A Course in Mathemathical Analysis Vol. II. Goursat, Edouard. 1916

A COURSE
IN
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
FUNCTIONS OF
A COMPLEX VARIABLE
BEING PART
OF VOLUME
II
BY
k
U\
|
U* $
EDOUARD GOURSAT
PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS, THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS
TRANSLATED BY
EARLE RAYMOND HEDRICK

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS, THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI
AND
OTTO DUNKEL
AGSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS, WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY
GINN AND COMPANY

BOSTON
ATLANTA
NEW YORK
DALLAS
CHICAGO
LONDON
COLUMBUS
SAN FRANCISCO
COPYRIGHT,
1916,
BY
EARLE RAYMOND HEDRICK AND OTTO DUNKEL

ALL BIGHTS RESERVED
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
236.7
gfte fltfrenaeum
GINN AND COMPANY

PRIETORS BOSTON
PRO
U.S.A.
AUTHOR S PREFACE
The
first
SECOND FRENCH EDITION
part of this volume has undergone only slight changes,
while the rather important modifications that have been
made
appear only in the last chapters.
In the
first
of variations.
was able
edition I
tial differential
to devote but a
equations of the second order
In order to present in a
less
few pages
and
to par
to the calculus
summary manner such
broad subjects, I have concluded to defer them to a third volume,
which
will contain also a sketch of the recent theory of integral
equations.
The suppression
make some
additions, of
differential equations
of the last chapter has enabled
which the most important
and
me
to
relate to linear
to partial differential equations of the
E.
iii
GOUESAT
TRANSLATORS PREFACE
As
the
the present volume
title indicates,
first half of the second
volume of Goursat
is
a translation of the
s "Cours
decision to publish the translation in two parts
is
Analyse."
The
due to the evi
dent adaptation of these two portions to the introductory courses in

American colleges and universities in the theory of functions and
in differential equations, respectively.
After the cordial reception given to the translation of Goursat s

That it has been
first volume, the continuation was assured.
to our desire to await
delayed so long was due, in the first instance,
the appearance of the second edition of the second volume in
French.
in doing so will be obvious to those
The advantage
who
have observed the radical changes made in the second (French)

edition of the second volume.
Volume
was not altered so radi
English translation of that volume may be

used conveniently as a companion to this but references are given
here to both editions of the first volume, to avoid any possible
cally, so that the present
difficulty in this connection.
Our thanks are due

us his permission to
to Professor Goursat,
make
plan of publication in
this translation,
two
parts.
He
who
has kindly given
and has approved of the
has also seen
all
made
English and has approved a few minor alterations
tion as well as the translators
notes.
The
proofs in
in transla
responsibility for the
latter rests, however, with the translators.
E. R.
HEDRICK
OTTO DUNKEL
CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER
I.
II.
I.
ELEMENTS OF THE THEORY
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
1.
Definitions
2.
Continuous functions of a complex variable
3.
Analytic functions
4.
11
5.
Functions analytic throughout a region

Rational functions
6.
Certain irrational functions
13
7.
Single-valued and multiple-valued functions
17
POWER
SERIES WITH COMPLEX

TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
12
ELEMENTARY
TERMS.
18
8.
Circle of convergence
18
9.
Double
21
series
of
an
infinite
10.
Development
11.
The exponential function
12.
Trigonometric functions
13.
Logarithms
14. Inverse functions
product in power series
....
26
28
:
arc sin
z,
arc tan z
30
33
16.
Decomposition of a rational function of sin

simple elements
17.
Expansion of Log (1 + s)
Extension of the binomial formula
18.
and cos
z into
35
38
40
CONFORMAL REPRESENTATION
42
22.
Geometric interpretation of the derivative

Conformal transformations in general
Conformal representation of one plane on another plane
Riemann s theorem
23.
Geographic maps
19.
20.
21.
42
45
.
48
50
52
24. Isothermal curves
EXERCISES
22
23
15. Application to the integral calculus
III.
54
56
CONTENTS
viii
PAGE
CHAPTER
I.
THE GENERAL THEORY OF ANALYTIC FUNC

TIONS ACCORDING TO CAUCHY
II.
DEFINITE INTEGRALS TAKEN BETWEEN IMAGINARY LIMITS

25. Definitions
26.
Change
27.
The
and general principles
62
formulae of Weierstrass and Darboux
64
taken along a closed curve
66
31. Generalization of the formulae of the integral calculus

32.
Another proof
CAUCHY
TAYLOR
SINGULAR POINTS.
33.
34.
35.
AND LAURENT
Taylor
SERIP:S.
RESIDUES
75
75
78
78
s series
37.
Laurent
38.
Other
72
74
The fundamental formula

Morera s theorem
36. Liouville s
III.
of the preceding results
INTEGRAL.
60
60
of variables
28. Integrals
II.
60
theorem
81
81
s series
84
series
39. Series of analytic functions
86
40. Poles
88
41. Functions analytic except for poles
90
42. Essentially singular points
91
43. Residues
94
APPLICATIONS OF THE GENERAL THEOREMS

44. Introductory
95
95
remarks
96
45. Evaluation of elementary definite integrals
97
Various definite integrals

T (!-/>)
47. Evaluation of
46.
100
T(;>)
48. Application to functions analytic except for poles

49. Application to the theory of equations
Jensen
51.
Lagrange s formula
Study of functions for
52.
_.
EXERCISES
109
112
._
2
study of the integral J^dz/^l- z
55. Periods of hyperelliptic integrals
56. Periods of elliptic integrals of the first kind
54.
103
106
infinite values of the variable
IV. PERIODS OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS

53. Polar periods
101
104
formula
50.
....
112
114
116
120
122
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
III.
ix
SINGLE-VALUED ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
WEIERSTRASS
PRIMARY FUNCTIONS. MITTAG-LEFFLER
PAGE
127
THEOREM
127
57.
Expression of an integral function as a product of primary
58.
The
127
functions
class of
132
an integral function
functions with a finite
59. Single-valued analytic
number
of
132
singular points
60. Single-valued analytic functions
with an infinite number of

134
singular points
61. Mittag-Leffler s
134
theorem
137
62. Certain special cases

63.
64.
II.
Cauchy s method
Expansion of ctn x and
139
142
of sin x
DOUBLY PERIODIC FUNCTIONS. ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS

65. Periodic functions.
66. Impossibility
of
Expansion
145
145
in series
single-valued
analytic
function with
147
three periods
67.
68. Elliptic functions.

69.
70.
71.
72.
149
Doubly periodic functions
150
General properties
The function p (M)

The algebraic relation between p (M) and p
The function f (w)
The function O-(M)
General expressions for

74. Addition formulae
73.
154
158
(M)
159
162
163
elliptic functions
166
168
75. Integration of elliptic functions
76.
III.
The
170
function 6
INVERSE FUNCTIONS.
77. Relations
CURVES OF DEFICIENCY ONE
between the periods and the invariants
....
172
78. The inverse function to the elliptic integral of the first kind
new definition of p (M) by means of the invariants
79.
174
80. Application to cubics in a plane

81. General formulae for parameter representation
184
82.
193
ANALYTIC EXTENSION
DEFINITION OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION BY MEANS OF
ONE OF ITS ELEMENTS
CHAPTER
IV.
New
definition of analytic functions
196
196
196
83. Introduction to analytic extension

84.
182
187
191
Curves of deficiency one
EXERCISES
I.
172
199
CONTENTS
PAGE
85. Singular points
86. General problem
II.
204
206
NATURAL BOUNDARIES. CUTS

87. Singular lines.
88.
....
208
Natural boundaries
208
Examples
211
89. Singularities of
analytical expressions
90. Hermite s formula
213
215
EXERCISES
217
CHAPTER V. ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS OF SEVEKAL VARIABLES
219
I.
GENERAL PROPERTIES
219
91. Definitions
219
92. Associated circles of

93.
94.
95.
222
s
theorems
225
Functions represented by definite integrals
96. Application to the
IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS.
98. AVeierstrass s
229
two variables
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
theorem
99. Critical points
100. Algebraic functions

101. Abelian integrals
102.
Abel
227
function
97. Analytic extension of a function of
II.
220
convergence
Double integrals
Extension of Cauchy
theorem
103. Application to hyperelliptic integrals

104. Extension of Lagrange s formula
....
231
232
232
236
240
243
244
247
250
EXERCISES
252
INDEX
253
A COUESE IN
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
VOLUME
II.
PART
THEOEY OF FUNCTIONS OF A
COMPLEX VARIABLE
CHAPTER

I.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
An imaginary quantity, or complex quantity, is any

form a -\- bi where a and b are any two real num
of
the
expression
i is a
and
bers whatever
special symbol which has been introduced
to
in order
generalize algebra. Essentially a complex quantity is
1.
Definitions.
nothing but a system of two real numbers arranged in a certain

order. Although such expressions as a -f- bi have in themselves no
concrete meaning whatever, we agree to apply to them the ordinary
2
rules of algebra, with the additional convention that i shall be
1.
replaced throughout by
-f- bl and a + b i are said to be equal if

The sum of two complex quantities a -f- bi and
the differ
is a symbol of the same form a + c -f- (b + d)i
find the
To
to
a
c
is
ence a + bl
+ (b d)i.
equal
(c -|- di)
out
the
di
c
we
a
bi
and
of
+
-fmultiplication accord
carry
product
Two
=a
c + di
a
complex quantities a
and
=b
ing to the usual rules for algebraic multiplication, replacing

1, obtaining thus
+ bi) (c + di) = ac
by
+ (ad -f be)
The quotient obtained by the division of a + bi by c + di is
denned to be a third imaginary symbol x + ?/, such that when it is
multiplied by c -f di, the product is a + 5i The equality
= (c + e^) -f
a
(a
-|-
is
bd
i.
7/i)
(a?
to the
equivalent, according to the rules of multiplication,
relations
ex -
whence we obtain
dy
a,
= ac + bd
dx + cy = b,
be
ad
two
The quotient obtained by the division of a

bi by c -+- di
sented by the usual notation for fractions in algebra, thus,
x
convenient
way
4- yi
[i,
is
repre
= a + bi
c + di
.
and y
by e
of calculating x
fraction
and denominator of the
is
to multiply numerator
and to develop the
di
indicated products.
All the properties of the fundamental operations of algebra can be
shown to apply to the operations carried out on these imaginary sym
bols.
Thus,
if
denote complex numbers, we shall have
A, B, C,
A-B=B.A, A.B.C
and so
=A-(B>C),
A(B + C)=AB+AC,
The two complex quantities a -\- bi and a

bi are said
The two complex quantities a -f- bi and
on.
to be conjugate imaginaries.
a
bi, whose sum is zero, are said to be negatives of each other
or symmetric to each other.
Given the usual system of rectangular axes in a plane, the complex
of the plane xOy, whose
quantity a -f- bi is represented by the point
coordinates are x
= a and y =
b.
In this way a concrete representa
is given to these purely symbolic expressions, and to every

proposition established for complex quantities there is a correspond
ing theorem of plane geometry. But the greatest advantages resulting
tion
from
this representation will
to points
on the
of reals.
Two conjugate
cc-axis,
appear
which
later.
Keal numbers correspond
for this reason
imaginaries a
bi
is
also called the axis
and a
bi
correspond to
two points symmetrically situated with respect to the cc-axis. Two

a
bi are represented by a pair of points
quantities a + bi and
symmetric with respect to the origin O. The quantity a -f bi, which
corresponds to the point
When
called its affix*
M with the coordinates
denote by the same letter
(a, b), is
sometimes
no danger of ambiguity, we shall

a complex quantity and the point which
there
is
represents it.
with coordinates (a, b) by a
Let us join the origin to the point
is called the absolute
segment of a straight line. The distance
OM
value of a
from Ox
+ bi,
and the angle through which a ray must be turned
to bring
it
in coincidence
with
OM (the angle being measured,

is called the angle of a +
as in trigonometry,
from Ox toward Oy)
* This term
sponding word
TRANS.
is
not
affixe.
much used
in English,
bi.
but the French frequently use the corre
I,
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
1]
Let p and w denote, respectively, the absolute value and the angle of
between the real quantities a, b, p, there exist the two rela
-}- bi
<u
tions
= p cos
<o,
p sin
<o,
whence we have
which
an essentially positive number, is

whereas the angle, being given only
by means of its trigonometric functions, is determined except for an
additive multiple of 2 TT, which was evident from the definition itself.
The
absolute value
p,
is
determined without ambiguity
Hence every complex quantity may have an infinite number of

angles, forming an arithmetic progression in which the successive
terms differ by 2 TT. In order that two complex quantities be equal,
their absolute values must be equal, and moreover their angles must
differ only by a multiple of 2 TT, and these conditions are sufficient.
The absolute value of a complex quantity z is represented by the
same symbol \z\ which is used for the absolute value of a real
quantity.
Let z
-f- bi,
+b
be two complex numbers and m,
^ is then represented by the

the corresponding points the sum z
of
the
the
vertex
parallelogram constructed upon Om, Om
point m",
three sides of the triangle Om m"

to the
(Fig. 1) are equal respectively
The
absolute values of the quantities z, z

From this we conclude that the
z -\- z
,
absolute value of the sum of two quanti

ties is less than or at most equal to the
sum of
the absolute values of the two

and greater than or at least
quantities,
equal
to
their
difference.
Since
IIL
two
quantities that are negatives of each

other have the same absolute value, the theorem is also true for
the absolute value of a difference. Finally, we see in the same way
that the absolute value of the

quantities
is
at
most equal
to the
sum of any number of complex

sum of their absolute values, the
equality holding only when all the points representing the different
quantities are on the same ray starting from the origin.
we draw the two straight lines mx and
If through the point
my
parallel to
Ox and
to Oy, the coordinates of the point
in this
The point
ra
a and
(Fig. 2).
system of axes will be a
of
value
the
absolute
in
new
the
z
then represents z
system
b
mm and the angle of z

mm makes with mx
z is equal to the length

which the direction
the angle
is
equal to
Draw through
a segment Om^ equal and par

of
the extremity
t
\y
mm
allel to
z in
segment represents
the system of axes Ox, Oy. But
the figure Om m^ is a parallelo-
this
the point
is therefore
l
the symmetric point to
with
to
the
middle
c,
respect
point
of Om
gram
He
FIG. 2
Finally, let us obtain the for

of the product of any
mula which gives the absolute value and angle

number of factors. Let
zk
.(cos
/o x
toj.
4-
sin
o>
(k
t ),
1, 2,
n),
.,
the rules for multiplication, together with the addi

tion formulae of trigonometry, give for the product
be the factors
4- i
sin(o> 1
4-
wa
A0 absolute value of a product is equal to the

absolute
the
values, and the angle of a product is equal to
of
product
the sum of the angles of the factors. From this follows very easily
the well-known formula of De Moivre
which shows that
cos
m<o
4-
sin
mo>
= (cos w
-j- *
sin
m
)
in a very condensed form all the trigonometric for

mulae for the multiplication of angles.
The introduction of imaginary symbols has given complete gener
It was in
ality and symmetry to the theory of algebraic equations,
the treatment of equations of only the second degree that such ex
which contains
pressions appeared for the
first
time.
Complex
quantities are equally
important in analysis, and we shall now state precisely what mean

ing is to be attached to the expression a function of a complex
variable.
2.
Continuous functions of a complex variable.

complex quantity
where x and y are two real and independent variables,
= x + yi,
give to the word function its most

general meaning, it would be natural to say that every other complex
quantity u whose value depends upon that of z is a function of z.
is
a complex variable.
If
we
I,
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
3]
Certain familiar definitions can be extended directly to these func

f(z) is continuous if
Thus, we shall say that a function u
tions.
the absolute value of the difference f(z

f(z) approaches zero
k)
when the absolute value of h approaches zero, that is, if to every
positive
number
we can
assign another positive
provided that h be less than

|
A. series,
that
rj.
()++()+-,
,
,,(*)+!
number y such
whose terms are functions of the complex variable z

convergent in a region
we can
of the plane
assign a positive integer
is uniformly
every positive number c
if to
N such that
for all the values of z in the region A, provided that n^N. It

can be shown as before (Vol. I, 31, 2d ed.
173, 1st ed.) that if a
series is uniformly convergent in a region A, and if each of its
in that region, its sum is itself
terms is a continuous function of
;
a continuous function of the variable z in the same region.

Again, a series is uniformly convergent if, for all the values of z
considered, the absolute value of each term \u n is less than the
corresponding term v n of a convergent series of real positive con
stants. The series is then both absolutely and uniformly convergent.
Every continuous function of the complex variable z is of the

form u = P (x, y) -f Q (x, y) i, where P and Q are real continuous
functions of the two real variables x, y. If we were to impose no
other restrictions, the study of functions of a complex variable
would amount simply to a study of a pair of functions of two real
variables, and the use of the symbol i would introduce only illusory
In order to make the theory of functions of a com

some analogy with the theory of functions of a
real variable, we shall adopt the methods of Cauchy to find the con
ditions which the functions P and Q, must satisfy in order that the
expression P -f- Qi shall possess the fundamental properties of func
simplifications.
plex variable present
tions of a real variable to
3.
Analytic functions.
which the processes of the calculus apply.

If
/(a,-)
is
a function of a real variable x
which has a derivative, the quotient
[I,
/ (x) when h approaches zero. Let us determine

same way under what conditions the quotient
approaches
AM
AP + i&Q
As
Ax
in the
/Ay
-|-
will approach a definite limit when the absolute value of Az approaches

zero independently. It is
zero, that is, when Ax and A?/ approach
if the functions P (x, y) and
easy to see that this will not be the case
for
the limit of the quotient
functions
whatever,
Q(x, y) are any
in general on the ratio Ay/ Ax, that is, on the way
AM/AS depends
in
which the point representing the value of 2
-+-
h approaches the
of z.
point representing the value
Let us first suppose y constant, and let us give to x a value x
differing but slightly
Aw _
~ P(x
from x
+ Ax, y)-P(x, y)
In order that this quotient have a

functions
P and Q
+ Ax, y} -
limit, it is
dp
A?/
lim
constant,
=-=
As
and
ex
let
and
~ P(x, y
necessary that the
$Q
-~
ex
us give to y the value y
have
AM
q(x, y)
Ax
to x, and
possess partial derivatives with respect
in that case
Next suppose x
Q(x
Ax
As
+ Ax
then
+ Ay)
Q(x, y
P(x, y)
have for
in this case the quotient will
+ Ay
we
+ Ay) - Q(x, y)
its
limit
_
dy
dy
P and Q
to ?/.
possess partial derivatives with respect
two
in
the
the
same
be
of
the
cases,
limit
the
that
In order
quotient
if
the functions
it is
necessary that
ap_aa
dp__ _^Q
~
~fa~W
dy~
Suppose that the functions
and Q
dx
satisfy these conditions, and

dQ/dy are con
that the partial derivatives dP/dx, dP/dy, dQ/dx,

tinuous functions. If we give to x and y any increments whatever,
Ax, Ay,
we can
write
AP = P(x 4- Ax, + Ay) - P(x + Ax, y) + P(x + Ax,

=
Ax, y)
-h Ax, y + 0Ay) + AxP;(x -h
= Ax[P;(x, y)+ c] -h Ay[P;(x, y)+ ej,
?/
A//P;<x
y)
- P(x, y)
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
3]
I,
and
where
same way
numbers
are positive
AQ = Ax[Q;(x, y) +
where
e,
ej
1?
= AP + i&Q
Aw
than unity
less
and
in the
+ Ay[Q;(x, y) + ej],
approach zero with Ax and Ay. The difference

can be written by means of the conditions (1) in
the form,
= (Ax -f iAy)
where
If
\rj\
rj
and
and
|
?/|
77
Aw
As
have, then,
_^P
.0Q
qAx
$x
fix
Ax
are smaller than a

is less
when Ax and Ay
+ i/Ay
iAy
-|-
the absolute value of the
a,
This term will therefore ap

approach zero, and we shall have
AM
hmAs
(1) are
number
than 2
The conditions
We
are infinitesimals.
complementary term
proach zero
+t
a.
.0Q
= cP + -1-5,
daj
<?x
then necessary and sufficient in order that the
quotient Aw/As have a unique limit for each value of
provided that
the partial derivatives of the functions P and Q be continuous. The

function u is then said to be an analytic function * of the variable 2,
and
if
we
represent
it
by /(), the derivative
one of the following equivalent expressions
ap
/(
It is
P(x
y),
/ ()
is
equal to any
aQ_aQ
.ap_ap
.dp
~"^^*aaj""ay
"ay~dx
*Hj~ ty*
_ZQ
dq
*:
fa
important to notice that neither of the pair of functions

Q(aj, y) can be taken arbitrarily. In fact, if P and Q have
derivatives of the second order, and if we differentiate the first of

the relations (1) with respect to x, and the second with respect to y,
we
have, adding the two resulting equations,

"*
Cauchy made frequent use
ajP
o o
VP ^^
=
r\
"
of the term monogene, the equivalent of which, monosometimes used in English. The term synectique is also sometimes used in
French. We shall use by preference the term analytic, and it will be shown later
that this definition agrees with the one which has already been given (I,
197,
2d ed.
191, 1st ed.)
genie,
is
10
[I,
that A.Q = 0. The two functions

a pair of solutions of Laplace s
be
Q(x y) must therefore
We
can show in the same
P(x,
y\
way
equation.
for
Conversely, any solution of Laplace s equation may be taken
solution
P
a
let
be
For
P
or
Q.
one of the functions
example,
(x, y)
of that equation the two equations (1), where Q is regarded as an
;
unknown
and the expression
function, are compatible,

r
= P(x,
v
\-
which
dp
/<*.0>/gp
y}+i\
//
*
J/
(*o-
is determined except for
-j-dx]+C\,
1
cy
[-2-dy
,\ox
X
"o)
an arbitrary constant C,
is
an
analytic;
function whose real part

P(x, y).
It follows that the study of analytic functions of a complex vari
able 2 amounts essentially to the study of a pair of functions
is
x and y that satisfy the

Q(x, y) of two real variables
to
be
It
would
relations (1).
develop the whole theory with
possible
p(x,
y),
out making use of the symbol
i.*
We
employ the notation of Cauchy, but

no essential difference between the
it
for an analytic function
established
theorem
two methods. Every
an
as
can be expressed immediately
equivalent theorem relat
shall continue, however, to
should be noticed that there is
f(z)
ing to the pair of functions
P and
and conversely.
Q,
an analytic function, for it

2yi = 2 z in fact, the func
2
On the other hand, the expression v = x yi is not
tion is simply (x + yi)* = z
an analytic function, for we have
Examples. The function u

satisfies the equations (1), and
its
x2
^xyi
derivative
is
is
2x
Av
__
1-i^
Ax
Az~Ax +
Ay
Ax
iAy
Âj/
Ax
and
it is
obvious that the limit of the quotient Av/Az depends upon the limit of
the quotient A?// Ax.

If we put x = p cos w, y
independent variables (I,
(1)
and apply the formulae for the change of

relations
2d ed.
38, 1st ed., Ex. II), the
p sin w,
63,
become
dP
dQ
c)Q
dP
and the derivative takes the form

/(z)
\ dp
* This
Riemann.
is
+ i^)(cos w dp/
the point of view taken
tsinu).
by the German mathematicians who follow
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
4]
I,
seen on applying these formulse that the function
It is easily
is
an analytic function
m-l
of z
whose derivative
(cos mw +
mp
4.
11
is
sinmw) (cos w
equal to
i
sin w)
= mz m - 1
Functions analytic throughout a region. The preceding general

still somewhat vague, for so far nothing has been
statements are
said about the limits between
portion
of the plane
which
is
may vary.
said to be connected, or to consist of
any two points whatever

of that portion by a continuous path which lies entirely in that
a single piece, when
it is
possible to join
connected portion situated entirely at a

portion of the plane.
finite distance can be bounded by one or several closed curves,
always one closed curve which forms the

exterior boundary. A portion of the plane extending to infinity may
be composed of all the points exterior to one or more closed curves
among which
there
is
may
it
also be limited
by curves having
infinite branches.
We
shall
to denote a connected portion of the plane.

*
is said to be analytic
function /(~) of the complex variable
employ the term region
in a connected region
conditions
2)
/()
that
if it
satisfies
the following
is
is,
corresponds a definite value of f(z)

when the point 2 varies in
the absolute value of / (z
f(z) approaches
h)
To every point
1)
of the plane
z of
a continuous function of
when
zero with the absolute value of h
of A,f(z) has a uniquely determined deriva

point
to
that
is,
point z corresponds a complex number
every
f (z)
of the difference
value
the
absolute
that
such
f(z)
At every
3)
tive
approaches zero when h approaches zero. Given any positive

ber e, another positive number yj can be found such that
|
\f(z
(4)
num
+ h)-f(z)-hf (z)\^t\h\
h is less than y.
For the moment we shall not make any hypothesis as to the values
of /() on the curves which limit A. When we say that a function
is analytic in the interior of a region A bounded by a closed curve T
if
The adjective holomorphic
is
also often used.
TRANS.
12
and on the boundary curve
itself,
we
mean by
shall
[I,
this that
analytic in a region Jl containing the boundary curve
/()
T and
is
the
region .4.
function f(z) need not necessarily be analytic throughout its
region of existence. It may have, in general, singular points, which
may be of very varied types. It would be out of place at this point
make a
to
which
we
are
classification of these singular points, the very nature of
we proceed with
now commencing.
will appear as
Since the rules which give the derivative of
Rational functions.
5.
the study of functions which
a sum, of a product, and of a quotient are logical consequences of the

definition of a derivative, they apply also to functions of a complex
variable.
The same
is
true of the rule for the derivative of a func
= f(Z)
Let u
tion of a function.
be an analytic function of the

Z another analytic function
complex variable Z if we substitute for

u is
of another complex variable
(2)
;
<
the variable
z.
We
still
an analytic function of
have, in fact,
= Aw
A^
A.Z"
AZ
A^
5
A*"
when As approaches zero, |AZ| approaches zero, and each of

quotients Aw/AZ, AZ/Az approaches a definite limit. Therefore
quotient A^/Az itself approaches a limit
the
the
limfjj
We
have already seen
-/(*)*
<)
that the function
(3)
= (x + yi) m
zm
is
and that
2,
derivative
its
is
mzm ~
This
can be shown directly as in the case of real variables. In fact, the

binomial formula, which results simply from the properties of multi
in the same way to complex
plication, obviously can be extended
Therefore we can write
quantities.
where
m is
a positive integer
/?\
~"l
~
tn v m
-m^
and from
r
1
1
-
-4-
/
"V
"i
""""
"
-t-/^
this follows
1>2
-*L
\
/
I7n9l
~\
T~
~r"
/?
I,
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
6]
It is clear that the right-hand side has
mzm ~
13
for its limit
when
absolute value of h approaches zero.

