic of Plato (New York: Basic Books, 1968).
Brown, Spencer. Augustine and Plato (Accessed via regent.blackboard.com, 2015).
Brown, Spencer. Politics and Morality (Accessed via regent.blackboard.com, 2015).
Budziszewski, J. Written on the Heart: The Case for Natural Law. (Downers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity Press, 1997).
Fortin, Ernest L. and Peter D. ONeill. St. Thomas Commentary on Aristotles Politics.
Accessed via dhspriory.org, 1951.
Jones, Brian. Aristotelian Political Philosophy, the Wise Many, and Catholic Social
Teaching. Catholic Science Review 19, (October 2014): 145-167.
Jung, Hwa Yol. Leo Strausss Conception of Political Philosophy: A Critique. The
Review of Politics 29, (October 1976): 492-517.
Kilcullen, John, "Medieval Political Philosophy. The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Accessed April 2015.
Lane, Melissa, "Ancient Political Philosophy. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Accessed April 2015.

16
ODriscoll, Cian. Rewriting the Just War Tradition: Just War in Classical Greek Political
Thought and Practice. International Studies Quarterly 59 (March 2015), 1-10.
Tripathy, Jyotirmaya. Biopolitics in Sophocless Antigone. Explicator 71 (December
2012), 26-30.
Saccone, Giuseppe Mario. The Significance of the Ancient Greek Political
Philosophy. Prajna Vihara 15, no. 2 (July 2014): 55-89.
Saches, Joe. Aristotles Nichomachean Ethics. (Newburyport, MA: Focus Publishing,
2002).
Shanske, Darien. Thucydides and Law: A Response to Leiter. Legal Theory 19
(September 2013): 282-306.
Simpson, Peter L. Phillips. The Politics of Aristotle (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of
North Carolina Press, 1997).
Smith, David G. Political Science and Political Theory. The American Political Science
Review 51, (September 1957): 734-746.
Thucydides. The History of the Peloponnesian War. (Accessed via classics.mit.edu,
2009).
Trainor, Brian T. Augustines Glorious City of God as Principle of the Political. Heythrop
Journal 51 (July 2010).
West, Thomas G. Four Texts on Socrates. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998).