It follows that any polynomial with constant coefficients
is
the
an
rational function
analytic function throughout the whole plane.
of
two
the
polynomials P(), Q(), which we may
quotient
(that is,
as well suppose prime to each other) is also in general an analytic
function, but it has a certain number of singular points, the roots of
the equation Q (2) = 0. It is analytic in every region of the plane

which does not include any of these points.
AVhen a point describes a continu

x
and
ous curve, the coordinates
y, as well as the absolute value p,
the same is also true of the angle,
and
vary in a continuous manner,
6.
Certain irrational functions.
FIG. 3 6
FIG. 3 a
the origin. If
provided the curve described does not pass through
the point 2 describes a closed curve, x, y, and p return to their
this is not always the case. If
original values, but for the angle
o>
the origin is outside the region inclosed by the closed curve (Fig. 3 a),
but this
it is evident that the angle will return to its original value
as
curve
such
is no longer the case if the point z describes a
Q
Q
;
M NPM
or
M npqM
(Fig. 3
ft).
In the first case the angle takes on

and in the second case it takes on
value increased by 2 TT,

value increased by 4?r.
It is clear that
its
original
its
original
can be made to describe
closed curves such that, if we follow the continuous variation of the

will differ
angle along any one of them, the final value assumed by
<o
from the initial value by 2 nir, where

tive or negative.
In general, when
is
an arbitrary
integer, posi
describes a closed curve, the
14
[i,
a returns to its initial value if the point a lies outside

angle of z
of the region bounded by that closed curve, but the curve described
by z can always be chosen so that the final value assumed by the

a will be equal to the initial value increased by 2mr.
angle of z
Let us now consider the equation
um
(5)
= z,
=
a positive integer. To every value of z, except z

0,
distinct values of u which satisfy this equation and
therefore correspond to the given value of z. In fact, if we put
where
is
there are
= p (cos +
o>
sin
<o),
= r (cos
<
sin
<),
the relation (5) becomes equivalent to the following pair
= p,
have r = p l/m
i**
From
the
we
first
m<
To obtain
all
(co
4- 2 kTT.
4- 2&7r)/ra.
we have only
to give to the
1
consecutive integral values 0, 1, 2,
,
arbitrary integer k the

in this way we obtain expressions for the
uk
(6)
arith
the distinct values of u
o>
which means that r is the mth

from the second we have
metic root of the positive number p

<
= p--\ cos
m roots of the
equation (5)
+ i Bin
,
It is usual to represent
by
z l/m
any one of these
roots.
When
the variable z describes a continuous curve, each of these

roots itself varies in a continuous manner. If z describes a closed
curve to which the origin is exterior, the angle w comes back to its
u m _ l describes a
original value, and each of the roots U Q u^
closed curve (Fig. 4 a). But if the point z describes the curve
-
M NPM (Fig. 3
Q
&),
w changes
to
o>
-f 2
TT,
<
and the final value of the root
t
equal to the initial value of the root u i+l Hence the arcs
described by the different roots form a single closed curve (Fig. 4 &).
is
These
roots therefore
undergo a cyclic permutation when the

any closed curve with
variable z describes in the positive direction

out double points that incloses the origin. It
is
clear that
by making
z describe a suitable closed path, any one of the roots, starting from
the initial value U Q for example, can be made to take on for its final
,
value the value of any of the other roots. If we wish to maintain

roots of the equation (5)
continuity, we must then consider these
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
not as so
many distinct
functions of
The point
same function.
m values of u takes
2,
but as
15
m distinct branches of the
place, is
of the
0, about which the permutation
called a critical point or a branch point.
FIG. 4 b
FIG. 4 a
In order to consider the
m values
of
as distinct functions of
2,
it will be necessary to disrupt the continuity of these roots along a

can represent this
line proceeding from the origin to infinity.
We
break in the continuity very concretely as follows imagine that in

the plane of z, which we may regard as a thin sheet, a cut is made
along a ray extending from the origin to infinity, for example, along
:
the ray
OL
(Fig. 5),
and that then the two edges of the cut are
110 path along which the variable

slightly separated so that there is
to
the other. Under these circum
one
from
move
z can
edge
directly
stances no closed path whatever can inclose the origin; hence to

each value of z corresponds a completely determined value u { of the
roots,
which we can obtain by tak
ing for the angle
<o
between a and a
the value included
But
TT.
it
must
be noticed that the values of u { at two

on opposite sides of the
points m,
same limit as
same point of
of the value of u
cut do not approach the

the points approach the
the cut.
The
at the point
limit
is
equal to the limit of
the value of u { at the point m, multi

plied by [cos (2 7T/ra) +
FIG. 5
sin (2 7r/m)].
of the roots of the equation (5) is an analytic function. Let

U Q be one of the roots corresponding to a given value Z Q to a value
of z near 2 corresponds a value of u near u tf Instead of trying to
Each
16
U Q)/(Z
find the limit of the quotient (u

limit of its reciprocal
and that
limit
the
fU
= i^m ~^
-,
m
-
u
m u~
or,
we can determine
mu~ We have, then, for the derivative
equal to
is
Z Q ),
[i,
using negative exponents,
l-
In order to be sure of having the value of the derivative which corre

sponds to the root considered, it is better to make use of the expres
sion (l/m)(u/z).
In the interior of a closed curve not containing the origin each
of the determinations of Vz is an analytic function. The equation
um
roots, which permute themselves cyclically
A(z
a) has also
about the critical point z
a.
now
Let us consider
(7)
where
2,
the equation
= A(z-e )(z-eJ...(z-e
l
en
are
n ),
We
distinct quantities.
shall denote
the same letters the points which represent these n quantities.

us set
A = R (cos a
+ sin a),
(cos o^ + i sin
= pk
u = r(cos 6
ek
by
Let
Wjfc ),
-f-
(k
1, 2,
.,
n),
sin 0),
where k represents the angle which the straight-line segment ek z

makes with the direction Ox. From the equation (7) it follows that
<o
=a
-2
P*>
wi
"n
m7r;
hence this equation has two roots that are the negatives of each other,
4- wj -f
2
(8)
py
<,
,,
+ 2 TT\
I,
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
7]
When the variable

p of the points e
z describes a closed curve
17
containing within
it
n will
-,
p of the angles o^, 2
l3
2
increase by 2 TT the angle of u^ and that of u^ will therefore in
crease by J97T. If p is even, the two roots return to their initial
en ,
o>
o>
values
but
if
is
In particular, if the
roots will be permuted. The
In order that the two roots u^ and u 2
odd, they are permuted.
curve incloses a single point e { the

,
two
are branch points.

shall be functions of z that are always uniquely determined, it will
suffice to make a system of cuts such that any closed curve whatever
n points
will
e{
always contain an even number of
critical points.
We
might,
for example, make cuts along rays proceeding from each of the
points e t to infinity and not cutting each other. But there are many
other possible arrangements. If, for example, there are four criti
2
e^ e^ a cut could be made along the segment of a
cal points e v
straight line
e^, and a second along the segment
3 e^.
Single-valued and multiple-valued functions. The simple exam

to light a very important fact.
7.
ples
<?
which we have just treated bring
The value
of a function f(z) of the variable z does not always
depend
entirely upon the value of z alone, but it may also depend in a cer
tain measure upon the succession of values assumed by the variable
from the initial value to the actual value in question,

other words, upon the path followed by the variable z.
VJ. If we pass
Let us return, for example, to the function u
and Q
to the point
from the point
by the two paths Q
z in passing
or, in
M NM
M PM
the same initial value for u, we

(Fig. 3 &), starting in each case with
the same value for u, for the two values
shall not obtain at
obtained for the angle of z will differ by 2

introduce a new distinction.
TT.
We
are thus led to
* in a
region
analytic function /(.") is said to be single-valued
to
Z
from
a
A
in
which
A when all the paths
any other point
go
point Q
whatever z lead to the same final value for /(). When, however,
An
/() is not the same for all possible paths in A,

function that is
to be multiple-valued J
said
the function
is
A
of
a
necessarily single-valued in.
region
analytic at every point
the final value of
is
that region. In general, in order that a function /() be singlevalued in a given region, it is necessary and sufficient that the func
tion return to its original value
* In
"V
when
the variable makes a circuit of
French the term uniforme or the term monodrome

TRANS.
is used.
In French the term multiforme
is
used.
TRANS.
18
[I,
any closed path whatever. If, in fact, in going from the point A to
the point B by the two paths A MB (Fig. 6) and ANB, we arrive in
the two cases at the point B with the same determination of /(), it
is obvious that, when the variable is made to describe the closed
curve
A MBNA, we
shall return to the point

value of /().
Conversely, let us suppose that, the varia
ble having described the path A MBNA, we
with the
initial
return to the point of departure with the

initial value U
and let u^ be the value of the
Q
;
function at the point B after z, has described the path AMB. When
z describes the path BNA, the function starts with the value u^ and
will lead
arrives at the value U Q then, conversely, the path
ANB
from the value U Q

path
to the value
u l} that
is,
to the
same value
as the
AMB.
which is not single-valued in a

yet have no critical points in that region. Consider, for
example, the portion of the plane included between two concentric cir
z l/m has no
cles C,
having the origin for center. The function u
It should be noticed that a function
region
may
C"
critical
for if z
point in that region still it is not single-valued in that region,

the
is made to describe a concentric circle between C and C
;
function z l/m will be multiplied by cos (2 TT/W)
IT.
POWER
8.
-f- *
sin (2 TT/WI).
WITH COMPLEX TERMS. ELEMENTARY

TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
SERIES
The reasoning employed in the study of

Chap. IX) will apply to power series with
Circle of convergence.
series (Vol.
power
complex terms
"absolute
I,
we have only
value of a real
to replace in the reasoning the phrase
quantity"
by the corresponding
absolute value of a complex quantity."

theorems and results stated there. Let
"
+ a^z
(9)
-f-
a^ +
We
."
one,
shall recall briefly the
be a power series in which the coefficients and the variable may have
any imaginary values whatever. Let us also consider the series of
absolute values,
AQ
(10)
where
A =
i
\a i
,r=
z\.
We
can prove
1st ed.) the existence of a positive
181, 2d ed.
(I,
number
177,
such that the series
POWER
8]
I,
WITH COMPLEX TERMS
value of r
>
The number R
R.
is
19
R, and divergent for every

equal to the reciprocal of the
convergent for every value of r
is
(10)
SERIES
<
greatest limit of the terms of the sequence
and, as particular cases, it may be zero or infinite.

From these properties of the number R it follows at once that the
series (9) is absolutely convergent when the absolute value of z is
less than R. It cannot be convergent for a value # of z whose abso
lute value is greater than R, for the series of absolute values (10)
would then be convergent for values of r greater than
181,
(I,
2d ed.
177, 1st ed.). If, with the origin as center, we describe in
the plane of the variable z a circle C of radius R (Fig. 7), the power
series (9) is absolutely convergent for every value of z inside the
;
circle C,
and divergent
for every value of z outside
for this reason
called the circle of convergence. In a point of the circle

the
the
series
itself
may be convergent or divergent, according to the
circle is
particular series.*
In the interior of a circle
radius
and
is
concentric with the
first,
and with a
For
than R, the series (9) is uniformly convergent.

at every point within C we have evidently
it
member
may
be.
less
possible to choose the integer n so large that the second

will be less than any given positive number c, whatever p
From
this
we conclude
that the
sum
of the series (9)
is
continuous function /() of the variable z at every point within the

circle of
convergence
2).
differentiating the series (9) repeatedly, we obtain an unlimited

which have the
number of power series, 1 (^), z
n ( z )j
j
By
(s)>
>
of convergence as the first (I,

183, 2d ed.
179,
1st ed.).
184, 2d ed., that f^(z)
prove in the same way as in
and in general that n (z) is the derivative
is the derivative of
same
circle
We
/(),
whose radius of convergence R is equal to 1.

are positive decreasing numbers such that an ap
proaches zero when n increases indefinitely, the series is convergent in every point
of the circle of convergence, except perhaps for 2=1. In fact, the series 2z, where
*
Let/(z)
= Sa w zM be a power
If the coefficients
a 1(
series
z = 1, is indeterminate except for z = 1, for the absolute value of the sum of the first
n terms is less than 2/| 1 - z it will suffice, then, to apply the reasoning of 166, Vol. I,
based on the generalized lemma of Abel. In the same way the series a - a t z + a 2 z 2
which is obtained from the preceding by replacing z by - z, is convergent at all the
= - 1. (Cf I, 166.)
points of the circle z -= 1, except perhaps for z
|
20
of
fn _i(z).
Every power
tion in the interior
of
an analytic func
is an infinite
series represents therefore
its circle
[I,
There
of convergence.
sequence of derivatives of the

given function, and all of them
are analytic functions in the
same
Given a point
circle.
the
inside
draw a
circle
let
tangent to
in the interior,
circle
the circle
C,
us
with the given point as cen

a
ter, and then let us take
point z 4- h inside c if r and
of
p are the absolute values
;
and
FIG.
4-
<
(Fig. 7).
of the series
sum
4-
we have r + p R
The sum f(z + h)
A,
4- 2
-\
4-
an zn
+ na
nz
is equal to the
series
double
the
of
4n-l
1.2
4-
when we sum by columns. But

for if we replace each term by
this series is absolutely convergent,

its absolute value, we shall have a
sum
double series of positive terms whose
+4.(r +
+ A i(r + ?) +
is
/)"
the double series (11) by rows, and

h inside the circle c, the relation
then, for every point z
We
can therefore
sum
we have
(12)
The
/(*
+ *) =
series of the
Vi+
second member
the absolute value of h
is less
than
/^*
is
surely convergent so long as

it may be convergent
r, but
R-
are
Since the functions fi(z), /2 (),
/(*)>
formula
the
of
(12) is
f(z)
equal to the successive derivatives
identical with the Taylor development.
If the series (9) is convergent at a point Z of the circle of con
is the limit approached by the
vergence, the sum f(Z) of the series
z
sum f(z) when the point approaches the point Z along a radius
in a larger circle.
>
POWER SERIES WITH COMPLEX TERMS
9]
I,
21
which terminates in that point. We prove this just as in Volume I

in
182, 2d ed.
178, 1st ed.), by putting z = OZ and letting
(
crease from
to 1. The theorem is still true when
remaining inside
;
the circle, approaches Z along a curve which is not tangent at Z to

the circle of convergence.*
When the radius R is infinite, the circle of convergence includes
the whole plane, and the function f(z) is analytic for every value
of z.
say that this is an integral function ; the study of tran
scendental functions of this kind is one of the most important
We
We
shall study in the following paragraphs

objects of Analysis. t
the classic elementary transcendental functions.
Given a power series (9) with any coefficients whatever, we

second power series *Lan z n whose coefficients are all real
and positive, dominates the first series if for every value of n we have a n == an
All the consequences deduced by means of dominant functions (I,
186-189,
2d ed.
181-184, 1st ed.) follow without modification in the case of complex
9.
Double series.
shall say again that a
variables.
We shall now
give another application of this theory.
Let
(13)
/o(z)
+ MZ) + MZ) +
be a series of which each term
is itself
+ fn (z) +
sum
the
of a
in a circle of radius equal to or greater than the

fi(z)
a i()
+ aaz+
power series
number E 0,
that converges
>
a in z n
Suppose each term of the series (13) replaced by its development according to
powers of z we obtain thus a double series in which each column is formed by
the development of a function f{ (z) When that series is absolutely convergent
;
for a value of z of absolute value
/o,
that
2)2)
n
is,
<*
i
when
the double series
IP-
is
convergent,
we can sum
the
first
double series by rows for every value of z

p. We obtain thus the development of
whose absolute value does not exceed

the
sum
F(z) of the series (13) in powers of
This proof
powers
is
essentially the
same
z,
ain
+-,
(n
0, 1, 2,
as that for the development of f(z
).
h) in
of h.
Suppose, for example, that the series f{ (z) has a dominant function of the
form Mir/(r
2), and that the series SJft is itself convergent. In the double
-
* See PICARD, Traite d Analyse, Vol. II, p. 73.

t The class of integral functions includes polynomials as a special case. If there
are an infinite number of terms in the development, we shall use the expression
f
integral transcendental function.
TRANS.
22
series the absolute value of the general
the series
is
is less
than Mi\z\ n /r*.
If \z\
<
absolutely convergent, for the series of the absolute values
convergent and
its
sum
Development of an
10,
term
[I,
infinite
rSM -/(r
than
is less
r,
is
|z|).
Let
product in power series.
be an infinite product where each of the functions w is a continuous function

of the complex variable z in the region D. If the series SZ7t-, where Z7,|u,-|,
is uniformly convergent in the region, F(z) is equal to the sum of a series that
is uniformly convergent in D, and therefore represents a continuous function
-
175, 176,
(I,
2d
ed.).
When the functions m
lows, from a general theorem which

same is true of F(z).
For example, the infinite product
will be
are analytic functions of
demonstrated later
z, it fol
39), that the
represents a function of z analytic throughout the entire plane, for the series
2
within any closed curve whatever. This
2|z| / n2 is uniformly convergent
and for these values only.
0,
1,
2,
product is zero for z
can prove directly that the product F(z) can be developed in a power
We
series
when each
of the functions
Ui (z)
an
m can be
anz
developed in a power series
+ a in zn +
(i
0, 1, 2,
),
such that the double series
is
convergent for a suitably chosen positive value of

Let us set, as in Volume I ( 174, 2d ed.),
VQ
=I+
It is sufficient to
Vn
show that the sum
Now,
is equal to the infinite

if
we
vl
(1
MI )
(1
+ M_l)M.
of the series
vn
product F(z), can be developed in a power
series.
set
u
it is
(14)
which
= (l+
r.
\0i
aa
z
|
\a in \z
clear that the product
(1+
<_iK
a dominant function for v n It is therefore possible to arrange the series (14)

according to powers of z if the following auxiliary series
is
(15)
* +
<
vn
can be so arranged.
obtain a
If we develop each term of this last series in power series, we
double series with positive coefficients, and it is sufficient for our purpose to
POWER
11]
I,
WITH COMPLEX TERMS
SERIES
23
prove that the double series converges when z is replaced by r. Indicating by

Un and Vn the values of the functions un and vn for z r, we have
and therefore
F;
+ F; +
+ F; = a +
. . .
uj)
. . .
(i
or, again,
When n
sum I7j +
+ 17^ approaches a limit, since
supposed to be convergent. The double series (16) is then
r
the double series obtained by the development
absolutely convergent if z
of each term v n of the series (14) is then a fortiori absolutely convergent within
the circle C of radius r, and we can arrange it according to integral powers of z.
increases indefinitely, the
the series ?,Un
is
The coefficient bp of ZP in the development of F(z) is equal, from the above, to the
limit, as
n becomes
infinite, of
the coefficient 6pn of ZP in the
sum VQ+V^---- +
vw ,
or what amounts to the same thing, in the development of the product

?
Hence this coefficient can be obtained by applying to infinite products the

ordinary rule which gives the coefficient of a power of z in the product of a
finite
number
For example, the
of polynomials.
F(z)
(I
z)(l
z*) (1
+z
infinite
(1
product
*)
1
can be developed according to powers of z if z
Any power of z whatever,
N will appear in the development with the coefficient unity, for any posi
say Z
tive integer
can be written in one and only one way in the form of a sum of
<
powers of
2.
We
have, then,
F(z)
(16)
if
|
<
= l + z + z*+
...
+z+
.
J.
which can
also be very easily obtained
The exponential
11.
function.
by means
of the identity
The arithmetic
definition of the ex
ponential function evidently has no meaning when the exponent is

a complex number. In order to generalize the definition, it will be
necessary to start with some property which is adapted to an exten

sion to the case of the complex variable. We shall start with the
property expressed by the functional relation
= ax + x
ax x a x
Let us consider the question of determining a power series /(z), con

vergent in a circle of radius R, such that
(1?)
when
/(*
+ * )=/(*)/(* )
the absolute values of
-f-
z are less than R,
which
will
24
are less than R/2.

surely be the case if \z\ and
in the above equation, it becomes
If
11
[I,
we put
/(*)=/(*)/(<)).
Hence we must have /(O)
= 1,
and we
shall write the desired series
Let us replace successively in that series

by \t, then by XV, where
X and X are two constants and t an auxiliary variable and let us
then multiply the resulting series. This gives
;
On
we have
the other hand,
The equality /(X

X
then be
X,
<
identical, that
a B (X
=/(X*)/(X
-f XV)
such that
+X =
)
1,
is,
|X
<
1,
|*|
to hold for all values of
is
<
R/2.
The two
series
must
we must have
+
and from
we can deduce
the equations
which can be expressed in the
of
all
this
/I Q\
-LO )
Wp
single condition
ft
_j_
Ufpivqj
any two positive integers whatever. In order to

find the general solution, let us suppose q = 1, and let us put
= 2, p = 3,
from this we find 2 = a?, then
successively p = 1, p
=
=
a
and finally n
a
a? The expressions thus obtained
^=a
series sought is of the form
the
and
the condition
where
p and
q are
(18),
satisfy
_!
"
12!
POWER
11]
I,
This series
is
is
SERIES
WITH COMPLEX TERMS
25
convergent in the whole plane, and the relation
true for all values of z
and
The above series depends upon an

a 1 = 1, we shall set
arbitrary constant ar
Taking
so that the general solution of the given problem is e ai z The inte

z
x
gral function e coincides with the exponential function e studied in
.
algebra
when
is real,
whatever z and z
Since
tion itself.
and
it
always
satisfies the relation
may be. The derivative of e is equal to

we may write by the addition formula
z
in order to calculate ez
when
the func
an imaginary value x 4it is

Now the development of e yi
can be written, grouping together terms of the same kind,
z has
yi>
sufficient to
know how
to calculate e yi
We
recognize in the second member the developments of cos

of sin y, and consequently, if y is real,
e yi
Replacing
e yi
by
-f-
sin y.
this expression in the preceding formula,

x
e +
(19)
x
e +
= cos y
yi
y and
= ex (cos y + i sin y)
we have
has e for its absolute value and y for its angle.

This formula makes evident an important property of e z
if z
changes to z + 2 TTI, x is not changed while y is increased by 2 TT,
the function
yi
but these changes do not alter the value of the second

the formula (19). We have, then,
of
is, the exponential function e has the period 2 iri.

Let us consider now the solution of the equation e z = A, where A
any complex quantity whatever different from zero. Let p and
that
is
member
o>
be the absolute value and the angle of
we
have, then,
+ i sin y) = p (cos + * sin

to
o>),
26
from which
the
ll
where the abbreviation
log
follows that
it
From
[I,
we
relation
first
=p
find
co
+ 2 &TT.
x = log
/>,
always be used for the natural logarithm of a real positive

number. On the other hand, y is determined except for a multiple
x
leads to an impossibility.
of 2 TT. If A is zero, the equation e =
shall
Hence
the equation
A, where
e*
is
not zero, has an infinite num

2 &TT) the equation
i
(w
ber of roots given by the expression log p

z
has no roots, real or imaginary.
e
We
z
might also define e as the limit approached by the poly
m
nomial (1 + z/m) when m becomes infinite. The method used in
z
algebra to prove that the limit of this polynomial is the series e can
Note.
when
be used even
is
complex.
12. Trigonometric functions.
when
is
when
functions
series established for these
Thus we
In order to define sin z and cos z
complex, we shall extend directly to complex values the

the variable
is
real.
have
shall
m* ^
Q1T1
-.
These are integral transcendental functions which have all the

from the
properties of the trigonometric functions. Thus we see
that the derivative of sin z
f ormulge (20)
of cos z
is
sin z,
not change at
all
and
when
is
cos
z is changed to
z,
that the derivative
sin 2, while cos z does
that sin z becomes

z.
These new transcendental functions can be brought into very close

relation with the exponential function. In fact, if we write the ex
zi
the
collecting separately the terms with and without
pansion of e
,
factor
we
find that that equality can be written,

e
Changing z
to
z,
zi
cos *
by
+ i sin z.
we have again
e~ zi
= cos 2
and from these two relations we
isinz,
derive
(20),
in the
form
POWER
12]
I,
/0
-,
cosz
(21)
SERIES
WITH COMPLEX TERMS
+ e-*
sm* =
e*t
27
-*i
These are the well-known formulae of Euler which express the

trigonometric functions in terms of the exponential function. They
show plainly the
periodicity of these functions, for the right-hand
do not change when we replace z by

adding them, we have
sides
e (z +
Let us take again the addition formula
and
let
Squaring and
TT.
= 1.
cos z 4- sin2
cos (z 4-
z -f 2
z/)i
sin (s +
) 4)
= (cos s 4- 1 sin z) (cos 4- i sin z )
= cos z cos
sin z sin z 4- {(sin z cos
zi
z/i
,
or
us change
cos (z 4- #
to
z,
z to
It then
sin (2 4- 2 )
)
cos z cos 2
sin z sin z
4- sin
cos
),
becomes
i(sin.
z cos
4- sin z cos
),
and from these two formulae we derive

cos (z 4- z
sin ( 4-
= cos z cos z
=
sin z cos
)
sin
The addition formulae and
sin z
4- sin z cos
therefore all their consequences apply for
complex values of the independent variables. Let us determine, for

example, the real part and the coefficient of i in cos (x 4- yi) and
sin (x 4- yi).
cos yi
We
e~ v
have
-\-
ev
first,
by Euler
= cosh y,
formulae,
sin yi
e~ y
ev
:
sinh y
whence, by the addition formulae,

cos
(a; 4- 2/0
sin (x 4- 2/0
= cos x cos yi sin x sin yi = cos x cosh

= sin x cos 4~ cos x sin = sin x cosh y
?/
?/t
?/
sin
cc
sinh
?/,
-{- i
cos
cc
sinh
?/.
The other trigonometric functions can be expressed by means of

the preceding. For example,
tan z
sin z
cos z
1 e zi
-7
i e
zt
e~ zi
e~ e
which may be written in the form
** =
The right-hand
tangent
is
side
is
therefore
TT.
1 ea
-1
17*+I
a rational function of
2 2i
;
the period of the
28
Given a complex quantity
13. Logarithms.
2,
[I,
different
from
13
zero,
u
we have already seen (11) that the equation e = z has an infinite
x + yi, and let p and denote the absolute
number of roots. Let u
value and angle of z, respectively. Then we must have
o>
Any
one of these roots
denoted by Log
(z).
We
Log
is called the logarithm of z and will be

can write, then,
(z)
log p
+ i (w H- 2 &TT),
the symbol log being reserved for the ordinary natural, or Napierian,
logarithm of a real positive number.
Every quantity, real or complex, different from zero, has an

number of logarithms, which form an arithmetic progres
sion whose consecutive terms differ by 2 irL In particular, if z is a
= 0. Taking k = 0, we find again
real positive number x, we have
the ordinary logarithm but there are also an infinite number of
complex values for the logarithm, of the form log x + 2 kirL If z is
infinite
<o
TT
hence all the determinations
and negative, we can take
of the logarithm are imaginary.
Let z be another imaginary quantity with the absolute value p
real
o>
and the angle
o>
We
have
Log (z ) =
log p
+i
(o>
+ 2 k v).
Adding the two logarithms, we obtain
Log() + Log(V)= logpp
*[
+ 2(A + & )TT].
equal to the absolute value of zz and

form
angle, this formula can be written in the
Since pp
its
is
f
<o
Log 0) + Log (z ) = Log (zz )
-f-
<o
is
equal to
which shows
that,
when we add any one whatever
of the values of
Log (2) to any one whatever of the values of Log(V), the

of the determinations of Log (zz )*
sum
is
one
Let us suppose now that the variable z describes in its plane any
continuous curve whatever not passing through the origin; along
this curve p and
vary continuously, and the same thing is true of
o>
the different determinations of the logarithm. But two quite distinct

cases may present themselves when the variable z traces a closed
When
z starts from a point z and returns to that point after

a closed curve not containing the origin within it,
described
having
and the different
of z takes on again its original value
the angle
curve.
<o
o>
I,
POWER
13]
SERIES
WITH COMPLEX TERMS
29
determinations of the logarithm come back to their initial values. If

we represent each value of the logarithm by a point, each of these
points traces out a closed curve. On the contrary, if the variable z
M NMP
describes a closed curve such as the curve

(Fig. 3 ), the
Q
angle increases by 2 TT, and each determination of the logarithm
returns to its initial value increased by 2?ri. In general, when z
any closed curve whatever, the final value of the logarithm

its initial value increased
by 2k7ri, where k denotes a
positive or negative integer which gives the number of revolutions
and the direction through which the radius vector joining the origin
describes
is
equal to
to the point z has turned.
It is, then, impossible to consider the dif

ferent determinations of Log(V) as so many distinct functions of z
if we do not place any restriction on the variation of that
variable,
since
we can
many
pass continuously from one to the other. They are so

branches of the same function, which are permuted among
themselves about the
critical point z
0.
In the interior of a region which is bounded by a single closed curve

and which does not contain the origin, each of the determinations of
Log (2)
is
a continuous single-valued function of
z.
To show
that
it
an analytic function it is sufficient to show that it possesses a

unique derivative at each point. Let z and z^ be two neighboring
values of the variable, and Log(V), Log(^) the corresponding values
is
of the chosen determination of the logarithm. When z approaches

l
the absolute value of Log (z^)
Log (z) approaches zero. Let us put
z,
Log (z) =
u,
Log (j)
= u^
then
z^
When
ui
.e
MJ approaches u, the quotient
approaches as
limit the derivative of eu
its
that
is,
or
z.
Hence
the logarithm has a uniquely determined derivative at each point,

and that derivative is equal to l/. In general, Log (z
a) has an
infinite
number
of determinations which permute themselves about
the critical point z

a, and its derivative is !/(#
a).
The function zm where is any number whatever, real or complex,
is defined
by means of the equality
,
30
Unless
[I,
13
be a real rational number, this function possesses, just as
does the logarithm, an infinite number of determinations, which per

mute themselves when the variable turns about the point z
0. It is
make an infinite cut along a ray from the origin in

make each branch an analytic function in the whole plane.
sufficient to
order to
The
and
derivative
is
clear that
it is
of z in the function
given by the expression
we ought
and
14. Inverse functions
same value
z,
cos
for the angle
The inverse functions
arc sin z, arc tan z.
tan z are defined in a similar way.

arc sin z is defined by the equation
of sin
to take the
in its derivative.
Thus, the function
z,
= sin u.
In order to solve this equation for
we
n,
write
and we are led
an equation of the second degree,
to
U*-2izU-l=Q,
(22)
to determine the auxiliary
from
unknown quantity U
=e
ui
.
We
obtain
roots,
which
this equation
U=
(23)
Vl -
iz
* 2,
or
= arc sin z =
(24)
Vl
Log (12
z2 ).
If
The equation
sin
u has therefore two sequences of
Vl z\
arise, on the one hand, from the two values of the radical
of
determinations
number
infinite
from
the
other
on
the
hand,
and,
of the logarithm. But if one of these determinations is known,
tw/
and
all the others can easily be determined from it. Let U = p e
=
be the two roots of the equation (22) between these
1
"
i<a
U"
p"e
two roots
o>
<o"
the relation
exists
= (2 n + 1)
U"
It is clear that
TT.
1,
and therefore
we may suppose
and we have then

1
Log (U )
Log
= logp 4- *( + 2k ir),
= - log p + (TT - + 2
i
(U")
k"ir).
<o"
p"
= TT
= 1,
co
r
,
I,
POWER
14]
Hence
all
WITH COMPLEX TERMS
SERIES
31
the determinations of arc sin z are given by the two
formulae
=
arc sin z =
arc sin z
-f-
o>
TT
2k
+2
TT
log p,
&"TT
log
and we may write

(A)
arc sin z
(B)
arc sin s
where u
=u
= (2
4- 2
A;"
&
TT,
+ 1) TT - M
i log p
the variable z describes a continuous curve, the various
determinations of the logarithm in the formula (24) vary in general
in a continuous manner. The only critical points that are possible
.
<a
When
are the points &

1, around which the two values of the radical
z 2 are permuted; there cannot be a value of z that causes
Vl
Vl
iz
z 2 to vanish, for, if there were,
of the equation iz
Vl
z*
on squaring the two sides
we should obtain 1=0.

are made along the axis
of reals, one
Let us suppose that two cuts
co to the point
1, the other from the point -f 1 to
going from
If the path described by the variable is not allowed to cross
4- oo
.
these cuts, the different determinations of arc sin z are single-valued

functions of z. In fact, when the variable z describes a closed curve
of equation (22)
not crossing any of these cuts, the two roots U
also describe closed curves. None of these curves contains the
U"
origin in its interior. If, for example, the curve described by the
root U contained the origin in its interior, it would cut the axis Oy
of
in a point above Ox at least once. Corresponding to a value of
1
the relation (22) determines a value (1 -f a2)/2 cc

The curve described by the
1.
and this value is real and
the form ia(a

for
2,
>
0),
>
point z would therefore have to cross the cut which goes from
+1
to
The
+ cc.
different determinations of arc sin z are, moreover, analytic
For let u and u be two neighboring values of
* If we choose in U=iz + Vl-z 2 the determination of the radical which reduces to

when z=0, the real part of U remains positive when the variable z does not cross
the cuts, and we can put U=Re
lies between -7T/2 and +?r/2. The cor
where
responding value of (l/i) Log U, namely,
1
<
arc sin
z= - Log
U=&-i Log R,
sometimes called the principal value of arc sin z. It reduces to the ordinary deter
mination when z is real and lies between - 1 and + 1.
is
32
arc sin
z,
variable.
[I,
corresponding to two neighboring values z and
We
of the
have
Ui
U_
zl
Uj
sin u^
sin
u approaches
When
the absolute value of u^

quotient has for its limit
1
zero, the
preceding
of the derivative correspond to the two sequences

and (B) of arc sin z.
The two values
of values (A)
If we do not impose any restriction on the variation of z, we can
of arc sin z to any one of the deter
pass from a given initial value
minations whatever, by causing the variable z to describe a suitable
In
closed curve.
fact,
we
see first that
when
z describes about the
1 is exterior,
1 a closed curve to which the point z =
point z
so we pass
and
z* are permuted
the two values of the radical Vl
the
of
to
one
from a determination of the sequence (A)
sequence (B).
of radius R (R
1)
Suppose next that we cause z to describe a circle
describes
two
of
the
about the origin as center then each
points U
a closed curve. To the point z = + R the equation (22) assigns two
>
U =
U"
where a and ft are positive to the

there correspond by means of the same equation the
point
= ift where a and ft are again positive.
ia
values U =
cut the
Hence the closed curves described by these two points U
the
below
other
the
point
axis Oy in two points, one above and
zR
values of U,
ia,
U"
ift,
U"
U"
each of the logarithms Log
by
(*7
), Log(C7")
increases or diminishes
27Ti.
In the same way the function arc tan z

the relation tan u
z,
or
1
_
~
e^ -
is
defined by means of
(
whence we have
and consequently
i of the
This expression shows the two logarithmic critical points
these
of
one
around
z
function arc tan z. When the variable
passes
or
diminishes
by 2?ri, and
points, Log \_(i
z)/(i + z) ] increases
arc tan z increases or diminishes
by
TT.
I,
POWER
15]
WITH COMPLEX TERMS
SERIES
The
15. Application to the integral calculus.
tions
33
derivatives of the func
which we have just defined have the same form as when the
variable
Conversely, the rules for finding primitive functions
is real.
apply also to the elementary functions of
complex variables. Thus,

the
of
a
function
complex variable z whose
denoting by ff(z)dz
derivative is /(#), we have
Adz
(z
m-\(z- a
a)
Adz
These two formulae enable us to find a primitive function of any
rational function whatever, with real or imaginary coefficients, pro
vided the roots of the denominator are known. Consider as a special
case a rational function of the real variable x with real coefficients.
If the denominator has imaginary roots, they occur in conjugate
pairs, and each root has the same multiplicity as its conjugate.
Let a
pi be two conjugate roots of multiplicity p. In
(31 and a
the decomposition into simple fractions, if we proceed with the

imaginary roots just as with the real roots, the root a -f- fti will
furnish a
sum
of simple fractions
Mp + N
M + NJ
+ N,i
_ a - pi
M,
x
-a(x
pi
-a(x
(Sif
pi)
pi will furnish a similar sum, but with numerators
and the root a
that are conjugates of the former ones. Combining in the primitive

function the terms which come from the corresponding fractions, we
shall have, if
>
1,
M-Ni
1
I"
M +N
p
M -N
"*"
p-l[(x-a- piy-i
and the numerator

polynomials.
If p
x-a-
is
evidently the
= 1,
sum
of
- a + PI)*-*\
(x
two conjugate imaginary
we have
= (M + N i) Log [(x -a)- pi-] + (M - Nfi Log [(-)

1
34
15
[I,
we replace the logarithms by their developed expressions, there

remains on the right-hand side
If
M log
l
[(a;
a)
+ 2 A\ arc tan ^
/3 ]
cc
cc
It suffices to replace
arc tan
(3
-
TT
by
77
arc tan
x - a
2,
in order to express the result in the form in

when imaginary symbols are not used.
which
it
is
obtained
Again, consider the indefinite integral
dx
Iwhich has two essentially different forms, according to the sign of

A The introduction of complex variables reduces the two forms to a
.
single one.
In
formula
fact, if in the
dx
we change x
to ix, there results
dx
Vl-x
1
2
and the right-hand side represents precisely arc sin x.

The introduction of imaginary symbols in the integral calculus
enables us, then, to reduce one formula to another even when the
if we were
relationship between them might not be at all apparent
remain always in the domain of real numbers.

shall give another example of the simplification which comes
from the use of imaginaries. If a and b are real, we have
to
We
bx
-f-
bi
sinfcc).
one stroke
Equating the real parts and the coefficients of i, we have at
1st
ed.
2d
calculated
two integrals already
119,
ed.)
109,
(I,
:
~~
ax
sinbxdx
(a cos bx
-f-
& sin bx
a
b sin bx)
b cos bx)
-2,7-2
1
1
+h
POWER
16]
I,
In the same way we

/
to the integral
WITH COMPLEX TERMS
SERIES
may
35
reduce the integrals
^ ^
x m e ax cog fa
m e^ a + bi)x
which can be calculated by a succession

m is any integer.
fx
dx,
xm e ax
fa
of integrations by parts, where

16. Decomposition
of
rational
function
of
sinz and cosz into
Given a rational function of sin z and cos z,

simple
if
in
it we replace sin z and cos z
cos
by their expressions
^(sin 2,
),
s
Euler
it
becomes
a
rational
function R(t) of
formula,
given by
elements.
R (t), decomposed into simple elements, will be

of an integral part and a sum of fractions coming from
the roots of the denominator of R (t). If that denominator has the
t
zi
This function
made up
we
combine with the integral part the fractions aris

which
will give a polynomial or a rational function
root,
R l (t) = ^Km t m where the exponent m may have negative values.
Let t = a be a root of the denominator different from zero. That
root
0,
shall
ing from that
root will give rise to a
The
of simple fractions
root a not being zero, let
a:
be a root of the equation
a) can be expressed very simply by means of ctn [(
then !/(
We
sum
ai
)/2].
have, in fact,
whence
it
follows that
Hence the
n in ctn [(
1,-*
*-<*
rational fraction f(f) changes to a polynomial of degree
)/2],
Aa
The
successive powers of the cotangent up to the Tith can be ex

its successive derivatives up to the
pressed in turn in terms of

(n
l)th;
we have
first
36
which enables us
to express ctn
[I,
in terms of d(ctuiz)/dz,
and
16
it is
easy to show, by mathematical induction, that if the law is true up

n+ 1
z.
The preceding polynomial
to ctnn z, it will also be true for ctn
of degree n in ctn[(z
a)/2] will change to a linear expression in
#)/2] and
ctn[(s
its
derivatives,
dn
a\
I of the
Let us proceed in the same way with all the roots ft, e,
denominator of R (t) different from zero, and let us add the results
,
zi
obtained after having replaced t by e in R^t). The given rational
function F(smz, cos 2) will be composed of two parts,
F(sin z, cos
(25)
z)
3>
(z)
The function $(), which corresponds

rational function of the variable,
(26)
where
(z)
is
=C+
an integer not
is
$ (aTO
zero.
On
+ * (z).
to the integral part of a
of the form
cos
mz
-f
@m
sin mz),
the other hand,
responds to the fractional part of a rational function,

of the form
*(), which
is
cor
an expression
role of the
It is the function ctn[(
)/2] which here plays the
for
a rational
does
the
fraction
as
!/(
a)
simple element, just
function.
integrated
The
;
result of this decomposition of ^(sin
we
cos
is
easily
have, in fact,
(27)
and the other terms are integrable
at once.
In order that the primi
be periodic, it is necessary and sufficient that all

be zero.
the coefficients C, j4v fB v
In practice it is not always necessary to go through all these suc
cos z) into
cessive transformations in order to put the function ,F(sin
function
the
makes
Let a be a value of z which
its final form
tive function
may
(25).
infinite.
We
can always calculate, by a simple division, the
POWER
16]
I,
= a (I,
a)
188, 2d
P (z
(z
ed.
a) is a
ctn/
where
WITH COMPLEX TERMS
coefficients of (z
for 2
SERIES
#)-*,
183, 1st ed.).
power
series
in the part that is infinite

other hand, we have
On the
j=
37
P(z
a),
equating the coefficients of the
l
of the equation (25),
successive powers of (z
a)~ in the two sides
we shall then obtain easily j41} j42
, Jln
cos a).
Setting
Consider, for example, the function l/(cos z
-
zi
t,
ai
= a,
it
takes the form
2 at
The denominator has the two simple
roots
= a, t~ I/a, and the

We shall have,
numerator is of lower degree than the denominator.

then, a decomposition of the form
z
a
z
1
cos a
cos z
AA
+ jl ctn
3 ctn
4-
In order to determine jl, let us multiply the two sides by z

a, and
a
similar
In
sin
us then put z = a. This gives jl =
a).
l/(2
= l/(2 sin a). Replacing ./? and by these values
manner, we find
= 0, and the formula takes the form
and setting z
0, it is seen that (7
let
=
cos z
cos
!/,ctn -~+-- ctn z
2 sin a
a\
H
Z
I)
Let us now apply the general method to the integral powers of sinz and
We have, for example,
of cos z.
e zi J_
_!_
(
Combining the terms at equal distances from the extremities of the expansion
and then applying Euler s formulae, we find at once
of the numerator,
(2cosz)"
= 2cosmz +
m is
~
2racos(ra-2)z
cos(m-
if
and
sin2)
if
m is
even,
sin
mz -2im sin(m -
!]
m is odd,
(2
m is even, the term which ends the

In the same way,
m !/[(m/2)
odd, the last term contains cos z if

expansion is independent of z and is equal to
If
4)2
2)2
2i
m ^~
sin
(m
- 4)2
2)z+
+(
I)
U/
m
These formula} show at once that the primitive functions of (sinz) and of
m are periodic functions of z when m is odd, and only then.
(cosz)
38
When
Note.
the function
F(smz,
express it rationally in terms of

elements ctn (z
y3),
a), ctn(2
[I,
16
cos 2) has the period TT, we can

and can take for the simple
2zi
which
(1 + z). The transcendental functions
two kinds those which, like e z sin z, cos 2, are
like Log z, arc tan z,
analytic in the whole plane, and those which,
have singular points and cannot be represented by developments in
17. Expansion of
we have denned
Log
are of
whole plane. Nevertheless, such

have developments holding for certain parts of the
series convergent in the
power
functions
may
We
shall now show this for the logarithmic function.

leads to the elementary formula
division
Simple
plane.
n l
the remainder z + /(l+z) approaches zero when n
increases indefinitely. Hence, in the interior of a circle C of radius 1
and
if
||<1,
we have
IT
=1 - 2 +
3
,~
H----
+ (- l) M* n
-.
Let F(z) be the series obtained by integrating this series term by term:
new series is convergent inside the unit circle and represents

an analytic function whose derivative F (z) is 1/(1 + 2). We know,
It
however, a function which has the same derivative, Log (!+)
follows that the difference Log (1 + z) - F(z) reduces to a constant.*
In order to determine this constant it will be necessary to fix pre
for the logarithm. If we take the
cisely the determination chosen
one which becomes zero for z = 0, we have for every point inside C
this
~2
~8
~4
(28)
Let us join the point A to the point M, which represents z (Fig.
8).
AM.
represented by the length r
For the angle of 1 -f z we can take the angle a which AM makes
as
with A 0, an angle which lies between
Tr/2 and + Tr/2 as long
remains inside the circle C. That determination of the
the point
The
absolute value of 1 4- z
is
* In order that the derivative of
sary that
X and
Y are
therefore constants.
.Y + Yi be zero, it is neces
=
=
consequently dY/dy dX/dy 0;
we have (3) dX/dx = 0, dY/dx = 0, and
I,
POWER
17]
WITH COMPLEX TERMS
SERIES
logarithm which becomes zero for z

formula (28) is not ambiguous.
log r
is
-f-
ia
hence the
FIG. 8
Changing
expressions,
If
we now
z in this formula
z to
we
replace z
by
arc tan z
iz,
^
series (28)
shall obtain again the
/i _L
arc tan z
The
we
except the point
and then subtracting the two
obtain
Log(
development of
=
T~"Q"+K""~"*-
\L-iz /
remains convergent at every point on the circle of convergence

(footnote, p. 19), and consequently the two series
cos
20
cos 3
sin
20
sin
r-+-r
eose
30
+,
cos 4
sin 4
are both convergent except for B - (2 k + 1) TT (cf I,

166). By Abel s theorem
the sum of the series at
is the limit approached by the sum of the series at
If we suppose
a point
as
always
approaches
along the radius
.
M M
between
value
AM
OM
and + TT, the angle a will have for its limit 0/2, and the absolute
will have for its limit 2 cos (0/2). We can therefore write
TT
cos
20
cos 4
cos 3
log
sin 2
~2~~
If in the last
formula
viously established
(I,
we
sin
replace
204, 2d ed.;
30
(-7T<0<-7T).
by
TT,
we
obtain again a formula pre
198, 1st ed.).
40
[I,
18
In a fundamental paper on
himself
the
problem of determining the
power series, Abel set for
series
sum of the convergent
18. Extension of the binomial formula.
m(m-l)
p\
for all the values
of
and
or imaginary, provided
real
we
We
1.
have \z\
might accomplish this by means of a differential
indicated in the case of real variables
manner
equation, in the
The following method, which gives
1st
179,
183, 2d ed.
ed.).
(I,
<
an application of
lowed by Abel.
more
11, is
We
closely related to the

suppose z fixed and \z\
shall
of m.
(m, z) considered as a function
to
the
reduces
function
the
a positive integer,
evidently
m
whatever
values
two
are
and
of
any
-f
If
shall study the properties of
If
is
method fol
1, aRd we
<
polynomial (1
z)
<
the parameter m, we have always
(30)
In
<
fact, let
nary
(m, z)
$ (m
+m
us multiply the two series

(m, z),
coefficient of z p in the product
z).
(m
<
<
mp + m p _^m( -f m p _
where we have
m^
by the ordi
z)
equal to
is
m^mp _^ +
f
p,
>
set for abbreviation
m (m
1)
(m
~kT
+ 1)
functional relation will be established if
The proposed
that the expression (31)

that is, with
z),
(m
+m
z)=<f>(m
The
rule.
(31)
<
we show
is
p
identical with the coefficient of z in
(m
+m
)p
We could easily verify directly
the identity
(32)
(m
+ m)p = mp + mp _
but the computation
is
unnecessary
m[
if
-\
we
\-mp
notice that the relation
always satisfied whenever m and m are positive integers.

sides of the equation (32) are polynomials in m and m
and m are positive integers; they
which are equal whenever
(30)
is
The two
are therefore identical.

in a power series
the other hand,
(m, z) can be expanded
of increasing powers of m. In fact, if we carry out the indicated
be considered as the sum of a double series
z) can
products,
On
<
<j>(m,
I,
POWER SERIES WITH COMPLEX TERMS
18]
41
(33)
mp
-
pi
if
we sum
For, let
it
by columns. This double series is absolutely convergent.

if we replace each term by its absolute
and \m\ =
=p
\\
<r
value, the sum of the terms of the

1) th column is equal to
(p
new
included in the
series
pi
which is the general term of a convergent series. We can therefore
sum the double series by rows, and we thus obtain for
z) a
<f>(m,
development in power
*)
4>(m,
From
series
=1+
^m + ^m +
2
..
the relation (30) and the results established above ( 11),

Now for the coeffi
must be identical with that for
this series
cient of
"
e"
m we
have
ai
hence
= 7-^ +
(34)
<f>(m,
7*
----
Log (1+0;
z)=<r***v+*\
where the determination of the logarithm to be understood is that

one which becomes zero when z = 0. We can again represent the
last expression
by
m
(1
-f- z~)
the value in question,

m
e Log (1+2)
Let
m=
fj,
vi
if
preceding paragraph,
emLog(l+
z)
__ e (n +
but in order to know without ambiguity

convenient to make use of the expression
it is
and a have the same meanings as in the
we have
Kt)(logr
tor)
In conclusion, let us study the series on the circle of convergence. Let n

be the absolute value of the general term for a point z on the circle. The ratio of
two consecutive terms

that
is, if
m=p+
vi,
of the series of absolute values is equal to

to
V(/i
+1-
n)
+ ^_
/*
(n)
-j-
(mn+l)/n
42
[I,
is
finite when n increases indefinitely. By a

163) this series is convergent when /*+!>!
and divergent in every other case. The series (29) is therefore absolutely con
vergent at all the points on the circle of convergence when p is positive.
where the function 0(n) remains
known
If
rule for convergence
1 is
(I,
negative or zero, the absolute value of the general term never
Un +\/Un
decreases, since the ratio
gent at all the points on the circle

It remains to study the case
whose general term

Pi
is
U%
and
if
never
less
!.
1<
/*
than unity.
= 0.
j.
"
It
term
Un
Let us consider the series

is
1, this series will be conver

large enough so that p (/* + 1)
follows that /*, and consequently the absolute value of the general
approaches zero. This being the case, in the identity
>
z)
= 0(m+l,
z)
us retain on each side only the terms of degree

there remains the relation
let
less
than or equal to n
where S n and S^ indicate respectively the sum of the first (n

z) and of 0(wi + 1, z). If the real part of m lies between
<(m,
real part of
m+
indefinitely, S^
when
it
equal to
n* J
0(m, z)(l
zero
series is diver
^M1
we choose p
gent.
The
the ratio of two consecutive terms
_ ^-1
is
when /*
where
1 is
positive.
approaches a
Sn
follows that
K(ji^=Q,the
also
Suppose \z\ = 1
and the last
;
limit,
approaches a
1)
terms of
and 0, the
when the number n increases
term on the right approaches
limit, unless 1
series is convergent at all the points
gence, except at the point z
on
0.
Therefore,
the circle of conver
1.
III.
19. Geometric interpretation of the derivative.
Let u
= X + Yi
be a
function of the complex variable 2, analytic within a closed curve C.

shall represent the value of u by the point whose coordinates are
Y
with respect to a system of rectangular axes. To simplify the
X,
We
following statements we shall suppose that the axes OX, OF are par
respectively to the axes Ox and Oy and arranged in the same order
allel
same plane or in a plane parallel to the plane xOy.

the point z describes the region A bounded by the closed
curve C, the point u with the coordinates (X, Y) describes in its
the relation u
plane a region A
f(z) defines then a certain corre
between
of
two planes or of two portions of
the
the
spondence
points
of rotation in the
When
a plane. On account of the relations which connect the derivatives of

the functions X, Y, it is clear that this correspondence should possess
special properties.
We
shall
now show
that the angles are unchanged.
19]
I,
43
^ be two neighboring points of the region A, and u and

the
u
By the original defini
corresponding points of the region A
tion of the derivative the quotient (u 1
u)/(z l
z) has for its limit
z approaches zero in any
of z l
value
the
absolute
when
f(z)
Let z and
manner whatever. Suppose that the point z approaches the point

z along a curve C, whose tangent at the point z makes an angle a
with the parallel to the direction Ox the point u will itself de
l
scribe a curve
passing through
Let us discard the case in
u.
and w be the absolute value and the

let r and r be the distances
which the direction zz l makes with the
uu l makes
parallel zx to Ox, and f$ the angle which the direction
with the parallel uX to OX. The absolute value of the quotient
which
/ ()
is zero,
and
let p
angle of f(z) respectively.

zz and uu lt a the angle
Likewise
\C
FIG. 9 b
1 iG. 9 a
( Mj
_ u)/(i
equal to
equal to rjr, and the angle of the quotient

We have then the two relations
z) is
/?
lim
(35)
= p,
lim 08
o>
-f
is
2 kw.
Let us consider only the second of these relations. We may sup

pose k = 0, since a change in k simply causes an increase in the
angle
by a multiple of 2 TT. When the point z l approaches the
o>
point z along the curve C, a approaches the limit a, /? approaches a

That is to say, in order to obtain the
a
limit ft, and we have ft
= +
o>.
direction of the tangent to the curve described by the point u, it suffices

to turn the direction of the tangent to the curve described by z through
a constant angle to. It is naturally understood in this statement that

those directions of the two tangents are made to correspond which
correspond to the same sense of motion of the points z and u.
Let D be another curve of the plane xOy passing through the point
and let D be the corresponding curve of the plane XOY. If the
1
letters
y and
denote respectively the angles which the corresponding
44
directions of the tangents to these
uX
(Figs. 9 a and 9
b),
[I,
19
two curves make with zx and
we have
= y a. The curves C and D cut each

and consequently 8
/?
other in the same angle as the curves C and D. Moreover, we see that
is preserved.
It should be noticed that if
the demonstration no longer applies.
If, in particular, we consider, in one of the two planes xOy or A OF,
two families of orthogonal curves, the corresponding curves in the
the sense of rotation
/ () = 0,
other plane also will form two families of orthogonal curves. For
C and the two
C, Y
example, the two families of curves
X=
families of curves
(36)
angle /(*)=C-
/(*)!=<?,
form orthogonal nets
XOY
in the plane xOy, for the corresponding curves

are, in the first case, two systems of parallels to the
in the plane
axes of coordinates, and, in the other, circles having the origin for
center
and straight
lines proceeding
za
from the
origin.
where a is a real positive number. Indicating by

Example 1. Let z
and B the polar coordinates of z, and by r and Q the polar coordinates of z
6
aO.
the preceding relation becomes equivalent to the two relations r
We pass then from the point z to the point z by raising the radius vector to
the power a and by multiplying the angle by a. The angles are preserved, ex
cept those which have their vertices at the origin, and these are multiplied by
,
r",
the constant factor a.
Example
Let us consider the general linear transformation
2.
d are any constants whatever. In certain particular cases it is

Take fpr example the
to pass from the point z to the point z
f
x + yi, z = x + y i, b = a + pi the preced
transformation z = z + b let z
ing relation gives x = x + a-, y = y + /3, which shows that we pass from the
where
a, 6, c,
easily seen
how
point z to the point z by a translation.

indicate the absolute value and angle of a respec
az if p and
Let now z
tively, then we have r = /or, 6 = w + 0. Hence we pass from the point z to the
o>
point z by multiplying the radius vector by the constant factor p and then turning
obtain then the transfor
this new radius vector through a constant angle w.
az by combining an expansion with a rotation.
mation defined by the formula z
We
Finally, let us consider the relation
where
B
r, 0,
0.
7
,
have the same meanings as above.
The product
of the radii vectores
is
We
must have
rr
1,
therefore equal to unity, while
20]
I,
45
the polar angles are equal and of opposite signs. Given a circle C with center
and radius E, we shall use the expression inversion with respect to the given
circle to
denote the transformation by which the polar angle is unchanged but

new point is R 2 /r. We obtain then the transformation
the radius vector of the
defined by the relation z z = 1 by carrying out first an inversion with respect to

a circle of unit radius and with the origin as center, and then taking the sym
metric point to the point obtained with respect to the axis Ox.
The most general transformation
form
of the
can be obtained by com

0, we can replace
(37)
bining the transformations which we have just studied. If c

the transformation (37) by the succession of transformations
we can
If c is not zero,
carry out the indicated division and write
ad
be
c z
cd
and the transformation can be replaced by the succession

zl
=z+
-,
z2
of transformations
c zi
All these special transformations leave the angles and the sense of rotation
circles into circles. Hence the same thing is then true
of the general transformation (37), which is therefore often called a circular
unchanged, and change
In the above statement straight lines should be regarded as
transformation.
circles
with
Example
infinite radii.
3.
Let
z
= (z-
e^
(z
e2 )
(z
ep ) P ,
ep are any quantities whatever, and where the exponents

are any real numbers, positive or negative. Let M, E^
2
ep
let also r 1? r 2
be the points which represent the quantities z, e v e2
where e v
ra 2 ,
e2 ,
rp
denote the distances
MEV ME
-,
MEP and #
15
#2
Op the angles which

absolute value and
-,
make with the parallels to Ox. The

P
2 M,
rp mp and mÔ^ + ra 2
the angle of z are respectively rîr^z
Then the two families of curves
E^M,
m
Ep
1,
mp
mp are rational
form an orthogonal system. When the exponents m 1 m 2
numbers, all the curves are algebraic. If, for example, p = 2, m l = ra2
1, one
of the families is composed of Cassinian ovals with two foci, and the second
,
family
is
a system of equilateral hyperbolas.
20. Conformal transformations in general.
The examination
of the
converse of the proposition which we have just established leads us to

treat a more general problem. Two surfaces, 2, 2 being given, let
us set up between them any point-to-point correspondence whatever
,
46
20
[I,
(except for certain broad restrictions which will be made later),

let us examine the cases in which the angles are unaltered in
that transformation. Let x, y, z be the rectangular coordinates of
and
a point of 2, and
point of
We
y\ z be the rectangular coordinates of a

shall suppose the six coordinates x, ?/, z, x y z
let
expressed as functions of two variable parameters u, v in such a
way
that corresponding points of the two surfaces correspond to the same

pair of values of the parameters u, v
:
(38)
rx=f(u,
v),
îy=^(u
v\
= f\U, V),
= (u,v),
= y(u, v).
4>
Moreover, we shall suppose that the functions
/,<,-,
together with
their partial derivatives of the first order, are continuous when the
points (x, y, z) and (a; , y , z ) remain in certain regions of the two
1
surfaces
2 and 2
(39)
We
shall
employ the usual notations
131)
-*
(I,
-><&
+ Gdv*,
= E du* + 2 F du dv + G dv*.
2 Fdu dv
Let C and
(Figs.
10 a and 105) be two curves on the surface
2,
of that surface, and C and D the corre

passing through a point
on
the
surface
curves
5 passing through the point
sponding
FIG. 106
Along the curve C the parameters u, v are functions of a single

differentials by du
auxiliary variable t, and we shall indicate their
and dv. Likewise, along Z), u and v are functions of a variable t and
we shall denote their differentials here by 8u and 8?;. In general, we
shall distinguish by the letters d and 8 the differentials relative to
a displacement on the curve C and to one on the curve D. The
,
I,
20]
47
following total differentials are proportional to the direction cosines

of the tangent to the curve C,
dx
dx
dx
= ^-du
+ dv,
,
du
dy
= ^-du
T
dy
dv
cu
Let
D.
o>
dz
-f-dv,
cu
ov
<o
0)
curves
cos
o>
to the direction cosines of the
cu
+ dy
dx Bx
8?y
dv
--
F(du Bv
C and
+ dz Bz
which can be written, making use of the notation
we
dz
+ -^dv,
ov
be the angle between the tangents to the two curves

is given by the expression
of cos
COS
If
du
Z),
dv
The value
(40)
dz
cu
dv
and the following are proportional

tangent to the curve
dy
-}-
cu
(39), in the
form
+ dv Su) + Gdv 8v
Sv
let
denote the angle between the tangents to the two
C and D\ we have
(41) cos
o>
Bv + dv Bu) -f G dv Bv
+ F (du
v
+ 2F dudv + G dv ~vE Bu + 2 F Bu Bv
also
du Bu
-vE du
-+-
Bv
In order that the transformation considered shall not change the

= cos whatever du,
value of the angles, it is necessary that cos
<o
o>,
dv, Bu, Bv
may
be.
The two
sides of the equality
cos 2
r
o>
= cos
2
<u
are rational functions of the ratios Bv/Bu, dv/du, and these functions
must be equal whatever the values of these ratios. Hence the corre
sponding coefficients of the two fractions must be proportional that
is, we must have
;
where X
is
any function whatever of the parameters
u, v.
These
for example, is a
conditions are evidently also sufficient, for cos
of
of
zero.
function
E, F, G,
degree
homogeneous
The conditions (42) can be replaced by a single relation ds 2 \2 ds 2 or
o>,
(43)
ds
Xds.
48
20
[I,
This relation states that the ratio of two corresponding infinitesimal

arcs approach a limit independent of
arcs approach zero. This condition
du and of dv, when these two

makes the reasoning almost
For, let abc be an infinitesimal triangle on the first surface,

and a b c the corresponding triangle on the second surface. Imagine
these two curvilinear triangles replaced by rectilinear triangles that
approximate them. Since the ratios a b /ab, a c /ac, b c /bc approach
the same limit \(u, v), these two triangles approach similarity and
intuitive.
the corresponding angles approach equality.

see that any two corresponding infinitesimal figures on the
two surfaces can be considered as similar, since the lengths of the
We
and the angles equal it is on this account that

the term conformal representation is often given to every correspond
ence which does not alter the angles.
arcs are proportional
Given two surfaces
2,
S and a
definite relation
which establishes
a point-to-point correspondence between these two surfaces, we can

or not,
always determine whether the conditions (42) are satisfied
and therefore whether we have a conformal representation of one

of the surfaces on the other.
But we may consider other problems. For example, given the sur
2 and 2 we may propose the problem of determining all the
which pre
correspondences between the points of the two surfaces
r
faces
serve the angles. Suppose that the coordinates (x, y, z) of a point

2 are expressed as functions of two parameters (u, v), and that
the coordinates (x\ y\ z ) of a point of 2 are expressed as functions
of two other parameters (u , v ). Let
of
ds2
= Edu + 2F du dv + G dv
2
ds
=E
du 2
+2F
du dv
+G
dv
be the expressions for the squares of the linear elements. The prob
lem in question amounts to this To find two functions, u = TTÛ, v),
:
=
E
7T
2 (,
dTT
we have
that
v) such
+ 2F
t/7T
dTT^
+G
identically
dTT2
= \\E du + 2 F du dv + G dv
2
),
any function of the variables u, v. The general theory of dif

ferential equations shows that this problem always admits an infinite
A.
being
number
of solutions
we
shall consider only certain special cases.
21. Conformal representation of one plane on another plane. Every

between the points of two planes is defined by
correspondence
relations such as
(44)
X=P(x,y),
Y=Q(x,y),
I,
21]
49
where the two planes are referred to systems of rectangular coordi

nates (x y) and (X, Y). From what we have just seen, in order that this
transformation shall preserve the angles, it is necessary and sufficient
that we have
y
a*
where X
entials.
sides,
dr*.
is any function whatever of x, y independent of the differ

Developing the differentials dX, dY and comparing the two
we
two functions P(x, y) and Q(x, y) must
find that the
satisfy the
two relations
8P8P
The
first
8Q8Q
partial derivatives dP/dy, &Q/dy cannot both be zero, for the

of the relations (45) would give also dQ/dx
0, and
dP/dx
the functions
Consequently we can
and Q would be constants.
write according to the last relation,
dP
T~
cx
/*
3Q
3Q
T~
T~
cx
vy
is an auxiliary unknown.
JJL
condition (45), it becomes
where
it
we
3P
~~~
A1
>
"o~
cy
Putting these values in the
first
+>.
>[
and from
derive the result
/*
We
1.
must then have
either
dP
-
....
(46)
cx
dQ
= -^-
dP
>
-^-
dQ
-5-
cx
cy
cy
or
- _
fa~
The
tion of
first set
4- yi.
^
dy
-^
Cy~
of conditions state that
As
for the second set,
dx
-f-
Qi
is
an analytic func
we can reduce
it
to the first
is, by taking the figure symmetric to the

transformed figure with respect to the axis OX. Thus we see, finally,
that to every conformal representation of a plane on a plane there
by changing Q
to
Q, that
corresponds a solution of the system (46), and consequently an

analytic function. If we suppose the axes OX and OY parallel re
spectively to the axes Ox and Oy, the sense of rotation of the angles
and Q satisfy the
is preserved or not, according as the functions
relations (46) or (47).
50
Riemann
22.
in the plane of the variable z
Given
theorem.
[I,
a region
22
bounded by a single curve (or simple boundary), and in the plane of the vari
able u a circle O, Riemann proved that there exists an analytic function u = /(z),
that to each point of the region

corresponds
analytic in the region J., such
a point of the circle, and that, conversely, to a point of the circle corresponds
one and only one point of A. The function /(z) depends also upon three
in such a way that the center
arbitrary real constants, which we can dispose of
of the circle corresponds to a given point of the region A, while an arbitrarily
chosen point on the circumference corresponds to a given point of the boundary
shall not give here the demonstration of this theorem, of which we
of A
We
some examples.
shall indicate only
We
Thus,
origin
line,
shall point out only that the circle can be replaced by a half-plane.
let us suppose that, in the plane of w, the circumference passes through the
;
the transformation u
and the
circle itself
l/u replaces that circumference by a straight

of the w -plane situated on one side of
by the portion
the straight line extended indefinitely in both directions.
= z 1 A, where a is real and positive. Consider the portion

between the direction Ox and a ray through the origin
included
plane
= re u = Ee iu we have,
2). Let z
making an angle of air with Ox (a
Example
1.
Let u
of the
~~
=a
B-4
When the point
+ oo and 6 from
z describes the portion

to air
hence
from
to
and w from
of the plane, r varies
from
varies
to
oo
to
IT.
&
FIG. 11
The point u therefore
describes the half-plane situated above the axis OX, and

A, for we have,
to a point of that half -plane corresponds only one point of

R a , 6 aw.
inversely, r
Let us next take the portion B of the z-plane bounded by two arcs of circles
which intersect. Let z z^ be the points of intersection if we carry out first the
;
transformation
z
z ft
=z
z
the region
of the z -plane included between two

of a circle passing through the points
arc
the
for
along
origin,
B goes
rays from the
over into a portion
22]
I,
51
z )/(z
z v the angle of (z
zj remains constant. Applying
1
ceding transformation u = (z ) /*, we see that the function
now
the pre
/Z-Z
\Z
enables us to realize the coniormal representation of the region
on a half-
plane by suitably choosing a.
Example
2.
Let u
Let us cause z to describe the

s= x ^
cosz.
AOBA
R, or
(Fig. 11), defined by the inequalities
us examine the region described by the point u =
X+
IT,
^ 0,
and
We have here
let
12)
JT
(48)
When
YL
infinite half-strip
always negative and the point u remains in

Hence, to every point of the region R
corresponds a point of the u half-plane, and when the point z is on the bound
er )/2 is zero.
ary of -B, we have Y = 0, for one of the two factors sin x or (&
Conversely, to every point of the u half-plane below OX corresponds one and
only one point of the strip R in the z-plane. In fact, if z is a root of the equa
x varies from
to
TT,
the half -plane below the axis
is
X OX.
u = cosz, all the other roots are included in the expression 2&7T
If
z
the coefficient of i in z is positive, there cannot be but one of these points in the
tion
strip
E, for
all
the points 2 kir

abscissa lies
and
the points 2 kir

z are below Ox. There is always one of
z situated in E, for there is always one of these points whose
between
and 2 TT. That abscissa cannot be included between

Y would then be positive. The point
for the corresponding value of

therefore located in R.
2
TT,
TT
is
It is easily seen from the formulae (48) that when the point z describes the
portion of a parallel to Ox in E, the point u describes half of an ellipse. When
the point z describes a parallel to Oy, the point u describes a half-branch of a
hyperbola. All these conies have as foci the points C, C of the axis OJT, with
the abscissas + 1 and
1.
Example 3. Let
ng
fOa _
=! i
1
(49)
where a is real and positive. In order that \u\ shall be less than unity, it is
0. If y
easy to show that it is necessary and sufficient, that cos [(iry)/(2 a)]
varies from
a to + a, we see that to the infinite strip included between the
two straight lines y =
a, y = + a corresponds in the it-plane the circle C
>
described about the origin as center with unit radius.
Conversely, to every
point of this circle corresponds one and only one point of the infinite strip, for
the values of z which correspond to a given value of u form an arithmetical pro
gression with the constant difference of 4 ai. Hence there cannot be more than
one value of z in the
strip considered.
Moreover, there
is
always one of these
which the coefficient of i lies between

a and 3 a, and that coefficient
cannot lie between a and 3 a, for the corresponding value of u would then be
roots in
greater than unity.
52
To make
23. Geographic maps.
means
a conformal
23
[I,
of a surface
map
make
the points of the surface correspond to those of a

plane in such a way that the angles are unaltered. Suppose that the
coordinates of a point of the surface 2 under consideration be ex
to
pressed as functions of two variable parameters

ds
and
(u, v),
= E di? + 2Fdudv+G dv
let
be the square of the linear element for this surface. Let (a, ft) be
the rectangular coordinates of the point of the plane P which cor
responds to the point (u, v) of the surface. The problem here is to
find
two functions
= ir
of such a nature that
we have
(a, ft),
7T
identically
E du + 2 Fdu dv+ G dv =
2
where A
is
(a, ft)
any function whatever of
\(da*
+ d(?),
not containing the differ
a, ft
This problem admits an infinite number of solutions, which

can all be deduced from one of them by means of the conformal
transformations, already studied, of one plane on another. Suppose
entials.
that
we
actually have at the

ds 2
same time
= X (da + dft2
2
ds
),
=\
12
(da
+ dft
12
then we shall also have
so that
Example
or a
fti,
The converse
is
fti,
Mercator
1.
will be
an analytic function of a
-f
ft
evident.
We can always make a map of a
s projection.
that the meridians and the paral

lels of latitude correspond to the parallels to the axes of coordinates.
surface of revolution in such a
Thus,
way
let
= p cos w,
= p sin
z
o>,
=f(p)
be the coordinates of a point of a surface of revolution about the
we have
axis Oz-,
ds
= dp
[1
+/
(p)]
+p
ds2
=P
which can be written

if
we
set
X=
o>,
2
dd>
=p
2
2
d
(dX -}-dY
I,
23]
In the case of a sphere of radius

the form
= R sin
cos
<,
R we
53
can write the coordinates in
= R sin 6 sin
z
<,
= R cos 0,
siir
and we
We
shall set
obtain thus
what
is
called
Mercator>s
which the
and the paral
parallel to OX. To
projection, in
meridians are represented by parallels to the axis

of latitude
lels
by segments of straight
obtain the whole surface of the sphere

to TT then
from to 2 TT, and from
;
from
sufficient to let
varies
from
<
to 2 TT
vary
and
The map has then the appearance of an infinite

breadth 2 TT. The curves on the surface of the sphere which
oo
strip of
lines
it is
Y,
to -f oo.
cut the meridians at a constant angle are called loxodromic curves

or rhumb lines, and are represented on the map by straight lines.
Example 2. Stereographic projection. Again, we may write the
square of the linear element of the sphere in the form
or
if
we
set
But dp 2
+p
represents the square of the linear element of the

plane in polar coordinates (p, w) hence it is sufficient, in order to
obtain a conformal representation of the sphere, to make a point of
the plane with polar coordinates (p,
correspond to the point (0,
do>
<u)
<)
of the surface of the sphere. It is seen immediately, on drawing the

figure, that p and w are the polar coordinates of the stereographic
of the sphere on the plane of the
projection of the point (6,
of
center
equator, the
projection being one of the poles.*
<)
of projection is the south pole if 9 is measured from the north pole

Using the north pole as the center of projection, the point (B?/p, w),
TRANS.
symmetric to the first point (see Ex. 17, p. 58), would be obtained.
The center
to the radius.
54
[I,
23
Example 3. Map of an anchor ring. Consider the anchor ring generated by

the revolution of a circle of radius R about an axis situated in its own plane at
R. Taking the axis of revolution for the
its center, where a
and the median plane of the anchor ring for the xy-plane, we can
write the coordinates of a point of the surface in the form
a distance a from
axis of
>
z,
(a
+ R cos 6} cos 0,
and it is sufficient
we deduce
to let 6
and
(a
+ R cos 6} sin 0,
vary from
2
TT
to
TT.
22
= R sin 9,
From
these formulae
-i
(a
L
and, to obtain a
map
of the surface,
we may
set
where
.=!<i.
Thus the total surface of the anchor ring corresponds point by point to that
e2
of a rectangle whose sides are 2 IT and 2 ire/\\
.
24. Isothermal curves.
Let U(x, y) be a solution of Laplace

-
AZ7
^-^
equation
= 0;
the curves represented by the equation
U(x, y)
(50)
where C
solution
F(z,
y),
C,
of isothermal curves. With every

U(x, y) of Laplace s equation we can associate another solution,
such that U + Vi is an analytic function of x + yi. The relations
is
an arbitrary constant, form a family
~
dx
show that the two families
dy
dx
dy
of isothermal curves
U(x,y)=C,
V(x,y}=C
C and C
are orthogonal, for the slopes of the tangents to the two curves
respectively
_
dx
Thus the orthogonal
377
*y
$y
dy
dx
dy
trajectories of a family of isothermal curves
are
form another
family of isothermal curves. We obtain all the conjugate systems of isothermal

curves by considering all analytic functions f(z) and taking the curves for
which the real part of f(z) and the coefficient of i have constant values. The
curves for which the absolute value R and the angle ft of f(z) remain constant
for the real part of the analytic
also form two conjugate isothermal systems
;
Log [f(z)] is log R, and the coefficient of i is fi.

Likewise we obtain conjugate isothermal systems by considering the curves
+ Yi, when
described by the point whose coordinates are X, Y, where /(z) =
function
CONFORMAL REPRESENTATIONS
24]
I,
55
x + yi as an
give to x and y constant values. This is seen by regarding
+ Yi, More generally, every transformation of the
analytic function of
one family
points of one plane on the other, which preserves the angles, changes
we
of isothermal curves into a
new family
x=p (x
of isothermal curves.
),
= q (x
Let
/)
be equations denning a transformation which preserves angles, and let F(x y )

be the result obtained on substituting p (x y } and q (x y ) for x and y in 17 (x, y).
The proof consists in showing that F(x y } is a solution of Laplace s equation,
provided that U(x, y} is a solution. The verification of this fact does not offer
,
any difficulty (see Vol. I, Chap. Ill, Ex. 8, 2d ed.; Chap. II, Ex. 9, 1st ed.),
but the theorem can be established without any calculation. Thus, we can sup
pose that the functions p (x y ) and q (x y } satisfy the relations
,
dp
_dq
dp
ox
dy
dy*
dq
dx
for a symmetric transformation evidently changes a family of isothermal curves

into a new family of isothermal curves. The function x + yi
p + qi is then
an analytic function of z = x + y i, and, after the substitution, V + Vi also

becomes an analytic function F(x y ) +
y } of the same variable z
of
two
families
curves
the
Hence
5).
(
,
i$>(x
new orthogonal net formed by two conjugate isothermal families.

For example, concentric circles and the rays from the center form two con
jugate isothermal families, as we see at once by considering the analytic func
tion Log z. Carrying out an inversion, we have the result that the circles
passing through two fixed points also form an isothermal system. The conjugate
give a
is
system
also
composed
of circles.
Likewise, confocal ellipses form an isothermal system. Indeed, we have seen

above that the point u = cos z describes confocal ellipses when the point z is
made to describe parallels to the axis Ox ( 22). The conjugate system is made
of confocal and orthogonal hyperbolas.
=C
Note. In order that a family of curves represented by an equation
(x, y)
may be isothermal, it is not necessary that the function P(x, y) be a solution of
up
Indeed, these curves are represented also by the equation

hence it is sufficient to take for
whatever be the function
a form such that U (x, y) = 0(P) satisfies Laplace s equation.
the function
Making the calculation, we find that we must have
Laplace
[P (x,
s equation.
y)]
C,
dP2L\ex/
hence
it is
W/J
dP\8x 2
dy*)~
necessary that the quotient

e2
82
depend only on P, and if that condition

obtained by two quadratures.
is satisfied,
the function
can be
56
Exs.
[I,
EXERCISES
1.
Determine the analytic function /(z)
equal to
X+
Yi whose real part
is
2 sin 2 x
e-2y
e~ 2 y
2 cos 2 x
X+
Consider the same question, given that
equal to the preceding
is
function.
be the tangential equation of a real algebraic curve, that

2. Let 0(ra, p)
mx P be tangent to that
to say, the condition that the straight line y
are the real foci of the curve.
curve. The roots of the equation
zi)
(,
is
p and q are two integers prime to each other, the two expressions
VZP are equivalent. What happens when p and q have a greatest
and
(\/z)
3. If
p
common
divisor d
>
I ?
Find the absolute value and the angle of e* +

by considering it as
m when the integer m increases
the limit of the polynomial [1 + (x + yi)/m]
2"
4.
indefinitely.
5.
Prove the formulae

cos a
cos (a
6)
cos (a
nb)
/n
cos la
sin l-^
sin
sin (a
+ &)+... +
sin (a
nb)
sin
/
I
4-
nb
-
in
6.
ment
What
is
the final value of arc sinz
of a straight line
arc sin z is taken as ?
7.
Prove the continuity of a power
when
the variable z describes the seg

+ i, if the initial value of
to the point 1
from the origin
series
function for the

[Take a suitable dominant
by means
of the formula (12)
8)
series of the right-hand side.]
8. Calculate the integrals
Cxm eax cosbxdx,

f ctn (x
a) ctn (x
Cx m eax smbxdx,
b)
ctn (x
I)
dx.
Given in the plane xOy a closed curve C having any number whatever of
is
double points and described in a determined sense, a numerical coefficient
determined by the curve according to the rule
assigned to each region of the plane
be two contiguous regions
of Volume I ( 97, 2d ed.
96, 1st ed). Thus, let B, E
described in the sense of a to b the coeffi
separated by the arc ab of the curve
coefficient of the
cient of the region to the left is greater by unity than the
9.
the region exterior to the curve has the coefficient

region to the right, and
0.
I,
EXERCISES
EXS.]
57
the corresponding coeffi

Let z be a point taken in one of the regions and
z when
Prove that 2 NTT represents the variation of the angle of z
cient.
the point z describes the curve
in the sense chosen.
10. By studying the development of Log[(l

convergence, prove that the sum of the series
30
~~
~~
~~
sin 6
is
equal to
sin 5
sin
according as sin
Tr/4,
2Z =
sin(2n
>
Study the curves described

a straight line or a circle.
11.
z)/(l
(Cf Vol.
0.
by the point
Z=
I,
z2
z)]
on the
circle of
1)0
204, 2d ed.;
198, 1st ed.)
when the point z
describes
c 2 /z effects
the conforinal representation of the

bounded
region inclosed between two conf ocal ellipses on the ring-shaped region
circles.
concentric
two
by
2
=Z+
c 2 make in the Z-plane a straight-line
[Take, for example, z
a positive value when Z is real and
radical
for
the
choose
and
cu t
c,
The
12.
relation
Vz
(_
greater than
13.
c.]
Every
14.
number
d) can be obtained
(az
b)/(cz
of inversions. Prove also the converse.
circular transformation z
the combination of an even
where
c),
by
Every transformation defined by the relation z = (az + b)/(cz + d),

indicates the conjugate of z, results from an odd number of inversions.
Prove also the converse.
Every linear transformation ( 19, Ex. 2)

d are real numbers satisfying the relation
= 1, is called a Fuchsian transformation. Such a transformation sets
ad
up a correspondence such that to every point z situated above Ox corresponds a
point z situated on the same side of Ox
15. Fuchsian
(az
be
b)/(cz
transformations.
d),
where
a, 6, c,
The two
definite integrals
-
s\ s+
dy
CCdxd\
dxdy
JJ -7
/Veto
are invariants with respect to all these transformations.

The preceding transformation has two double points which correspond to
2
the roots a, ft of the equation cz + (d - a) z - b = 0. If a and ft are real and
we can write the equation z = (az + b)/(cz + d) in the equivalent form
distinct,
-p
ft
where k is real. Such a transformation is called hyperbolic.

If a and ft are conjugate imaginaries, we can write the equation
z
where w
If
is real.
a,
z-ft
/3
Such a transformation
we can
called
elliptic.
write
z
where a and k are
is
real.
Such a transformation
is
called parabolic,
58
16. Let z
Prove that
Exs.
=f(z) be a Fuchsian transformation. Put
the points
all
Does the point
zn
Given a
17.
[I,
z2
z n are on the circumference of a
z, Zj
approach a limiting position as n increases indefinitely
,
C with
circle
OM
and radius E, two points M,

are said to be symmetric with respect to
the center
situated on a ray from the center

= R2
that circle if
x
OM
circle.
same plane and M any point whatever

M symmetric to If with respect to the circle C,
then the point M\ symmetric to M with respect to C then the point M sym
Let now C,
C be two
circles in the
Take the point
in that plane.
metric to
with respect to C, and so on forever. Study the distribution of the

Ifi 1/2 If2
M{
points 1/j
Find the analytic function Z =/(z) which enables us
18.
Mercator
to
pass from
the stereographic projection.
s projection to
made up
19*. All the isothermal families composed of circles are
of circles
passing through two fixed points, distinct or coincident, real or imaginary.

yi, the equation of a family of circles depending
[Setting z = x + yi, z = x
upon a
single
parameter X
zz
where
be written in the form
may
az
6z
0,
are functions of the parameter X.

2
isothermal, it is necessary that 3 X/dzdz = 0.
theorem stated is proved.]
In order that this family be
a, 6, c
20*. If |g|
(1
9)(1
we have
1,
<
calculation, the
the identity
(1
Making the
9")
[EULER.]
[In order to prove this, transform the infinite product on the left into an infinite
2
product with two indices by putting in the first row the factors 1 + 7, 1 + g
,
+ 94
+ (g 3
>
21.
2
*,
2
</
in the
",
second row the factors
and then apply the formula
Develop
in
powers of
possible, for example, to
F(xz)
22*. Supposing
(1
\x\
+
<
xz)
1,
(16) of the text.]
z the infinite products
F(z) = (l + xz) (1 +
*(z) = (1 + xz) (1 +
[It is
x 2 z)
(1
x*z)
(1
make
use of the relation
* (x 2z) (1 +
F(z),
prove Euler
+ zz)
+ z2 + iz)
xz)
= * (z).]
formula
(l-z)(l-z2)(l_z )...(l-z)...
Z2
X5
(See J. BERTRAND, Calcul
X7
X 12
8n 2 -n
differential, p. 328.)
3n z + n
3
,
1+g
I,
EXERCISES
Exs.]
59
23*. Given a sphere of unit radius, the stereographic projection of that sphere
made on the plane of the equator, the center of projection being one of the
of the sphere is made to correspond the complex number
poles. To a point
is
where x and y are the rectangular coordinates of the projection m of

with respect to two rectangular axes of the plane of the equator, the origin
of the
being the center of the sphere. To two diametrically opposite points
where s is the conjugate
l/s
sphere correspond two complex numbers, s,
form
imaginary to s. Every linear transformation of the
yi,
the sphere about a diameter. To groups

0, defines a rotation of
which make a regular polyhedron coincide with itself correspond
the groups of finite order of linear substitutions of the form (A). (See KLEIN,
where
)3a
+1 =
of rotations
Das
Ikosaeder.)
CHAPTER
II
THE GENERAL THEORY OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

ACCORDING TO CAUCHY
DEFINITE INTEGRALS TAKEN BETWEEN
I.
IMAGINARY LIMITS
25. Definitions and general principles. The results presented in the
preceding chapter are independent of the work of Cauchy and, for
the most part, prior to that work. We shall now make a system
atic study of analytic functions, and determine the logical conse
quences of the definition of such functions. Let us recall that a
function
/()
is
in the region
analytic in a region A
1) if to every point taken
corresponds a definite value of /()
2) if that
:
value varies continuously with z
3) if for every point z taken in
approaches a limit f(z) when the absolute value of h approaches zero.
The consideration
of definite integrals,
through a succession of complex values,

the origin of new and fruitful methods.
is
when
the variable passes
due to Cauchy *
it
was
Let f(z) be a continuous function of z along the curve A MB

Let us mark off on this curve a certain number of points
(Fig. 12).
%#,
of division Z Q z v
of increasing indices
,
zn _ 1 , z
when
which follow each other in the order

is traversed from A to B, the
the arc
points Z Q and z coinciding with the extremities A and B.

Let us take next a second series of points 1? 2
,
n on the arc
AB, the point k being situated on the arc z k _ l z k) and let us consider
,
the
sum
S
+ /(&) (*t - **-.) +

When
the
number
nitely in such a
*
of points of division z v
z n-l increases indefi
-,
that the absolute values of all the differences
way
Memoire sur
This memoir
matiques
is
+/(Q (* - *._,)
les integrales dejinies, prises entre des limites imaginaires, 1825.

reprinted in Volumes VII and VIII of the Bulletin des Sciences mathe
(1st series).
60
II,
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
25]
zl
61
become and remain smaller than any positive

chosen, the sum S approaches a limit, which is
j,
number
arbitrarily
called the definite integral of
f(z) taken along
A MB and which
is
represented by the symbol
/(*)**.
J(AMB)
To prove
this, let
and
us set
in S,
let
us separate the real part and the coefficient of
FIG. 12
where
and
similar terms,
are continuous functions along A MB.

write the sum S in the form
) (.
When
the
Uniting the
we can
number
- *-,)
of divisions increases indefinitely, the sum of the

its limit a line integral taken
along
terms in the same row has for
AMB, and
I
the limit of S
/() dz
J(AMB)
is
equal to the
= f (Xdx J(AMB)
Ydy)
sum
of four line integrals:*
+ C
i
Ydx
+J
J(AMB)
* In order to avoid useless

complications in the proofs, we suppose that the coor
dinates x, y of a point of the arc
are continuous functions x =
y = \f/(t) of
AMB
(<),
a parameter
which have only a finite number of maxima and minima between A
and B. We can then break up the path of integration into a finite number of arcs
which are each represented by an equation of the form y = F(x), the function
being
continuous between the corresponding limits or into a finite number of arcs which
are each represented by an equation of the form x=G(y). There is no
disadvantage
in making this hypothesis, for in all the
applications there is always a certain amount
of freedom in the choice of the path of integration.
Moreover, it would suffice to
suppose that
(x) and ^ (x) are functions of limited variation. We have seen that
in this case the curve
is then rectifiable (I, ftns.,
73, 82, 95, 2d ed.).
,
AMB
THE GENERAL CAUCHY THEORY
62
From
the definition
25
[II,
results immediately that
it
c
J(A
(AMB)
(BMA)
important to know an upper bound for the absolute value

an integral. Let s be the length of the arc AM, L the length of
It is often
of
of the arcs Az k _ 1}
the arc AB, s k _ 1} s t
k the lengths
the path of integration. Setting F(s)
|/()|, we have
<r
- %-i) = F (*d
(**
|/(
K - **-i
Az k A
of
= F fa) (** - **-i)
s k _ l the
the length of the chord, and s k
g.
& _ 1 represents
value of S is less than or at
the
absolute
Hence
the
arc.
of
length
whence, passing to the
most equal to the sum 2
k)(s k
.s^.x)
~
find
we
~L
limit,
f or
|2 A
F(<r
f(z)dz
==
J(AMB)
Let
F(s)ds.
M be an upper bound for the absolute value of /(*) along the
curve AB.
right
Jo
is
It is clear that the absolute value of the integral
than ML, and we have, a
less
f(z)dz
on the
fortiori,
<
ML.
(AMB)
26. Change of variables. Let us consider the case that occurs fre
in applications, in which the coordinates a;, y of a point of
quently
the arc
AB
are continuous functions of a variable parameter
= ^(), possessing continuous derivatives

(), y
t,
(), ^ (t) and

of integra
let us suppose that the point (x, y) describes the path
tion from A to B as t varies from a to ft. Let P(t) and Q(t) be the
<j>
functions of
for x
By
and y
in
obtained by substituting
and
and
<j>(f)
$(t), respectively,
Y.
the formula established for line integrals
1st ed.)
<
(I,
9$,
2d
ed.
93,
we have
Xdx - Ydy = f
t/
f x dy + r
J(,AB)
<fo
= f
Jet
the two
Adding these two relations, after having multiplied
of the second by i, we obtain
r
i/U
sides
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
26]
II,
63
This is precisely the result obtained by applying to the integral

ff(z) dz the formula established for definite integrals in the case of
that is, in order to calculate the
real functions of real variables
;
for z and
//() dz we need only substitute
(t) -f ty (t)
[* (*) + *^ (03* for dz inf(z)dz. The evaluation of ff(z)dz is
integral
<f>
thus reduced to the evaluation of two ordinary definite integrals. If

is composed of several pieces of distinct curves, the
the path A
MB
formula should be applied to each of these pieces separately.

Let us consider, for example, the definite integral
r +l d*
2
J-\
We
cannot integrate along the axis of
reals, since
the function to be
= 0, but we can follow any path

integrated becomes infinite for
whatever which does not pass through the origin. Let z describe a
semicircle of unit radius about the origin as center. This path is
tl
e
and letting t vary from TT to 0. Then the
given by setting z
integral takes the
form
c +l dz = r
I
ie~
u dt
i\
cos
dt
c
I
sin
dt
2.
is precisely the result that would be obtained

by substituting
the limits of integration directly in the primitive function
l/
according to the fundamental formula of the integral calculus
This
2ded.;
78,
(I,
76, 1st ed.).
More generally, let z = (u) be a continuous function of a new complex

variable u = + tji such that, when u describes in its plane a path CND, the
variable z describes the curve
MB. To the points of division of the curve
the points of division w
correspond on the curve
w^-i,
u^, w 2 ,
<j>
A
CND
AMB
uk
we can
If the function
ejt
approaches zero
Taking &_!
= z^_i
(u)
along the curve
CND^
Wfc_
when
and replacing
preceding equality, the
sum
u^ approaches w^_i along the curve CND.

z&
zjc-\ by the expression derived from the
S, considered above,
-i) (uk
first
w*_i)
becomes
+
k=l
fc=l
The
a derivative
write
Uk
where
(u) possesses
part of the right-hand side has for its limit the definite integral
JCN
64
As
for the remaining term,
absolute value
its
smaller than
is
all
CND.
the absolute values
ek
This formula
will be
is
always applicable when
shown
/j>(M)]0
an analytic function is
;
in fact,
also
an
34).
27. The formulae of Weierstrass and Darboux.
The proof
of the law
for integrals (I,

74, 1st ed.) rests
76, 2d ed. ;
certain inequalities which cease to have a precise meaning
of the
(u)dw.
(u) is
later that the derivative of
analytic function* (see
is
J(CND)
J(AMB)
it
where y
be less than an arbitrarily chosen positive num

approach zero, and the general formula for the
f(z)dz=f
will
\
ber, the remaining term will

change of variable will be
(2)
yML
26
of the absolute values e* |and where L is the

If the points of division can be taken so close that
number greater than each
positive
length of the curve
[II,
mean
upon
when
applied to complex quantities. Weierstrass and Darboux, however,

have obtained some interesting results in this connection by con
of reals. We
sidering integrals taken along a segment of the axis
have seen above that the case of any path whatever can be reduced
to this particular case, provided certain mild restrictions are placed
upon the path of integration.
Let / be a definite integral of the following form
:
* If this property is admitted, the following proposition can easily be proved.

For every posi
Letf(z) be an analytic function in a finite region A of the plane.
tive number e another positive number 17 can be found such that
z and z + hare two points of A whose distance from each other; h is less than rj.
= Ax + iky. From the calculation made in 3, to
(x, ?/) + iQ (x, y) h
For, let/(z) =
find the conditions for the existence of a unique derivative, we can write
when
f(z + h)-f(z)~
h~
(Z)
+ 0Ax, y) - Pi (*,
~ \P,(*
Ax + tAy
y)]
Ax
[Py (x + Ax, y + 0Ay) P V (x,
y)] Ay
Ax + iAy
+ ............................
can find a num

Since the derivatives PX P V Q& QV are continuous in the region A, we
less than e/4,
ber 77 such that the absolute values of the coefficients of Ax and of Ay are
will be
above
down
2
written
the
Hence
than
less
is
inequality
when VAaJa + Ay
y.
(u) is analytic in
This being the case, if the function
satisfied if we have \h\
rj.
number e,
the region A, all the absolute values e* will be smaller than a given positive
of division of the curve CND
two
consecutive
between
distance
points
the
provided
the formula (2) will be established.
is less than the corresponding number ij, and
,
<f>
<
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
II,27]
where f(t),
<(0>
^(0
are three real functions of the real variable
continuous in the interval

integral
we
65
(a, /3).
From
the very definition of the
evidently have
Let us suppose, for definiteness, that a

then t
a is the length
ft
of the path of integration measured from a, and the general formula
which gives an upper bound for the absolute value of a definite
<
integral
becomes
s r
a
*/
or, supposing that f(f)
is
positive between a
and
/?,
Applying the law of the mean to this new integral, and indicating
by a value of t lying between a and /3, we have also
Setting ^(Y)
=
<()
+ ty(),
this result
may
also be written in the
form
(3)
I=\F()f*f(t)dt,
\) a
where X
equal
To
is
a complex
number whose
absolute value is less than or
unity ; this is Darboux s formula.

Weierstrass is due a more precise expression, which has a rela
to
tion to
some elementary
=
<f>(t),
y=
,
(x k _ l}
to the values a, tv
.
L which correspond
When
facts of statics.
the point with the coordinates x

curve L. Let (X Q y ), (x lt ^),
\j/
(t)
yk _^,
,
tk
_1
varies
from a
to
/?,
describes a certain
-
be the points of
of t;
and
let
usset
According to a known theorem, J and F are the coordinates of the

center of gravity of a system of masses placed at the points (x
y
,
(EJ, ^j),
point (x t _ 19
),
of the curve Z, the mass placed at the

(#_!, 2/ t _!),
y k _^ being equal to f(tk _^)(tk - tk _^, where f(t) is
66
still
lies
[II,
27
It is clear that the center of gravity
supposed to be positive.
within every closed convex curve
that envelops the curve L.
When the number of intervals

will
have for
increases indefinitely, the point (X, Y)

limit a point whose coordinates (u, v) are given by
its
the equations
//
tff(t)4>(t)dt
within the curve C.
which
is itself
as one
by writing
I
(4)
We can state
/3
= (u + w)
Ja
f(t) dt
these two formulae
r&
=Z
*/
f(t) dt,
a.
Z is a point of the complex plane situated within every closed

convex curve enveloping the curve L. It is clear that, in the general
is limited to a much more restricted
case, the factor Z of Weierstrass
where
region than the factor
AF()
of Darboux.
28. Integrals taken along a closed curve. In the preceding para

is a continuous function of
graphs, it suffices to suppose that f(z)
shall
along the path of integration. We
first con
shall
is an analytic function, and we
the value of the definite integral is affected by the path
now
the complex variable

suppose also that f(z)
sider
how
followed by the variable in going from A to B.

a closed curve and also on the
If a function f(z) is analytic within
curve
itself,
the integral ff(z)dz, taken around that curve,
is
equal
to zero.
In order to demonstrate this fundamental theorem, which

to Cauchy,
we
shall first establish several
lemmas
is
due
curve what
fz dz, taken along any closed
1)
the integral fdz, taken along
ever, are zero. In fact, by definition,
is equal to I
a,
any path whatever between the two points a, b,
The
and the
integrals fdz,
integral
is
zero
if
the path
is
closed, since then I
a.
As
two
for the integral fz dz, taken along any curve whatever joining
=
z
=
then
k (
t
25),
*_!,
points a, b, if we take successively *
we
see that the integral is also the limit of the
sum
is closed.
equal to zero if the curve
bounded by any curve C whatever be divided
2) If the region
the sum
into smaller parts by transversal curves drawn arbitrarily,
the
sense
boundary
same
the
in
along
taken
of the
hence
it is
integrals
ff(z)ds
II,
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
28]
67
of each of these parts is equal to the integral //() dz taken along

the complete boundary C. It is clear that each portion of the auxil
iary curves separates two contiguous regions and must be described
twice in integration in opposite senses. Adding all these inte
remain then only the integrals taken along the

boundary curve, whose sum is the integral [ c f(z)dz.
Let us now suppose that the region A is divided up, partly in
smaller regular parts, which shall be squares having their sides
parallel to the axes Ox, Oy
partly in irregular parts, which shall be
of
of
which
the remaining part lies beyond the
squares
portions
C.
These
boundary
squares need not necessarily be equal. For ex
we
ample,
might suppose that two sets of parallels to Ox and Oy
have been drawn, the distance between two neighboring parallels
being constant and equal to I then some of the squares thus obtained
grals, there will
might be divided up into smaller squares by new parallels to the
Whatever may be the manner of subdivision adopted, let us

suppose that there are N regular parts and N irregular parts let
us number the regular parts in any order whatever from 1 to N, and
the irregular parts from 1 to N
Let l be the length of the side of
the iih square and lk that of the square to which the /cth irregular
part belongs, L the length of the boundary C, and Jl the area of a
polygon which contains within it the curve C.
axes.
Let abed be the ith square (Fig. 13), let z be a point taken in its
on one of its sides, and let z be any point on its boundary.
i
interior or
Then we have
V
FIG. 13
where
small.
|c t-|
is
small, provided that the side of the square
It follows that
/(*)
*/(*<)
+/(*0 ~
*</(*<)
*(*
~
**)>
is
itself
68
r **+ r
<)]
*/( Cj )
/(C,)
where the integrals are
By
square.
the
^-
i/(c.)
to be taken along the perimeter c { of the
lemma
first
28
[II,
stated above, this reduces to the form
= r (*c/(e
be the &th irregular part, let

be a point taken
Again,
in its interior or on its perimeter, and let z be any point of its
let _pgrsi
perimeter.
Then we
where
infinitesimal at the
is
have, as above,
f /(*)** = C
(8)
*A C*)
Let
l{
V2
whence we find
*;(*
J<&
be a positive number greater than the absolute values of

z i is less than
The absolute value of z
e and e^.
7;
the factors
all
same time as
hence, by (6),
we
find
I
where w denotes the area of the ith regular
in the same way,
-
<
II
where
part.
V2 (4
lk
+ arc rs) =
77
From
(8)
we
find,
V2 uk + ^ V2 arcr,
the area of the square which contains the &th irregular

Adding all these integrals, we obtain, a fortiori, the inequality
is
o>^
f(z)dz
(9)
V2 (50)4
[4
X V2Z],
When
number
of
increased indefinitely in such a way that

than
2to^. finally becomes less
approach zero, the sum Sw,-
l{
where X
squares
and rk
ifk
part.
is
an upper bound for the sides
lk .
the
all
is
the sides
Jl.
the right-hand side of the inequality (9) we have, then, the product
of a factor which remains finite and another factor rj which can be
On
supposed smaller than any given positive number. This can be true
only if the left-hand side is zero we have then
;
f(z) dz
J(C)
0.
II,
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
29]
69
In order that the preceding conclusion may be legitimate, we must make

we can take the squares so small that the absolute values of all the
quantities ci? ek will be less than a positive number tj given in advance, if the
points Zj and z k are suitably chosen.* We shall say for brevity that a region
29.
sure that
bounded by a closed curve
7, situated in a region of the plane inclosed by the

the condition (a) with respect to the number rj if it is possible
to find in the interior of the curve y or on the curve itself a point z such that
curve C,
satisfies
we always have
()
when
/(*)
~ /(* - ( )
z describes the curve 7.
The proof depends on showing

and
the squares so small that all the parts considered, regular
condition (a) with respect to the

shall establish this new
We
number
that
we can choose
irregular, satisfy the
77.
lemma by
the well-known process of successive

Suppose that we have first drawn two sets of parallels to the axes
Ox, Oy, the distance between two adjacent parallels being constant and equal
to I. Of the parts obtained, some may satisfy the condition (a), while others
do not. Without changing the parts which do satisfy the condition (a), we shall
divide the others into smaller parts by joining the middle points of the opposite
sides of the squares which form these parts or which inclose them. If, after
this new operation, there are still parts which do not satisfy the condition (a),
subdivisions.
we
will repeat the operation on those parts, and so on. Continuing in this way,
there can be only two cases either we shall end by having only regions which
or, however far
satisfy the condition (a), in which case the lemma is proved
:
we go
in the succession of operations,
we
shall
always find some parts which do
not satisfy that condition.

In the latter case, in at least one of the regular or irregular parts obtained
by the first division, the process of subdivision just described never leads us to
a set of regions all of which satisfy the condition (a) let A l be such a part.
After the second subdivision, the part A l contains at least one subdivision A z
which cannot be subdivided into regions all of which satisfy the condition (a).
Since it is possible to continue this reasoning indefinitely, we shall have a suc
;
cession of regions
which are squares, or portions of squares, such that each is included in the pre
ceding, and whose dimensions approach zero as n becomes infinite. There is,
therefore, a limit point z situated in the interior of the curve or on the curve
itself.
Since,
= Z we
,
by hypothesis, the function f(z) possesses a derivative f(z
for
can find a number p such that
is less than p. Let c be the circle with radius p described

z
provided that \z
about the point z as center. For large enough values of n, the region A n will
lie within the circle c, and we shall have for all the points of the boundary of A n
\
GOURSAT, Transactions of
the
American Mathematical
Society, 1900, Vol.
I,
p. 14.
70
[II,
29
Moreover, it is clear that the point z is in the interior of A n or on the boundary

hence that region must satisfy the condition (a) with respect to rj. We are
therefore led to a contradiction in supposing that the lemma is not true.
;
30.
By means
of a suitable convention as to the sense of integra
tion the theorem can be extended also to boundaries
several distinct closed curves.
formed by
Let us consider, for example, a func
tion f(z) analytic within the region

and the two interior curves C ,
A bounded by the
closed curve
and on these curves themselves

T
of the region A is formed by
The
complete boundary
(Fig. 14).
these three distinct curves, and we shall say that that boundary is
C",
described in the positive sense if the region

A is on the left hand with respect to this
the arrows on the figure
indicate the positive sense of description
for each of the curves. With this agree
sense of motion
ment, we have always
= o,
%Ar
the integral being taken along the complete
boundary in the positive sense. The proof
FIG. 14
can be applied again

given for a region with a simple boundary
to
the
case
this
here we can also reduce
preceding by drawing the
to the closed curve
theorem
the
cd and by applying
transversals
;
a?>,
153).
abmbandcj)cdqa (I,
It is sometimes convenient in the applications to write the preced
ing formula in the form
/(*) d*
J(C)
(C)
= f
J(C
f(z)dz
)
+ f
f(z)dz,
J(C")
where the three integrals are now taken in the same sense that is,
indicated
the last two must be taken in the reverse direction to that
;
by the arrows.
28
Let us return to the question proposed at the beginning of
in
a
function
the answer is now very easy. Let f(z) be an analytic
same
the
Given two paths A MB, ANB, having
region Jl of the plane.
in that region, they will give the same
and
;
extremities
lying entirely
is analytic within
value for the integral ff(z)dz if the f unction /(z)
followed by the path
the closed curve formed by the path
curve
shall suppose, for definiteness, that that closed
BNA.
AMB
We
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
!!,:]
71
Indeed, since the sura of the two

and along BNA is zero, the two integrals along
AMB and along ANB must be equal. We can state this result again
Two paths AMB and ANB, having the same extremities,
as follows
value for the integral ff(z) dn if we can pass from one
same
the
give
does not have any double points.
integrals along
^4
the other by a continuous deformation without encountering

point where the function ceases to be analytic.
to
This statement holds true even
any
when the two paths have any num
points besides the two extremities (I, 152).

From this we conclude that, when /() is analytic in a region
bounded by a single closed curve, the integral ff(z)dz is equal to
ber whatever of
common
when taken along any closed curve whatever

this result to the
region. But we must not apply
zero
situated in that
case of a region
Let us consider, for exam

in the ring-shaped region between two
ple, a function /() analytic
be a circle having the same center
Let
concentric circles C, C
and lying between C and C the integral ff(z)dz, taken along
bounded by several
distinct closed curves.
C"
C",
not in general zero. Cauchy s theorem, shows only that the value
of that integral remains the same when the radius of the circle
is
C"
is
varied.*
* Cauchy s theorem remains true without any hypothesis upon the existence of
the function/ (z) beyond the region A limited by the curve C, or upon the existence
of a derivative at each point of the curve C itself. It is sufficient that the f unction /(z)
shall be analytic at every point of the region A, and continuous on the boundary C,
that the value /(Z) of the function in a point Z of C varies continuously with
Z on that boundary, and that the difference /(Z) -/(z), where z is an
interior
approaches zero uniformly with \Z-z\. In fact, let us first suppose
that
is,
the position of
point,
meets the boundary in a single

that every straight line from a fixed point a of
a + (z - a) (where 9 is a real number
point. When the point z describes C, the point
between and 1) describes a closed curve C situated in A. The difference between
is equal to
the two
along the curves C and
integrals,
C",
5= C {f(z)-0f[z-(z-a)(l-0)]}dz,
J(C)
and we can take the difference 1-0 so small that |5| will be less than any given
function under the integral sign in the form
positive number, for we can write the
/(z)
-f[z-(z-a) (1-0)] + (1- 0)/[z- (z- a)
Since the integral along
C"
is
zero,
we
(1-0)].
have, then, also
JC f(z)dz
In the case of a boundary of any form whatever, we can replace this boundary by a
succession of closed curves that fulfill the preceding condition by drawing suitably
placed transversals.
72
[II,
31
31. Generalization of the formulae of the integral calculus.
be an analytic function in the region

curve C. The definite integral
limited by a simple boundary
= C
Jz
taken from a fixed point Z Q up to a variable point Z along a path

from what we have just seen, a definite
lying in the region A, is,
function of the upper limit Z. We shall now show that this function
&(Z)
For
is
let
also
Z -f
an analytic function of Z whose derivative

h be a point near Z then we have
is
f(Z).
s*
f(*)dz,
\
Jz
and we may suppose that this last integral is taken along the seg
ment of a straight line joining the two points Z and Z + li. If the
two points are very close together, / (z) differs very little from/(Z)
write
along that path, and we can
where
is
|8|
is less
small enough.
than any given positive number
Hence we
have, after dividing
17,
by
provided that
\h\
h,
h
absolute value of the last integral is less than ij\h\, and there
zero.
fore the left-hand side has for its limit /(Z) when h approaches
the
is
derivative
known,
whose
already
If a function F(Z)
iaf(Z)
The
two functions $(Z) and F(Z) differ only by a constant (footnote,

we see that the fundamental formula of integral calculus
p. 38), and
can be extended to the case of complex variables
:
(10)
This formula, established by supposing that the two functions /(),

is applicable in more general
F() were analytic in the region A,
or both/(s) and F(z)
cases. It may happen that the function F(z),
the integral has a precise
are
the same
multiple-valued;
time,
does not pass through any of the
of
the
integration
path
meaning
of the formula
critical points of these functions. In the application
determination F(z Q ) of the
it will be necessary to pick out an initial
and to follow the continuous variation of that
primitive function,
at
if
II,
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
31]
function
73
when
Moreover,
if
the variable z describes the path of integration.

/() is itself a multiple-valued function, it will be neces
sary to choose, among the determinations of F(z), that one whose

derivative is equal to the determination chosen for f(z).
Whenever the path of integration can be inclosed within a region

with a simple boundary, in which the branches of the two functions
f(z), F(%) under consideration are analytic, the formula may be
regarded as demonstrated. Now in any case, whatever may be the
path of integration, we can break it up into several pieces for which
the preceding condition is satisfied, and apply the formula (10) to
each of them separately. Adding the results, we see that the for
mula
is
true in general, provided that
we apply
it
with the necessary
precautions.
Let us, for example, calculate the definite integral fg Zl z m dz, taken
along any path whatever not passing through the origin, where ra is
1. One primitive func
a real or a complex number different from
formula
and
the
tion is z m + l /(m
general
(10) gives
1),
m+
In order to remove the ambiguity present in this formula

not an integer, let us write it in the form
is
when
I
z
z m dz
=
ra
-fl
m
having been chosen, the value of z is
thereby fixed along the whole path of integration, as is also the final
value Log(j). The value of the integral depends both upon the
initial value chosen for Log ( ) and upon the path of integration.
The
initial
value
Log
Similarly, the formula
= Log [/(*,)] - Log [/(*)]
Jzn
does not present any difficulty in interpretation if the function f(z)

is continuous and does not vanish along the path of integration.
= f(z) describes
in its plane an arc of a curve not pass

ing through the origin, and the right-hand side is equal to the vari
ation of Log(w) along this arc. Finally, we may remark in passing
that the formula for integration by parts, since it is a consequence
The point u
of the formula (10), can be extended to integrals of functions of a
complex variable.
74
[II,
32
32. Another proof of the preceding results. The properties of the

a great analogy to the properties of line
integral ff(z)dz present
condition for integrability is fulfilled (I,
152).
integrals when the
Kiemarm has shown, in fact, that Cauchy s theorem results im
to line integrals.
mediately from the analogous theorem relative
z
within a region A
Yi be an analytic function of
Let /() = X
with a simple boundary the integral taken along a closed curve C
sum
lying in that region is the
f(z)dz
of
two
line integrals
= f Xdx -Ydy + i
Ydx
+ Xdy,
J(
J(C)
the derivatives of the func

and, from the relations which connect
tions x, Y,
dx
we
_ ar
&x_<w
dx
dy
dy
*
see that both of these line integrals are zero
152).
(I,
fe *f(z)dz, taken from
a fixed point Z Q
in
the region A
function
is
a
to a variable point
(z)
single-valued
function
in
that
of
i
the
coefficient
and
real
the
Let us separate
part
It follows that the integral
4>
~(x,y)
P (x
>
y)
xdx
J(x
The
functions
v>
Q (x
>
y)
Y
I
/(av
P and Q
fa
have partial derivatives,
^_
>
~^,r
^=X
^_v
te~
*y
satisfy the conditions
Consequently,
isX+
/(*,)
Yd
,i/ )
^ =X
which
-f
ap_aQ
~~
ap
dx
dy
dy
=
~
_^Q
<
^c
Qiis an analytic function of
whose derivative
Fior/().
If the function
/()
is
discontinuous at a certain number of points
of A, the same thing will be true of one or more of the functions X,

will in general have periods
Y, and the line integrals P(sc, y), Q(x, y)
about
described
that arise from
points of discontinuity (I, 153).
loops
We
shall
then be true of the integral
f(z)d.
nature
the
after
these
of
having investigated
resume the study
periods,
of the singular points of /().
The same thing
will
* It should be noted that Riemann s proof assumes the continuity of the deriva
that is, of/ (z).
tives dX/dx, 8Y/dy,
;
II,
THE CAUCHY INTEGRAL THEOREMS
33]
75
To give at least one example of this, let us consider the integral f^dz/z.
After separating the real part and the coefficient of i, we have
r
f
/i
*-/"*
z
/(i, o)
o;
iy
t/(i, Q)
y)xdx
+ ydy
+ y2
to
^xdy
2
/(! 0)
ydx
2
?/
The real part is equal to [log(x2 + 2/ 2 )]/2, whatever may be the path followed.
As for the coefficient of i, we have seen that it has the period 2 TT it is equal
;
to the angle through

(x, y)
has turned.
II.
We
CAUCHY S INTEGRAL. TAYLOR S AND LAURENT S

SERIES.
We
to the point
thus find again the various determinations of Log (z).
which the radius vector joining the origin
SINGULAR POINTS. RESIDUES
which
present a series of new and important results,
of
definite
consideration
from
the
integrals taken
Cauchy deduced
shall
now
between imaginary
limits.
33. The fundamental formula. Let /() be an analytic function in

the finite region A limited by a boundary r, composed of one or of
several distinct closed curves, and continuous on the boundary itself.
If x is a point * of the region A, the function
z
x.
analytic in the same region, except at the point
With the point x as center, let us describe a circle y with the
the preceding function is
radius /o, lying entirely in the region A
then analytic in the region of the plane limited by the boundary T
and we can apply to it the general theorem ( 28).
and the circle
is
y,
Suppose, for defmiteness, that the boundary T

Then we have
closed curves C,
(Fig. 15).
is
composed of two
C"
where the three integrals are taken in the sense indicated by the
We can write this in the form
arrows.
* In what follows we shall often have to consider several complex quantities at the
same time. We shall denote them indifferently by the letters x,z,u,-. Unless it is
to denote a real variable.
expressly stated, the letter x will no longer be reserved
76
[II,
33
where the integral ^ r) denotes the integral taken along the total
boundary T in the positive sense. If the radius p of the circle y is
very small, the value of f(z) at any point of this
little fr o
m /(x):
f(s)
where
is
|8|
very small.
+B
circle differs
very
we
this value,
Replacing/^) by
find
Z-X
The
first
integral of the right-hand side
=x
put z
-f-
pe
ei
,
it
is
easily evaluated; if
we
becomes
~x
Pe
The second integral j y) 8 dz/(z

x) is therefore independent of the
radius p of the circle y on the other hand, if 8 remains less than
;
TIG. 15
a positive
2 7T/3
(rj/p)
z
a?,
small
number
7rrj.
the absolute value of this integral is less than

Now, since the function /() is continuous for
17,
we can choose the

as we wish. Hence
radius p so small that rj also will be as

must be zero. Dividing the
this integral
two sides of the equation (11) by 2
?ri,
we
obtain
X
fundamental formula. It expresses the value of the
function /() at any point x whatever within the boundary by means
of the values of the same function taken only along that boundary.
Let x + Ax be a point near x, which, for example, we shall suppose
lies in the interior of the circle y of radius p. Then we have also
This
is
Cauchy
4-
A#
THE CAUCHY INTEGRAL THEOREMS
33]
II,
77
and consequently, subtracting the sides of (12) from the correspond

we find
ing sides of this equation and dividing by Ax,
J_
Ax)-/(x)
Ax
iri
f(*}dz
(r)
"""./(D
(z
- x) (z - x - Ax)
approaches zero, the function under the integral sign ap

2
In order to prove rigorously that
limit /()/(
the
#)
proaches
we have the right to apply the usual formula for differentiation, let
When Ax
us write the integral in the form
/ox*
r
J(F) (*
-)(*-- Ax)
_
(r)
(z
- xf
(r)
(z
-x)\z-x- Ax)
M be
an upper bound for \f(z)\ along T, L the length of the

distance of any point what
boundary, and 8 a lower bound for the
ever of the circle y to any point whatever of r. The absolute value
3
of the last integral is less than Afi|Ax|/8 and consequently ap
Let
proaches zero with |Ax|.
Passing to the
limit,
we
obtain the result
(13)
It
may
be shown in the same
way
that the usual
method of
differ
new integral *
and we obtain
entiation under the integral sign can be applied to this
and
which can be deduced from
to all those
it,
successively
and, in general,
Hence,
if
a function f(z)
is
analytic in a certain region of the plane,
the sequence of successive derivatives of that function is unlimited,

and all these derivatives are also analytic functions in the same
that we have arrived at this result by
region. It is to be noticed
the existence of the first derivative.
assuming only
Note.
clusions.
of this paragraph leads to more general con

be a continuous function (but not necessarily
The reasoning
Let
The general formula for differentiation under the
later (Chapter V).
integral sign will be established
78
[n,
33
analytic) of the complex variable z along the curve T, closed or not.
The
integral
has a definite value for every value of x that does not lie on the
path of integration. The evaluations just made prove that the limit
of the quotient [F(x -f- Ax)
F(cc)]/Acc is the definite integral
zero. Hence F(x) is an analytic function for

for the points of the curve T, which are in
of
value
#,
except
every
for
that function (see
90). Similarly, we
singular
points
general
when Ax approaches
|
find that the nth derivative
(n)
x has for
its
value
_ ^+l
34.
was
Morera
first
s theorem.
converse of Cauchy s fundamental theorem which

may be stated as follows If a function f(z) of a
proved by Morera
complex variable z is continuous in a region A, and if the definite integral /( Q/(Z) dz,
taken along any closed curve C lying in A, is zero, then f(z) is an analytic func
tion in
A.
For the
definite integral F(z)
of the region
=ff(t)M,
taken between the two points z z

in that region, has a definite
,
along any path whatever lying
value independent of the path. If the point z is supposed fixed, the integral
31 shows that the quotient AF/Az has
is a function of z. The reasoning of
zero. Hence the function F(z) is an
f(z) for its limit when Az approaches
function of z having /(z) for its derivative, and that derivative is
analytic
therefore also an analytic function.
35. Taylor s series. Let f(z) be an analytic function in the interior

that function at any point
of a circle with the center a ; the value of
x within the
circle is
equal
to
the
sum of the
convergent series
In the demonstration we can suppose that the function f(z) is

of the circle itself in fact, if x is any
analytic on the circumference
the circle C, we can always find a circle C
point in the interior of
with center a and with a radius less than that of C, which contains
;
THE CAUCHY-TAYLOR SERIES
35]
II,
79
the point x within it, and we would reason with the circle C just as
we are about to do with the circle C. With this understanding, x
the fundamental formula,
being an interior point of C, we have, by
Let us now write !/(
x) in the following
way
1or,
a]
+1
the remainder of degree n

carrying out the division up to
in
a,
a,
(z
of
(z
a]
(*-*)(* -a)*
Let us replace l/(z
- x)
in the formula (12
x-
- a)
(x
us bring the factors

a,
outside of the integral sign. This gives
and
let
f(x)
where the
= J + /! (x
coefficients
-)++
^,
,/ and
by
2
,
Jn (x
this expression,
independent of
+R
the remainder
z,
n,
7^ n
have the
values
(16)
As w becomes
infinite the
remainder
7? n
approaches zero.
For
let
for the absolute value of f(z) along the circle

a.
value of x
that
of
radius
the
R
circle, and r the absolute
C,
*
when
r and therefore l/(z
x *=R
r),
h ave z
x) ^1/(R
describes the circle C. Hence the absolute value of R n is less than
AT be an upper bound
We
MR
and the
factor (r/ R) n+1 approaches zero as

J
this it follows that /(a) is equal to the
f(x)
TI
becomes
infinite.
convergent series
= J, 4- J^x -)+-+/.(*-
M
)
From
80
[n,
35
a in the formulae (12), (13), (14), the boundary

we put x
the
here
circle
C, we find
being
Now,
if
^1
^0=/0)>
The
Jn
"-I
series obtained is therefore identical
with Taylor
is,
=/()
The
circle
function
is
= ^T^
"
with the series (15)
that
s series.
is
a circle with center
a, in
the interior of which the
we would
obtain the greatest

for
the distance
radius
by taking
to that singular point of f(z) nearest a. This is
analytic
clear that
it is
circle satisfying that condition
from the point a
on the right.*
also the circle of convergence for the series
This important theorem brings out the identity of the two defini
tions for analytic functions which we have given (I,
197, 2d ed.
191, 1st ed.
and
II,
3).
In
fact,
every power series represents
an analytic function inside of its circle of convergence ( 8) and,

conversely, as we have just seen, every function analytic in a circle
with the center a can be developed in a power series proceeding
a and convergent inside of that circle.
according to powers of x
;
Let us also notice that a certain number of results previously estab

become now almost intuitive; for example, applying the
w which are ana
theorem to the functions Log (1 + z) and (1 -f *)
lished
of unit radius
lytic inside of the circle
we
with the origin as center,
17 and
find again the formulae of
18.
now
consider the quotient of two power series

(x),
does not
each convergent in a circle of radius R. If the series
a circle of
vanish for x
0, since it is continuous we can describe
Let us
f(x)/<f>
<j>(x)
radius r ==
in the
whole interior of which
it
does not vanish.
The
function /(#)/< (x) is therefore analytic in this circle of radius r and

can therefore be developed in a power series in the neighborhood
of the origin (I,
183, 1st ed.). In the same way, the
188, 2d ed.
;
theorem relative to the substitution of one

can be proved,
series in another series
etc.
Let f(z) be an analytic function in the interior of a circle C

with the center a and the radius r and continuous on the circle
of the function on the circle is a
itself. The absolute value /()
Note.
continuous function, the maximum value of which we shall indicate

n
a) in the
by fl(C(r). On the other hand, the coefficient an of (x
* This last conclusion requires some explanation on the nature of singular points,
will be given in the chapter devoted to analytic extension.
which
THE CAUCHY-LAURENT SERIES
37]
II,
development of f(z)
is
equal to f^(a)/n\, that
j_
2
we
81
to
is,
c /()*
J(0)(*
-)"
have, then,
(IT)
i* We
so that JW(r) is greater than all the products A n

could use
of
in
instead
the
for
the
dominant
function
expression
tJIC(r)
2d
ed.
1st
186,
181,
(I,
ed.).
36. Liouville s theorem.
If the function /(x) is analytic for every

value of x, then Taylor s expansion is valid, whatever a may be,
in the whole extent of the plane, and the function considered is called
finite
an integral function. From the expressions obtained for the coeffi

cients we easily derive the following proposition, due to Liouville
:
Every integral function whose absolute value

is a constant.
fixed number
is
For
let
us develop f(x) in powers of x

n
It is clear that flfT(r)
a)
coefficient of (x
ever
may
be the radius
r,
and therefore
\an
a,
always
and
a n be the
than M, what
than M/rn But
.
the radius r can be taken just as large as we wish

an
if n
1, and f(x) reduces to a constant f(a).
than a
is less
is less
\
let
less
we
have, then,
More
generally, let f(x) be an integral function such that the

absolute value of f(x)/x m remains less than a fixed number
for
values of x whose absolute value
greater than a positive number

a polynomial of degree not greater than
is
R then the function f(x) is

m. For suppose we develop f(x) in powers of x, and let a n be the
coefficient of x n If the radius r of the circle C is greater than R, we
have JXC(r)
Mr"
and consequently \a n
Mrm ~ n If n m, we
~
have then an = 0, since Mrm n can be made smaller than any given
;
<
<
number by choosing
>
r large enough.
The reasoning by which Cauchy derived

Taylor s series is capable of extended generalizations. Thus, let
f(z) be an analytic function in the ring-shaped region between the
37. Laurent s series.
The
inequalities (17) are interesting, especially since they establish a relation
between the order of magnitude of the coefficients of a power series and the order of
magnitude of the function; 5W(r) is not, in general, however, the smallest number
which satisfies these inequalities, as is seen at once when all the coefficients a n are
real and positive. These inequalities (17) can be established without
making use of
Cauchy
s integral
(MERAY, Lemons nouvelles sur I analyse
infinitesimale, Vol.
I, p. 99).
82
two concentric
circles C,
C having
common
the
[II,
We
center a.
37
shall
show that the value f(x) of the function at any point x taken in that
one proceeding in
region is equal to the sum of two convergent series,
the other in positive powers ofl/(x
a)*
as
can suppose, just
before, that the function f(z) is analytic
the circles C, C themselves. Let R, R be the radii of these circles
positive
powers
ofxâ,
We
on
is the interior circle, we have
a if
and r the absolute value of x
a small circle y lying
us
describe
let
center
x
as
R. About
r
R
the
have
C
We
C
and
equality
entirely between
C"
<
<
the integrals being taken in a suitable sense the last integral, taken
the preceding relation
along y, is equal to 2 irif(x) and we can write
;
in the
form
\dz
(18)
where the integrals are
all
taken in the same sense.
Repeating the reasoning of
35,
we
find again that
we have
(19)
are given by the formulae

Jn
where the coefficients JQ Jv
to develop the second integral in a series, let us
order
In
(16).
-
notice that
a\
(x
a)
(z
(x
(x-
a)
aV
z) (x
ay
and that the integral of the complementary term,

27TI
approaches zero
maximum
is less
Comptes rendus de
C",
fact, if
is
the
the absolute value
than
Academic des
1st series, Vol. VIII, p. 115.
In
increases indefinitely.
of the absolute value of /(*) along
of this integral
when n
a/ x
Sciences, Vol. XVII.
See (Euvres de Cauchy
37]
II,
and the factor
R /r
f()dz
,
where the
K,
K,
-a
Kn
K =
21
"
>
(x-
(C/)
coefficient
We
than unity.
is less
83
have, then, also
^
(x
a)
K
-
T
a,
equal to the definite integral
is
f (*-)î
^
J(CO
/(*)fe.
*"
Adding the two developments

development of f(x).
In the formulae (16) and
(19)
and
(20),
we
obtain the proposed
which give the coefficients Jn and Kn

we can take the integrals along any circle T whatever lying between C
and C and having the point a for center, for the functions under the
(21),
if we agree to let the

integral sign are analytic in the ring. Hence,
we can write the development of
oo to -f oo
index n vary from
,
f(x) in the
form
/(*)
(22)
=
I
where the
Jn whatever
coefficient
the sign of n,
is
given by the
formula
Example. The same function f(x) can have developments which are entirely
Let us take, for example, a
different, according to the region considered.
rational fraction /(x), of which the denominator has only simple roots with
Let
different absolute values.
I be these roots arranged in the order

Disregarding the integral part, which does not
a, 6, c,
of increasing absolute values.

interest us here,
we have
xa
xc
xl
a about the origin as center, each of the simple frac

powers of x, and the development of /(x) is
identical with that given by Maclaurin s expansion
In the
circle of radius
tions can be developed in positive
In the ring between the two circles of radii a\ and |6| the fractions l/(x
can be developed in positive powers of x, but l/(x
-, l/(x
I)
c),
l/(x
must be developed in positive powers of 1/x, and we have
|
L
I
\\
/
xn
A Ac
+ -2
*
6),
a)
84
37
[II,
In the next ring we shall have an analogous development, and so on. Finally,
exterior to the circle of radius J|, we shall have only positive powers of l/x
:
.la"-
f(x)
xn
38. Other series. The proofs of Taylor s series and of Laurent s series are
x)
based essentially on a particular development of the simple fraction l/(z
when the point x remains inside or outside a fixed circle. Appell has shown that
we can
a function f(x) analytic

again generalize these formulae by considering
in the interior of a region
bounded by any number whatever
of arcs of
FIG. 16
Let us consider, for example, a function

the three
curvilinear
in
the
(Fig. 16) formed by
triangle
f(x) analytic
circumferences
arcs of circles PQ, QE, EP, belonging respectively to the three
we have
C".
by x any point within this curvilinear triangle,
circles or of entire circumferences.*
PQR
<7,
Denoting
<7,
Along the arc
PQ we
of
is
g-a
z-x~z-a
where a
can write
(z-a)
the center of
- a)/(z (x
a) is less
(x-a)"
+
l
n
(z-a) +
but
when
/*v_ay
z-x\z-a/
z describes the arc
PQ,
integral
approaches zero as n becomes
infinite.
We have,
therefore,
J_
*
the absolute value
than unity, and therefore the absolute value
Acta mathematica, Vol.
I, p.
145.
of the
38]
II,
where the
coefficients are constants
Similarly, along the arc
out.
where
b is the center of
would be easy
it
to write
can write
Z-b
- 6) 2
(x
-z
whose expressions
QR we
85
(z-b)-l
/z_Mn
x-z\x-
(x-b)
Since the absolute value of
n
(z
b)
/(x
b)
ap
proaches zero as n becomes infinite, we can deduce from the preceding equation
a development for the second integral of the form
-
Similarly,
where
(7),
f(z)dz
7T-
(P)
we
c is
we can transform
this
sum
tions of x, for example,
K
-r
^+
/_
/.
^\2
^\-n
C".
Adding the three expressions (a), (/3),
of three series, proceeding respectively accord
and of l/(x
a, of l/(x
c). It is clear that
&),
sum
into a series of
by uniting
all
which
all
the terms are rational func
the terms of the
same degree
The preceding reasoning applies whatever

l/(x
c).
of arcs of circles.
b),
number
It is seen in the
still
the center of the circle
obtain for/(x) the
ing to positive powers of x
I/ (x
find
we
= ~ K! r + 71 K ^ +
convergent
is
a,
be the
preceding example that the three series, (a), (/3), (7), are
the point x is inside the triangle P Q R and the sum of
when
these three series
in
may
again equal to the integral
I
taken along the boundary of the triangle PQR in the positive sense. Now, when
the point x is in the triangle P Q R , the function f(z)/(z
x) is analytic in
the interior of the triangle PQR, and the preceding integral is therefore zero.
Hence we obtain in this way a series of rational fractions which is convergent
when x
P Q -R
is
is
is within one of the two triangles PQR,

equal tof(x) or to zero, according as the point x
triangle
PQR
and for which
in the triangle
PQR
the
sum
or in the
Painleve* has obtained
more general
results along the
same
lines.*
Let us con
sider, in order to limit ourselves to a very simple case, a convex closed curve F
having a tangent which changes continuously and a radius of curvature which
remains under a certain upper bound. It is easy to see that we can associate
with each point
of F a circle C tangent to r at that point and inclosing that
curve entirely in its interior, and this may be done in such a way that the center
of the circle moves in a continuous manner with N. Let/(z) be a function ana
lytic in the interior of the
boundary F and continuous on the boundary
itself.
Then, in the fundamental formula

/(*)
* Sur
les
lignes singulieres desfonctions anatytiques (Annales de la Faculte ds
Toulouse, 1888).
86
where x
is
an interior point
a)
38
write
1
(*-*)"
(z
we can
to F,
[II,
a)
(z
n+
/*-<A
x\z
a/
where a denotes the center of the circle C which corresponds to the point z of
the boundary a is no longer constant, as in the case already examined, but it
describes the curve r. Never
is a continuous function of z when the point
a)/(z
a), which is a continuous function of
theless, the absolute value of (x
a fixed number p less than unity, since it cannot reach the
z, remains less than
value unity, and therefore the integral of the last term approaches zero as n
becomes infinite. Hence we have
;
(25)
and
it is
n (x) of
clear that the general term of this series is a polynomial
n. The function f(x) is then developable in a series of
degree not greater than
polynomials in the interior of the boundary F

The theory of conformal transformations enables us to obtain another kind
of series for the development of analytic functions. Let f(x) be an analytic
function in the interior of the region J., which may extend to infinity. Suppose
.
that
by a
we know how to represent the region A conf ormally on the region inclosed
circle C such that to a point of the region A corresponds one and only
one point of the circle, and conversely let u = (z) be the analytic function
which establishes a correspondence between the region A and the circle C hav
f or center in the w-plane. When the variable u describes
ing the point u =
this circle, the corresponding value of z is an analytic function of u. The same
series of
is true of /(z), which can therefore be developed in a convergent
when the variable z remains in the interior of A.
powers of M, or of
infinite strip included
Suppose, for example, that the region A consists of the
a. We have seen ( 22)
between the two parallels to the axis of reals y =
z/2a +
*a
is made to correspond to
that by putting u = (e
1) this strip
l)/(e"
;
<j>
<(z),
a circle of unit radius having its center at the point u = 0. Every function
in this strip in a convergent
analytic in this strip can therefore be developed
series of the following
form
= ^y
A,
39. Series of analytic functions. The sum of a uniformly conver

functions of z is a continuous
gent series whose terms are analytic
without further proof that that
but we could not
function of
,
sum
is
also
say
an analytic function.
It
a unique derivative at every point,

of
Cauchy
must be proved that the sum has

and this is easy to do by means
s integral.
notice that a uniformly convergent series whose terms

can be integrated
are continuous functions of a complex variable
Let us
first
term by term, as in the case of a
real variable.
The proof given
in
II,
39]
87
114, 2d ed.
174, 1st ed.) applies
(I,
here without change, provided the path of integration has a finite
the case of the real variable
length.
The theorem which we wish to prove

following more general proposition
is
evidently included in the
Let
a series all of whose terms are analytic functions in a

region A
bounded by a closed curve F and continuous on the boundary. If the
series (26) is uniformly convergent on F, it is
convergent in every point
be
of A, and
sum
is an analytic function
F(z) whose pth derivative
the
series formed by the pth derivatives of the terms
represented by
of the series (26).
its
is
Let
<f>
() be the sum
function of
of (26) in a point of F
() is a continuous
along the boundary, and we have seen ( 33, Note)
<
that the definite integral
(27)
where x
F(x)
any point of A, represents an analytic function

region A, whose pi\i derivative is the expression
is
in the
/,(*)
dz.
t7rij^(z-xy^
is
Since the series (26) is uniformly convergent on F, the same thing

true of the series obtained by dividing each of its terms by z
x,
and we can write
or again, since
we
have,
fv (z)
by formula
is
an analytic function in the
interior of F,
(12),
Similarly, the expression (28) can be written in the
form
uniformly convergent in a region A of

the plane, x being any point of that region, it suffices to apply the
Hence,
if
the series (26)
is
88
39
[II,
T lying in A and surrounding

preceding theorem to a closed curve
to
the
the point x. This leads
following proposition
:
whose
Every series uniformly convergent in a region A of the plane,
terms are all analytic functions in A, represents an analytic function
The pfa derivative of F(z) is equal to the
F(z) in the same region.
series obtained by differentiating p times each term of the series
which represents F().*
Every function analytic
40. Poles.
in a circle with the center
sum
to the
equal, in the interior of that circle,
/(*)
(29)
= A + A^(z
a}
of a
power
- )-+
A m (z
is
series
We
shall say, for brevity, that the function is regular at the point a,
shall call the
or that a is an ordinary point for the given function.
We
interior of a circle C, described about a as a center with the radius p,

the neighborhood of the point a, when the formula (29) is applicable.
It is, moreover, not necessary that this shall be the largest circle in the
interior of which the formula (29) is true the radius p of the neigh
;
borhood will often be denned by some other particular property.

If the first coefficient A Q is zero, we have f(a) = 0, and the point
a
is
a zero of the function f(z).
same way as for polynomials

with a term of degree m in z
/(*) = A m (z
where
Am
/(a)
*)-
is
not zero,
0,
and the point a
/
is
(a)
The order
of a zero
is
defined in the
if the development of f(z)
commences
a,
+ 4.-n(* ~
m+
)
>
)>
we have
= 0,
..-,
1
>(a)
0,
said to be a zero of order m.
/<">()=*
We
0,
can also write
the preceding formula in the form
/(*)-(*-)*().
a power series which does not vanish when z == a. Since
(z) being
is
a continuous function of z, we can choose the radius p
series
this
in that
of the neighborhood so small that $(z) does not vanish
that the function f(z) will not have any
see
we
and
neighborhood,
other zero than the point a in the interior of that neighborhood.
<
an analytic function are therefore isolated points.

for a single-valued
Every point which is not an ordinary point
The
zeros of
function f(z)
is
said to be a singular point.
* This proposition
is
singular point a of the
usually attributed to Weierstrass.
SINGULAR POINTS
40]
II,
89
function /(z) is a pole if that point is an ordinary point for the re

ciprocal function l/f(z). The development of !//() in powers of
a cannot contain a constant term, for the point a would then be

an ordinary point for the function /(). Let us suppose that the
a,
development commences with a term of degree m in z
z
where
<j>(z)
denotes a regular function in the neighborhood of the

a. From this we derive
is not zero when z
point a which
(z-
m
a)
+()
(z
a)
where
^() denotes a regular function in the neighborhood of the

a. This formula can be written
point a which is not zero when z
in the equivalent form
(31
f(z)
=
,
a)
m~
(z
where we denote by P(z
a), as
we
shall often
do hereafter, a
B
B m Bm _ lt
B
Bm _ may
a, and by
regular function for z
stants. Some of the coefficients B lt
Bm
a)
certain con
be zero, but
is
surely different from zero. The integer
of /()
called the order of the pole. It is seen that a pole of order
of 1//(V), and conversely.
is a zero of order
the coefficient
is
In the neighborhood of a pole a the development of /() is com

posed of a regular part P (z
a) and of a polynomial in !/(
a)
this
polynomial
hood of the
is
pole.
the absolute value off(z) becomes infinite in tvhatever

z approaches the pole. In fact, since the function ^ ()
z
= a,
called the principal part of f(z) in the neighbor

When the absolute value ofz a approaches zero,
the point
not zero for
way
is
suppose the radius of the neighborhood so small that the
M in
absolute value of ty(z) remains greater than a positive number

this neighborhood. Denoting by r the absolute value of z
a,
have
|
/()
>
|
M/r
m and therefore
,
/()
becomes
infinite
we
when r
approaches zero. Since the function i(/(z) is regular for z = a, there

exists a circle C with the center a in the interior of which *l/(z) is
m is an
The
function for all
quotient if/(z)/(z
analytic
a)
the points of this circle except for the point a itself. In the neigh
borhood of a pole a, the function f(z) has therefore no other singular
analytic.
point than the pole itself

points.
in other words, poles are isolated singular
90
[n,
41
41. Functions analytic except for poles. Every function which is

analytic at all the points of a region A, except only for singular
points that are poles, is said to be analytic except for poles in that
region.*
may
function analytic in the whole plane except for poles

infinite number of poles, but it can have only a finite
have an
region of the plane. The proof depends on a

which
we must now recall If in a finite region A
general theorem,
an infinite number of points possessing a
exist
there
the
plane
of
number
in
any
finite
particular property, there exists at least one limit point in the region
A or on its boundary. (We mean by limit point a point in every
neighborhood of which there exist an infinite number of points
possessing the given property.) This proposition is proved by the
process of successive subdivisions that we have employed so often.
the assemblage of points con
For brevity, let us indicate by
A is divided into squares,
us
that
the
let
and
region
suppose
sidered,
or portions of squares, by parallels to the axes Ox, Oy. There will
be at least one region A l containing an infinite number of points of
the assemblage (E). By subdividing the region A l in the same way,
and by continuing this process indefinitely, we can form an infinite
An
that become smaller and
sequence of regions A I} A 2
in
the
is
contained
which
of
each
preceding and contains
smaller,
(")
an
infinite
number
A n approach
of the points of the assemblage. All the points of

lying in the interior of or on the bound
a limit point
Z is
ary of A. The point

are always an infinite
circle
may
having
necessarily a limit point of (E), since there

number of points of (E) in the interior of a
for center,
however small the radius of that
circle
be.
now suppose that the function f(z) is analytic except for

interior of a finite region A and also on the boundary T
in
the
poles
of that region. If it has an infinite number of poles in the region,
situated
it will have, by the preceding theorem, at least one point
Let us
every neighborhood of which it will have an infinite

number of poles. Hence the point Z can be neither a pole nor an
in
or
on
T, in
ordinary point. It is seen in the same way that the function /()
can have only a finite number of zeros in the same region. It follows
that we can state the following theorem
:
Every function analytic except for poles in a finite region A and on

boundary has in that region only a finite number of zeros and only
a finite number of poles.
its
* Such functions are said
by some writers
to
be meromorphic.
TRANS.
SINGULAR POINTS
w]
II,
91
In the neighborhood of any point a, a function f(z) analytic

except for poles can be put in the form
/(*)
(32)
is
a. The exponent
a regular function not zero for z
called the order of f(z) at the point a. The order is zero if the
where
fju
= ( -)**(*),
(2) is
<
point a is neither a pole nor a zero for /(#) it

for /(#), and to
the point a is a zero of order
;
of order
if
equal to
if a is a pole
for /(#).
42. Essentially singular points.
valued analytic function, which

tially singular point.
if
is
An
Every singular point of a

is
not a pole,
is
called
single-
an essen
essentially singular point a is isolated

a as a center a circle C in the
possible to describe about
it is
which the function f(z) has no other singular point
interior of
than the point a

to such points.
Laurent
itself;
we
shall limit ourselves for the
moment
theorem furnishes at once a development of the func
tion/^) that holds in the neighborhood of an essentially singular

point. Let C be a circle, with the center a, in the interior of which
the function f(z) has no other singular point than a also let c be a
circle concentric with and interior to C. In the circular ring included
;
between the two
circles
therefore equal to the

a,
powers of z
is
C and c
sum of
/(,)=
(33)
m=
the function f(z) is analytic and

a series of positive and negative
A m (,-a)-.
00
This development holds true for all the points interior to the circle
C except the point a, for we can always take the radius of the circle
z whatever that is different from a
c less than
\z
a\ for any point
and
lies in C.
Moreover, the coefficients
A m do
not depend on this
The development (33) contains first a part regular

at the point a, say P(z
a), formed by the terms with positive
exponents, and then a series of terms in powers of !/(
a),
radius
37).
(z
This
m
a)
the principal part of f(z) in the neighborhood of the singular

This principal part does not reduce to a polynomial in
point.
l
a would then be a pole, contrary to the
(z
a)~ , for the point z
is
92
42
[II,
an integral transcendental function of l/(

a).
be any positive number less than the radius of the
circle C; the coefficient A_ m of the series (34) is given by the
It is
hypothesis.*
In
fact, let r
expression
37)
the întegral being taken along the circle

the radius r.
have, then,
C"
with the center a and
We
(35)
\A-\<M(r)i",
where
denotes the
JftT(r)
along the circle
z
|
is
|
The
C".
greater than
suppose as small as
r,
maximum
of the absolute value of

f(z)
then convergent, provided that
and since r is a number which we may
series is
we
wish, the series (34) is convergent for every

value of z different from a, and we can write
where P(z
and G [!/(
a) is a regular function at the point
an integral transcendental function! of !/(
a).
a)]
-,
When the absolute value of z a approaches zero, the value of

/(*) does not approach any definite limit. More precisely, if a circle
C is described with the point a as a center and with an arbitrary
radius p, there always exists in the interior of this circle points z for
which f(z) differs as little as we please from any number given in
advance (WEIERSTRASS).
Let us first prove that, given any two positive numbers p and M,
a
there exist values of z for which both the inequalities, z
p,
hold. For, if the absolute value of f(z) were at most
|/()
a
when we have \z
equal to
p, &C(r) would, be less than
for r
or equal to
p, and, from the inequality (35), all the coeffi
cients A_ m would be zero, for the product JKC(r)rm =i Mrm would
<
>
M
M
<
<
approach zero with r.

Let us consider now any value
f(z)
=A
A whatever. If the equation

has roots within the circle C, however small the radius p
* To avoid
overlooking any hypothesis, it would be necessary to examine also the
case in which the development of /(z) in the interior of C contains only positive
powers of z- a, the value /(a) of the function at the point a being different from the
term independent of z- a
We
in the series.
The point z= a would be a point of discon
shall disregard this kind of singularity, which

tinuity for/(z).
artificial character (see below, Chapter IV).
shall frequently denote an integral function of x by G(x).
t
We
is
of
an entirely
II,
SINGULAR POINTS
42]
may
be, the
theorem
is
93
/() = A
If the equation
proved.
does not
of roots in the neighborhood of the point a,

have an infinite
C
radius
the
we can take
p so small that in the interior of the circle
number
with the radius p and the center a this equation does not have any
= !/[/() ^4] is then anal y tic for every
roots. The function
for
the point a this point a cannot be any
C
z
within
except
point
<()
for otherwise the

thing but an essentially singular point for
or
an
a
either
be
ordinary point for /(). There
pole
point would
of z in the
have
we
from
what
just proved, there exist values
fore,
<f>(z),
interior of the circle
for
which we have
or
\f(z)-A\<t,
|<K*)I>7
however small the positive number
may
be.
This property sharply distinguishes poles from essentially singu

lar points. While the absolute value of the function /() becomes
neighborhood of a pole, the value of f(z) is completely

indeterminate for an essentially singular point.
Picard * has demonstrated a more precise proposition by showing
infinite in the
A has an infinite number of roots in the

that every equation f(z)
of
an
singular point, there being no excep
essentially
neighborhood
tion except for, at most, one particular value of A
.
Example. The point
is
an essentially singular point for the function
1/z = A has an infinite number of roots

prove that the equation e
with absolute values less than /o, however small p may be, provided that A is
It is easy to
not zero.
Setting
A = r (cos 6 +
-
We shall
have
z
|
<
\
p,
sin 0),
logr
we
derive from the preceding equation
i(0
provided that
There are evidently an infinite number of values of the integer k which satisfy
this condition. In this example there is one exceptional value of A, that is,
A = 0. But it may also happen that there are no exceptional values such is
the case, for example, for the function sin (1/z), near z = 0.
;
* Annales de VEcole
Normale suptrieure,
1880.
94
43. Residues.
[II,
43
Let a be a pole or an isolated essentially singular

Let us consider the question of evaluating
point of a function /(#).
the integral ff(z)dz along the circle C drawn in the neighborhood

of the point a with the center a. The regular part P (z
a) gives
zero in the integration. As for the principal part G[l/(z
a)], we
can integrate
it
term by term,
for,
even though the point a
essentially singular point, this series
is
is
an
uniformly convergent. The
integral of the general term
r A_ m dz
~~
-/(C)\
is
zero
if
the exponent
function
A_ m /\_(m
is
1) (z
greater than unity, for the primitive

1
takes on again its original
a)" ]
value after the variable has described a closed path. If, on the con
1, the definite integral A_ 1 fdz/(z
trary,
a) has the value
m=
2 iriA_ lt as was shown by the previous evaluation

~
have then the result
2iriA_ l
made
in
34.
We
f(z)dz,
\J(_C)
which is essentially only a particular case of the formula (23) for

the coefficients of the Laurent development. The coefficient A_ l is
called the residue of the function f(z) with respect to the singular
point
a.
Let us consider now a function
boundary curve r and having in the
continuous on a closed
/()
interior of that curve
F only a
L be
Let A, B, C,
1.
of singular points a, b, c,
,
the corresponding residues if we surround each of these singular
points with a circle of very small radius, the integral ff(z)dz, taken
finite
number
along T in the positive sense, is equal to the sum of the integrals

taken along the small curves in the same sense, and we have the
very important formula
(36)
f(z)dz
2 7ri(A
+B+
+ Z),
J(F)
which says that the integral //(*) dz, taken along F in the positive
with
sense, is equal to the product of 2 Tri and the sum of the residues
F.
respect to the singular points off(z) within the curve
It is clear that the theorem is also applicable to boundaries
F com
posed of several distinct closed curves. The importance of residues

is now evident, and it is useful to know how to calculate them rapidly.
If a point a is a pole of order

a) f(z)
for/(s), the product (z
is regular at the point a, and the residue of /(*) is evidently the
44]
II,
m l in the
development of that product. The
a)
in
of
a simple pole the residue is then
the
case
simple
"
coefficient of (z
rule
becomes
95
equal to the limit of the product
a)f(z) for z
Quite fre
a.
quently the function /() appears under the form
where the functions P (z) and Q (z) are regular for z = a and
is different from zero, while a is a simple zero for Q(z).
y
Q (V) = (z
a) R (z)
then the residue
P(a)/R(a), or again, as
III.
it is
is
equal
to
easy to show, to P(a)/Q
the
P (a)
Let
quotient
(a).
We
The
shall
applications of the last theorem are innumerable.
give some of them which are related particularly to the evalua
tion of definite integrals and to the theory of equations.
now
Let f(z) be a function such that the

a\. The integral of
product (z
a)f(z) approaches zero with \z
this function along a circle y, with the center a and the radius p,
approaches zero with the radius of that circle. Indeed, we can write
44. Introductory remarks.
= c (*J
If
rj
is
the
maximum
of the absolute value of (z
a) f(z) along the
circle y, the absolute value of the integral is less than 2 Try, and
sequently approaches zero, since rj itself is infinitesimal with p.
could show in the same
way
when
that,
the product (z
con
We
a) f(z)
a becomes infinite, the

approaches zero as the absolute value of z
integral [C) f(z)dz, taken along a circle C with the center a, ap
proaches zero as the radius of the circle becomes infinite. These
statements are still true if, instead of integrating along the entire
circumference,
the product (z
we
integrate along only a part of it, provided that

a)f(z) approaches zero along that part.
have to find an upper bound for the absolute value
Frequently we
of a definite integral of the form fa f(x) dx, taken along the axis of
have seen above
b.
reals. Let us suppose for definiteness a
<
We
is at most equal to the

25) that the absolute value of that integral
than M(b
is
less
a) if
integral
f(x) dx, and, consequently,
of
value
is an upper bound of the absolute
f(x).
(
96
45. Evaluation of elementary definite integrals.
[II,
The
45
definite inte
the real axis, where F(x) is a rational

gral f*F(x)dx, taken along
not vanish
a
has
sense, provided that the denominator does
function,
for
any
real value of
x and that the degree of the numerator
is less
than the degree of the denominator by at least two units. With the
as center let us describe a circle C with a radius R large
origin
of F(z) and let

enough to include all the roots of the denominator
us consider a path of integration formed by the diameter BA, traced
C lying above the
along the real axis, and the semicircumference
real axis. The only singular points of F(z) lying in the interior of
which come from the roots of the denominator
are
this
y
path
poles,
of F(z) for which the coefficient of i is positive. Indicating by

residues relative to these poles, we can then write
k the sum of the
2<R
F(z)dz
R
As
the radius
becomes
+f
J(
is zero for z infinite

zero, since the product zF(z)
limit,
we
C approaches
infinite the integral along

;
and, taking the
obtain
I
We
case the definite integrals

easily reduce to the preceding
r
f.
F(sinx, cosx Jdx,
where F is a rational function of since and cos x that does not

become infinite for any real value of x, and where the integral is to
be taken along the axis of reals. Let us first notice that we do not
for the limits X Q and
change the value of this integral by taking
It follows that we
whatever.
number
real
is
X
where
2
x + TT,
any
Q
Now the classic
for
TT
and
limits
for
the
-fexample.
take
w,
can
= t reduces the given integral to the

change of variable tan (x/2)
oo
of t taken between the limits
function
rational
of
a
integral
co when x increases
to
oo
from
+
increases
tan
for
and +
(x/2)
<x>,
from
TT to -f TT.
We can also proceed in another way. By

fa = dz/iz, and Euler s formulae give
putting
3*
=z
we have
46]
II,
97
so that the given integral takes the form
* ^-l\dz
As
for the
new path
when x
of integration,
increases from
to 2
IT
the variable z describes in the positive sense the circle of unit radius
about the origin as center. It will suffice, then, to calculate the resi
dues of the new rational function of z with respect to the poles
whose absolute values are less than unity.

27r
Let us take for example the integral J^ ctn[(x
which has a finite value if b is not zero. We have
x-a-U
(
--
bi
e^
or
Ctn
/x-a- bi\ =
2
Hence
the change of variable
xi
=z
ix
leads to the integral
& -r e
J(C) z-eThe function
+e- + ai
ai
b
ix
e -e- +
.e
^
to be integrated has
two simple poles
1 and -f- 2. If b is positive,

and the corresponding residues are
the two poles are in the interior of the path of integration, and the
is the only
equal to 2 iri if b is negative, the pole z
2 iri. The pro
one within the path, and the integral is equal to
2 Tri, according as b is posi
posed integral is therefore equal to
integral
is
We
tive or negative.
shall
now
give some examples which are
less elementary.
46. Various definite integrals.
Example
1.
The function
with the residues er m /2
and
e imz /(l
e m /2
z 2 ) has the
Let us suppose
for definiteness that m is positive, and let us consider the boundary formed by
a large semicircle of radius R about the origin as center and above the real
In the interior of
axis, and by the diameter which falls along the axis of reals.
2
this boundary the function emiz/(l + z ) has the single pole z = i, and the integral
taken along the total boundary is equal to we- m Now the integral along the
semicircle approaches zero as the radius R becomes infinite, for the absolute
two poles
+ i and
i,
i.
value of the product ze im*/(l

if
we
replace z by
R (cos +
+
i
z 2 ) along that curve
sin 0},
gnu* == Q
we have
mR sin + imR cos
approaches
zero.
Indeed,
98
and the absolute value e- mRain0 remains
less
than unity
As
TT.
when
z 2 ), it
for the absolute value of the factor z/(l

z becomes infinite.
have, then, in the limit
to
46
[II,
9 varies from
approaches zero as
We
dx
JIf
is
7re-
we replace emix by cos mx + i sin mx, the coefficient of i on the left-hand side
evidently zero, for the elements of the integral cancel out in pairs. Since we
have also cos ( mx) = cos mx, we
y
can write the preceding formula in
the form
(37)
fl
Jo
Example
+
The function
2.
e**/z
analytic in the interior of the
NA
ABMB
A
ary
(Fig. 17)
by the two semicircles
is
bound
formed
BMB A NA^
FIG. 17
described about the origin as center
with the radii
We
R and
and the straight
r,
e ix
dx
dz
Z
also in the
approaches zero, the
is
e ix
r
dx+
eiz
(fe
J(A NA)
0,
r
J(BMB
(BMB )
last integral
f iz
P (z)
form
r^-^d.+
X
where
AB, B A
J-R
Jr
r
r~
e iz
J(BMB
(BMB
which we can write
When
lines
have, then, the relation
(A NA)
approaches
TTI
we
have, in fact,
a regular function at the origin, so that
C
/ ,.
,
*J (A NA)
-dz= f
P(z)dz + f
Z
J(A NA)
I,.,
*S
(A
The integral of the regular part (z) becomes infinitesimal with the length of
as for the last integral, it is equal to the variation of
the path of integration
;
iri.
Log (z) along A NA, that is, to
The integral along BMB approaches zero
put z
= R (cos 6 +
sin 6],
we
eiz
J(BMB )
and the absolute value
as
find
s
dz
r"
il
e- R
of this integral is less than
r n R sin Q
g
((}
Jo
I
7T
becomes
infinite.
For
if
we
46]
II,
When
increases
to Tr/2, the quotient sin 6/0 decreases
from
from
99
1 to
and we have
2/7T,
Rsm0>-R0;
TT
hence
JT
2R9
r _2
fa e -Ji.h
Jo
^0"i
^L
Jo
which establishes the proposition stated above.
we
Passing to the limit,
have, then (see

p
I,
IX
dx
100,
2d
ed.),
f.
or
=
I ^*
*z
Example 3. The integral of the integral transcendental function e~ along
the boundary (M.BO formed by the two radii OA and OB, making an angle of
(Fig. 18), is
45, and by the arc of a circle
AB
equal to zero, and this fact can be expressed

as follows
e-**dz= C
JAB
Jo
When
the radius
J(
of the circle to
which
AB
belongs becomes infinite, the in

approaches zero. In
tegral along the arc
the arc
AB
fact,
if
we put
= R [cos (0/2) +
FIG. 18
sin (0/2)],
that integral becomes

/.,
2 Jo
and
its
absolute value
is less
than the integral

?.
2 Jo
As
in the previous example,
7?
2 Jo
The
last integral
_ #coB*
we have
7?
d0=:
/.-
/*
e-^8in*d0<-
fr
{
2 Jo
2 Jo
has the value
and approaches zero when R becomes
infinite.
100
[II,
46
Along the radius OB we can put z = p[cos(7r/4) + isin(7r/4)], which gives

2
= e~ 2 and as R becomes infinite we have at the limit (see I, 135, 2d ed.;
e~*
>
134, 1st ed.)
V>
Jo
or, again,
/
Jo
V^T/
...
e-^dp
Equating the real parts and the

Fresnel
-- ism 7T\
7T
cos
).
4/
coefficients of
i,
we
obtain the values of
s integrals,
r
(38)
+co
Jo
47. Evaluation of
T(p)T
(!/>).
The
definite integral
L
where the variable x and the exponent p are real, has a finite value, provided
- p}*
that p is positive and less than one it is equal to the product r (p) r (1
;
In order to evaluate this integral,

~
us consider the function ZP l /(l +
let
z),
1
which has a pole at the point z
and a branch point at the point
z = 0. Let us consider the boundary
abmb a na (Fig. 19) formed by the
described about
two circles C and
the origin with the radii r and p respectively, and the two straight lines
ab and a 6 lying as near each other
as we please above and below a cut
C",
-p IG
integral along this path,
which
lies
pole z
we
shall agree
and 2 ir.
between
then
1, we have
If
The function
along the axis Ox.
ZP-I/(! -f z) is single-valued within
this boundary, which contains only
1.
one singular point, the pole z =
In order to calculate the value of the
to take for the angle of z that one
denotes the residue with respect to the
i-n-R.
C approach zero as r becomes infinite

integrals along the circles C and
and as p approaches zero respectively, for the product ZP/(! + z) approaches
The
zero in either case, since
<
<
1.
of
*
Replace t by 1/(1 + x) in the last formula
The formula (39), derived by supposing p to be real,
and 1.
of p lies between
135, Vol.
is
I,
2d ed.
134, 1st ed.
correct, provided the real part
48]
II,
Along
z
is
but since
is real,
The sum
For simplicity let us replace z by x. Since the angle of

ZP~ I is equal to the numerical value of XP~ I Along a b
ab, z is real.
zero along a&,
also z
101
of the
its
is
angle
we have
TT,
two integrals along ab and along
a therefore has for
its
limit
n_ e27u(pThe
residue
angle of
1.
equal to
is
We
X
(- I)*-
that
is,
to
etP-D
if TT is
taken as the
have, then,
_
~
or, finally,
r +a
>
XP-I
(39)
Jo
dx
48. Application to functions analytic except for poles. Given two

let us suppose that one of them, /(*), is
functions, /() and
(2),
in
the interior of a closed curve C, that the
for
poles
analytic except
<
is everywhere analytic within the same curve, and that the

(2),
are continuous on the curve (7; and
three functions /(),/ (),
let us try to find the singular points of the function
()/ ()//()
is neither a pole nor a zero for /() is
a
which
within C.
point
other,
<
<(s)
<
function / (*)//() and conse

evidently an ordinary point for the
function
the
for
()//() I f a point a is a pole or a
quently
we shall have, in the neighborhood of that point,
zero of
<#>()/
/(),
where
/x
denotes a positive or negative integer equal to the order of

is a regular func
41), and where \j/(z)
a. Taking the logarithmic derivatives
the function at that point (

tion which is not zero for z
on both
sides,
we
find
f (z)
f(z)
Since,
it
/*
=
z
t(z)
on the other hand, we have, in the neighborhood of the point
follows that the point a
4>(z)f(z) //(*)>
and
is
a pole of the
its resi(iue is
equal to
first
a,
order for the product

that is, to m$(a),
fA<j(a),
for /(), and to

the point a is a zero of order
(a) if the
is a pole of order n for/(). Hence, by the general theorem
a
point
if
n<j>
102
[II,
48
of residues, provided there are no roots of f(z) on the curve C,
we
have
where a is any one of the zeros of f(z) inside the boundary C, b any
one of the poles of f(z) within C, and where each of the poles and
zeros are counted a number of times equal to its degree of multi
furnishes an infinite number of relations,
plicity. The formula (40)
we may take
since
for
<f>
(z)
any analytic
Let us take in particular

becomes
<
=1
(2)
function.
then the preceding formula
/w
N
and P denote respectively the number of zeros and the

of poles of f(z) within the boundary C. This formula leads
to an important theorem. In fact,
()//() is the derivative of
where
number
Log [/(z)] to calculate the definite integral on the right-hand side

it is therefore sufficient to know the variation of
of the formula
;
(41)
log
when
/(*)|+; angle [/(z)]
the variable z describes the boundary C in the positive sense.

returns to its initial value, while the angle off(z) increases
But |/()
by 2 KTT, K being a positive or negative
|
integer.
We
have, therefore,
P is equal to the quotient obtained by the

the difference
division of the variation of the angle off(z) by 2 IT when the variable
z describes the boundary C in the positive sense.
that
is,
Let us separate the real part and the coefficient of
in f(z)
f(z)=X+Yi.
z = x + yi
describes the curve C in the positive.

the point
to a system
sense, the point whose coordinates are X, Y, with respect
first
the
as
orientation
of rectangular axes with the same
system,
and we need only draw the curve
describes also a closed curve C
When
lt
approximately in order to deduce from it by simple inspection

the integer K. In fact, it is only necessary to count the number of
Ct
revolutions which the radius vector joining the origin of coordinates

or the other.
to the point
Y) has turned through in one sense
(A",
II,
49J
We
can also write the formula (42) in the form
XdY
Since the function
103
YdX
on the same value after z has described
Y/X takes
the closed curve C, the definite integral
XXdYX
-+-
YdX
Y2
>
where the symbol I (Y/X) means the index of

the quotient Y/X along the boundary C, that is, the excess of the
number of times that that quotient becomes infinite by passing from
+ oo to oo over the number of times that it becomes infinite by
- oo to -f oo (I, 79, 154, 2d ed.;
77, 154, 1st ed.).
passing from
We can write the formula (43), then, in the equivalent form
is
equal to irI(Y/X),
N~P=\
(44)
49. Application to the theory of equations.
When
the function f(z)
analytic within the curve C, and has neither poles nor zeros
on the curve, the preceding formulae contain only the roots of the
is itself
which lie within the region bounded by C. The

equation f(z)
of these roots by
formulas (42), (43), and (44) show the number
means of the variation of the angle of f(z) along the curve or by
means of the index of Y/X.
If the function f(z)
is
a polynomial in
z,
with any
coefficients
the boundary C is composed of a finite number

of segments of unicursal curves, this index can be calculated by ele
mentary operations, that is, by multiplications and divisions of
whatever, and
when
polynomials. In fact, let AB be an arc of the boundary which can be

represented by the expressions
where
and \]/(t) are rational functions of a parameter t which

from a to /3 as the point (x, y) describes the arc AB in the
<f>(t)
varies
positive sense.
Eeplacing z by
<j>
(t)
+ ty (t)
in the polynomial /(z),
R (t) and R^ () are rational functions of t with real coefficients.

Hence the index of Y/X along the arc AB is equal to the index of
as t varies from a to /3, which we already
the rational function
where
RR
104
know how
49
[II,
to calculate (I,
79, 2d ed.
77, 1st ed.). If the bound
composed of segments of unicursal curves, we need only
calculate the index for each of these segments and take half of their
sum, in order to have the number of roots of the equation /() =
ary
is
within the boundary C.
D Alembert s theorem is easily deduced from the preceding

us prove first a lemma which we shall have occasion to
Let
results.
be two functions analytic in the
Let F(z),
times.
several
use
on the curve itself, and
continuous
curve
of
the
closed
interior
C,
Note.
3>(V)
such that along the entire curve C we have

these conditions the two equations
$(*)|<|.F
under
(*)|;
have the same number of roots in the interior of C. For we have
As the point
z describes the
boundary C, the point
Z=1+
(z)/F(z)
describes a closed curve lying entirely within the circle of unit radius
1 along the entire
1
1 as center, since Z
about the point Z
<
<
curve C.
Hence the angle of that
factor returns to
its initial
value
has described the boundary C, and the variation

is equal to the variation of the angle of
of the angle of F(z)
after the variable
<(V)
two equations have the same

F(z). Consequently the
roots in the interior of C.
Now
let
f(z) be a polynomial of degree

let us set
with any
number
of
coefficients
whatever, and
Let us choose a positive number
so large that
we have
Then along the entire circle C, described about the origin as center
with a radius greater than R, it is clear that \&/F\<l. Hence the
= has the same number of roots in the interior of

equation f(z)
the circle C as the equation F(z) = 0, that is, m.
the
Let/(z) be an analytic function except for poles in
with the radius r about the origin as center, and ana
bm
an be the zeros, and b v 6 2
lytic and without zeros on C. Let a v a 2
the poles, of f(z) in the interior of this circle, each being counted according to
50. Jensen s formula.
its
degree of multiplicity.
We shall
suppose, moreover, that the origin
is
neither
II,
50]
105
a pole nor a zero for/(z). Let us evaluate the definite integral
1= f Log [/()],
z
J(O
(45)
taken along C in the positive sense, supposing that the variable z starts, for
example, from the point z = r on the real axis, and that a definite determina
tion of the angle of f(z) has been selected in advance. Integrating by parts,
we have
I
(46)
where the
Log
(z)
{Log (z) Log [/()] }7)
J^
Log
(z)
efe,
part of the right-hand side denotes the increment of the product

[/(z)] when the variable z describes the circle C. If we take zero
first
Log
for the initial value of the angle of
(logr
2iri){Log[/(r)]
-rri
that increment
z,
27ri(n- m)}
Log [/(r)] +
iri
is
equal to
log r
Log [/(r)]
(n
m) log r
4 (n
m) ?r
2
.
In order to evaluate the new definite integral, let us consider the closed
curve F, formed by the circumference C, by the circumference c described
about the origin with the infinitesimal radius p, and by the two borders 06,
a b of a cut made along the real axis from the point z = p to the point z = r
We
shall suppose for definiteness that /(z) has neither poles nor
(Fig. 19).
zeros on that portion of the axis of reals. If it has, we need only make a cut
making an infinitesimal angle with the axis of reals. The function Logz is
analytic in the interior of F, and according to the general formula (40)

have the relation
Jab
(ab)
logW
Z
Z)
(P)
(b
we
a>)
for the product

integral along the circle c approaches zero with
On the other hand, if the angle of z is zero
is infinitesimal with p.
along a&, it is equal to 2tr along a b , and the sum of the two corresponding
integrals has for limit
The
/>,
zLogz
dz
Tri
Joo
The remaining portion
and the formula
=-
TTi
Log
[/(r)]
2 TH
Log
[/(O)]
(46)
becomes
iri
M-
Log(^
VOj Oj
om I
= re^
to integrate along the circle C, we can put z

-Re 1 *,
It follows that dz/z
Let/(z)
TT.
is
1= 2iri(n- m)logr + 2 Tri Log [/(O)] - 2

In order
from to 2
/(z)
id<f>.
4 (n
- m)
and let vary

where R and * are
106
[II,
continuous functions of
along C. Equating the coefficients of
ing relation, we obtain Jensen s formula*
2jr
(47)
in
iogEd0 =
log|/(0)|
log
a x a2
50
in the preced
an
which there appear only ordinary Napierian logarithms.
When
the function f(z)

bn
product 6^2
J- f
(48)
2i
is
analytic in the interior of
(7,
it is
clear that the
should be replaced by unity, and the formula becomes
TT
"log
=
d<j>
log |/(0)
log
is interesting in that it contains only the absolute values of the

roots of /(z) within the circle C, and the absolute value of f(z) along that circle
and for the center of the same circle.
This relation
Lagrange s formula, which, we have already

method
189, 1st ed.),
195, 2d ed.;
(I,
by Laplace
can be demonstrated also very easily by means of the general
theorems of Cauchy. The process which we shall use is due to
51. Lagrange s formula.
established
Hermite.
Let f(z) be an analytic function in a certain region

the point a. The equation
F(z)
(49)
= z-a-
af(z)
containing
0,
where a is a variable parameter, has the root z = a, for a = O.t Let

a and
us suppose that a
0, and let C be a circle with the center
D
we
have
such
that
and
in
the
the radius r lying entirely
region
=
By the lemma
\z
a\.
along the entire circumference \af(z)\
=
of roots
number
the
same
has
proved in 49 the equation F(z)
=
that
a
z
a
the
within the curve C as
is,
single root.
0,
equation
<
Let
denote that root, and
let
n (z)
be an analytic function in the
circle C.
single pole in the interior of C, at

the corresponding residue is U(g)/F (). From
The function H(z)/F(z) has a

z =
and
the point
the general theorem
,
we
have, then,
C U(z)dz
Tl(z)dz
no
In order to develop the integral on the right in powers of a, we
shall proceed exactly as we did to derive the Taylor development,
* Acta mathematica, Vol. XXII.
z= a for
t It is assumed that /(a) is not zero, for otherwise F(z) would vanish when
of
any value of a and the following developments would not yield any results
interest.
TRANS.
51]
II,
and we
shall write
ccf(%)
(z
a)
\n>
Substituting this value in the integral,
Let
be the
maximum
If
r.
along C,
is
the
we
find
value of the absolute value of af(z) along
maximum
C then, by hypothesis,
is less
value of the absolute value of H (z)
the circumference of the circle
than
107
we have
which shows that

Moreover, we
R n+
approaches zero
when n increases
have, by the definition of the coefficients /
indefinitely.
,
19
Jn)
and the formula
whence we obtain the following development
in series
(50)
We
can write this expression in a somewhat different form. If we
is an
analytic function in
H(^)= $()[! o/ (X)], where
of
same
left-hand
side
the
the
region, the
equation (50) will no longer
As for the right-hand side, we
contain a and will reduce to
observe that it contains two terms of degree n in a, whose sum is
take
^>(^)
<().
{*
108
and we find again Lagrange s formula in

formula (52), 195, 2d ed.
189, 1st ed.)
51
[n,
usual form (see
its
I,
(51)
= * (a) + * (a)/(a) + ... +
-gJL {*
We
()[/()]"}
have supposed that we have af(z)

r along the circle C,
true if \a\ is small enough. In order to find the maximum
value of a let us limit ourselves to the case where f(z) is a poly
<
which
is
nomial or an integral function. Let JW(r) be the maximum value of

C described about the point a as center with the
\f(z) along the circle
|
radius
We
r.
The proof
will
apply to this
are thus led to seek the
circle,
provided \a\MC (r)<r.
maximum value
of the quotient r/JXC(r),

to
from
This
as r varies
-f0, for if
quotient is zero for r
with
a
to
zero
the
z
would
be
a zero
r,
approach
point
t#T(r) were
for
z
would
vanish
a.
The
same quotient is
for /(#), and F(z)
<x>
also zero for r

first
degree
= oo
for otherwise f(z)
would be a polynomial of the
Aside from these
trivial cases, it follows that
36).
for a value
of r. The
r^
r/3KC(r) passes through a maximum value p
root
one
has
one
and
that
the
equation (49)
reasoning shows
only
a
the
a
Hence
such that
//,.
developments
PJ, provided
<
<
and (51) are applicable so long as a does not exceed /A, pro
vided the functions n() and $() are themselves analytic in the
(50)
circle C^ of radius rr
Example. Let/(z)
l)/2
(z
the equation (49) has the root
V1
aa + a2
^T
which approaches a when a approaches

formula (50) takes the form
zero.
Let us put
II (z)
= 1. Then
the
(52)
Xn
the nth Legendre s polynomial (see I,

88,
90, 189, 2d ed.
In order to find out between what limits the formula is valid, let
us suppose that a is real and greater than unity. On the circle of radius r we
maximum
have evidently #T(r) = [(a + r) 2
l]/2, and we are led to seek the
where
is
184, 1st ed.).
value of 2 r/[(a
found for
between
r)
= Va2
and
1]
1,
1,
we
equal to unity.
of
to
oo.
This
maximum
Va2 1. If, however, a

equal to a
find by a quite elementary calculation that
it
is
The maximum
from
as r increases
and
VI -
2rVl-a 2 /(r2 + 1 - a
2
)
is
lies
a2
occurs
when
= Vl -
a 2 and
,
it is
52]
II,
It is easy to verify these results. In fact, the radical

sidered as a function of or, has the two critical points a
V1
109
2aa + a 2 con
,
Va2
Va2 1. When a lies

the critical point nearest the origin is a
and + 1, the absolute value of each of the two critical points a
a
between
1
If
Vl
>
1,
a2
is
unity.
In the fourth lithographed edition of Hermite s lectures will be found (p. 185)
a
sinz by this method.
a very complete discussion of Kepler s equation z
His process leads to the calculation of the root of the transcendental equation
= e~ r (r + 1) which lies between 1 and 2. Stieltjes has obtained the
1)
er (r
values
rx
1.199678640257734,
/*
0.6627434193492.
52. Study of functions for infinite values of the variable.
In order
to study a function f(z) for values of the variable for which the
absolute value becomes infinite, we can put z
1/z and study the
function /(I /z ) in the neighborhood of the origin. But it is easy to

shall suppose first that we
avoid this auxiliary transformation.
We
can find a positive number R such that every finite value of z whose
absolute value is greater than R is an ordinary point for /(). If we
describe a circle C about the origin as center with a radius R, the
function
/()
will be regular at every point z at a finite distance
We
lying outside of C.
shall call the region of the plane exterior
C a
neighborhood of the point at infinity.

Let us consider, together with the circle C, a concentric circle
R. The function f(z), being analytic in the
with a radius R
to
C"
>
circular ring bounded by C and C , is equal, by Laurent s theorem,

to the sum of a series arranged according to integral positive and
negative powers of
z,
/(*)=
(53)
m=
A_ m z;
oo
A_ m of this series are independent of the radius R\

and, since this radius can be taken as large as we wish, it follows
that the formula (53) is valid for the entire neighborhood of the point
the coefficients
at infinity, that is, for the

distinguish several cases
whole region exterior to C.
We shall now
1)
of
When
the development of f(z) contains only negative powers
z,
(54)
the function /(#) approaches A Q when z\ becomes infinite, and we

say that the function f(z) is regular at the point at infinity, or,
again, that the point at infinity is an ordinary point for f(z). If the
110
A Q A l9
coefficients
at infinity
2)
When
where the
are zero, but
Am
is
not zero, the point

finite
number
of
z,
m
/() = Bm z
(55)
Am _ 1
a zero of the mth order for f(z).

the development of /() contains a
positive powers of
+ ^-i^- +
1
Bm is not zero, we shall say that the point

a pole of the mth order for /(), and the polynomial
first coefficient
at infinity
B mz m
\z\
is
52
[II,
becomes
is
+ B^z
is
infinite,
the principal part relative to that pole. When

the same thing is true of |/()|, whatever may
be the manner in which z moves.

when the development of f(z) contains an infinite
3) Finally,
number
of positive powers of
singular point for /().
The
an essentially singular
point.
the point at infinity
is
an
essentially
formed by the positive powers of

z represents an integral function G(z), which is the principal part
in the neighborhood of the point at infinity. We see in particular
that an integral transcendental function has the point at infinity as
The preceding
definitions
series
were in a way necessitated by those
for a point at a finite distance.

the function f(z) changes to a function of
which have already been adopted

Indeed, if we put z = 1/z
z ^ ^^-.yîy^ an d it
is
seen at once that
we have only
carried
over to the point at infinity the terms adopted for the point
we
with respect to the function
). Reasoning by analogy,
<(
=
might
be tempted to call the coefficient A_ l of z, in the development (53),

the residue, but this would be unfortunate. In order to preserve the
characteristic property, we shall say that the residue with respect to
the point at infinity is the coefficient of 1/z with
A r This number is equal to
that is,
its
sign changed,
where the integral is taken in the positive sense along the boundary
of the neighborhood of the point at infinity. But here, the neighbor
hood of the point at infinity being the part of the plane exterior to
sense is that opposite to the usual
C, the corresponding positive
to
reduces
this
integral
Indeed,
sense.
II,
52]
111
and, when * describes the circle C in the desired sense, the angle of
A l as the value of the integral.
* diminishes by 2 TT, which gives
It is essential to observe that it is entirely possible for a function
to be regular at the point at infinity without its residue being zero
for example, the function 1
1/z has this property.
j
If the point at infinity is a pole or a zero for

in the neighborhood of that point,
where
ft is
/(), we can
write,
a positive or negative integer equal to the order of the

its sign changed, and where
() is a function which
function with
</>
regular at the point at infinity and which

From the preceding equation we deduce
is
is
not zero for 2
= co.
() is regular at the point at infinity but

has a development commencing with a term of the second or a higher
that
/JL,
degree in l/. The residue of / ()//() is then equal to
The
at
state
at
the
of
order
the
to
the
infinity.
point
function/^)
is,
where the function
</>
()/<
the same as for a pole or a zero at a finite distance.

Let/() be a single-valued analytic function having only a finite
ment
is
number of singular points. The convention which has just been

made for the point at infinity enables us to state in a very simple
form the following general theorem
The sum of
the residues of the function f(z) in the entire plane,

is zero.
the point at infinity included,
The demonstration
is
immediate.
Describe with the origin as
the singular points of
containing
/() (except
the point at infinity). The integral ff(z)d, taken along this circle
in the ordinary sense, is equal to the product of 2 TT I and the sum
of the residues with respect to all the singular points of f(z) at a
center a circle
all
On the other hand, the same integral, taken along

the same circle in the opposite sense, is equal to the product of 2 TTI
and the residue relative to the point at infinity. The sum of the two
finite distance.
integrals being zero, the
same
is
true of the
sum
of the residues.
Cauchy applied the term total residue (residu integral) of a func

tion /() to the sum of the residues of that function for all the
finite
singular points at a finite distance. When there are only a
number of singular points, we see that the total residue is equal to
the residue relative to the point at infinity with
its
sign changed.
112
52
[II,
Example. Let
where
P (z)
and
(z) are
Q,
second of even degree 2

absolute value of
side of a circle
where
(2) is
<
not zero f or z
Q(V), the function

of radius R, and we can write
any root of
a function which
oo
The point
and an ordinary point

if
is less
two polynomials, the first of degree p, the

q. If R is a real number greater than the
than q
IV.
if
p^
is
is
single-valued out
regular at infinity, and which
is
a pole for f(z) if p

q,
The residue will certainly be zero
at infinity
q.
is
>
1.
PERIODS OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS

The study
of line integrals revealed to us that

such integrals possess periods under certain circumstances. Since
every integral of a function f(z) of a complex variable z is a sum of
line integrals, it is clear that these integrals also may have certain
53. Polar periods.
that has only

periods. Let us consider first an analytic function f(z)
or
a finite number of isolated singular points, poles,
essentially
singular points, within a closed curve C. This case is absolutely
153),
analogous to the one which we studied for line integrals (I,
and the reasoning applies here without modification. Any path that
Z
can be drawn within the boundary C between the two points
the
of that region, and not passing through any of
singular points
,
equivalent to one fixed path joining these two points,

and surrounding
preceded by a succession of loops starting from
of
one or more of the singular points a 1? 2
-,
/(?). Let A 19 A^
of
is
/(),
An
be the corresponding residues of /() the integral ff(z)dz,

2 iriA lt
taken along the loop surrounding the point a lt is equal to
of
the
and similarly for the others. The different values
integral
.
-,
therefore included in the expression
fff()dz are
rz
(56)
J*
f(z) dz=F(Z)+2
Tri
(m^ + m A
2
2 -)
----
+ mn A n),
one of the values of that integral corresponding to

are arbitrary positive or nega
the determined path, and
1?
a
where F(Z)
tive integers
is
m w
the periods are
2iriA.
II,
53]
113
a n are poles, and the periods

In most cases the points a v 2
described about these poles
small
circuits
from
result
infinitely
is ordinarily used to distin
which
term
the
whence
polar periods,
kind
mentioned later.
of
another
from
periods
guish them
,
Instead of a region of the plane interior to a closed curve, we may

consider a portion of the plane extending to infinity the function
f(z) can then have an infinite number of poles, and the integral an
;
infinite
number
lar point
of periods. If the residue with respect to a singu

is zero, the corresponding period is zero and the
a of f(z)
is also a pole or an essentially singular point for the integral.

the residue is not zero, the point a is a logarithmic critical
point for the integral. If, for example, the point a is a pole of the
wth order for /(z), we have in the neighborhood of that point
point a
But
if
and therefore
where C is a constant that depends on the lower limit of integration

Z Q and on the path followed by the variable in integration.
When we apply these general considerations to rational functions,

many well-known results are at once apparent. Thus, in order that
the integral of a rational function may be itself a rational function,
it is
necessary that that integral shall not have any periods that is,
residues must be zero. That condition is, moreover, sufficient.
;
all its
The
definite integral
~z
Jz z
has a single critical point z = a, and the corresponding period is

2 iri it is, then, in the integral calculus that the true origin of the
;
multiple values of Log (z

a) is to be found, as we have already
case of
in
in
the
out
detail
pointed
f^dz/z ( 31).
in
us
the
same
Let
take,
way, the definite integral
dz
it has only
has the two logarithmic critical points -f i and
i, but
the single period TT. If we limit ourselves to real values of the
it
114
[II,
53
x appear as so many
on the contrary, how
variable, the different determinations of arc tan
We
distinct functions of the variable x.
Cauchy s work leads us to regard them

of the same analytic function.
see,
as so
distinct branches
many
When
there are more than three periods, the value of the definite
z may be entirely indeterminate. Let us recall first the
from the theory of continued fractions * Given a real
taken
following result,
irrational number a, we can always find two integers p and q, positive or nega
Note.
integral at
any point
tive,
such that
we have
\p
qa\
<
e,
where
is
number.
The numbers p and q having been selected in
an arbitrarily preassigned
positive
this
way,
let
us suppose that
is equal to
the sequence of multiples of p + qa is formed. Any real number
can
one of these multiples, or lies between two consecutive multiples.
and n such that
+ na A\ shall be less than e.
therefore find two integers
With this in mind, let us now consider the function
We
/(* )=
?ri
\z
# V
d/
d are four distinct poles and a, /3 are real irrational numbers.

The integral fz z f(z)dz has the four periods 1, a, i, i/3. Let I(z) be the value of
+ Ni denote
the integral taken along a particular path from z to z, and let
find four integers m, n, m n
We
can
whatever.
number
always
any complex
such that the absolute value of the difference
where
a, 6, c,
I(z)
will
be
less
+ m + na +
(m
(M +
/3)
than any preassigned positive number
e.
Ni)
We
need only choose
these integers so that
where
M + Ni
I(z)
=A+
Bi.
Hence we can make the
variable describe a
of the inte
in advance, z
z, so that the value
path joining the two points given
this path differs as little as we wish from any pre
gral ff(z) dz taken along
the decisive influence of the path followed
assigned number. Thus we see again
by the variable on the final value of an analytic function.
,
z*. The integral calculus

study of the integral f*dz/^/l
in the simplest
of the function arc sin
explains the multiple values
from
the different
arise
manner by the preceding method. They
54.
determinations of the definite integral
variable. For definiteness we

according to the path followed by the
1
shall suppose that we start from the origin with the initial value -f
*
little
farther on a direct proof will be found
66)
54]
II,
for the radical,
and we
shall indicate
by / the value
115
of the integral
taken along a determined path (or direct path). For example, the
path shall be along a straight line if the point z is not situated on
the real axis or
1 to -f 1
if it lies
but
when
upon the
z
real
is
real axis within the
and
>
1,
we
segment from
shall take for the
direct path a path lying above the real axis.

1 being the only critical points of
-f 1, z
Now, the points
2
from
the origin to the point z can be
,
every path leading
Vl
replaced by a succession of loops described about the two critical

are then led
1, followed by the direct path.
points -f 1 and
We
to study the value of the
integral along a loop. Let

consider, for example,
us
~S
the loop OamaO, described

about the point
FIG. 20
=+!;
composed of the segment Oa passing from the origin
this loop is
to
of the circle ama of radius e described about z

the point 1
1
e,
as center, and of the segment aO. Hence the integral along the loop
is
equal to the
sum
r 1 -*
I
JQ
The
of the integrals
dx
-x/1
J.
r
X
J(ama)
dz
Vl
v L
-
2
z
dx
/
A/1
V J.
t/l-e
X2
integral along the small circle approaches zero with
e,
for the
On
the other hand, when z

product
1) f(z) approaches
has described this small circle, the radical has changed sign and in
zero.
(z
the integral along the segment aO the negative value should be

taken for Vl
x 2 The integral along the loop is therefore equal to
1 ~ e
the limit of 2j^
x 2 as c approaches zero, that is, to TT.
cfcc/Vl
.
It should be observed that the value of this integral does not depend
on the sense in which the loop is described, but we return to the
1 for the radical.
origin with the value
we were
to describe the same loop around the point z

-f- 1
1 as the initial value of the radical, the value of the integral
along the loop would be equal to
TT, and we should return to the
origin with -f 1 as the value of the radical. In the same way it is
If
with
seen that a loop described around the critical point z

1 gives
TT or
TT for the integral, according as the initial value
1 or
is
taken for the radical on starting from the origin.
If we let the variable describe two loops in succession, we return

to the origin with -f- 1 for the final value of the radical, and the
value of the integral taken along these two loops will be -f- 2 TT, 0, or
116
2
An
54
[II,
are described.
according to the order in which these two loops
value of the
the
for
mjr
2
even number of loops will give, then,
TT,
and will bring back the radical to its initial value + 1.

An odd number of loops will give, on the contrary, the value (2 m + 1) TT
to the integral, and the final value of the radical at the origin will
will
1. It follows from this that the value of the integral F(z)
be
be one of the two forms
integral,
(2w
7-f 2m7r,
+ l)7T-/,
the variable can be replaced by

according as the path described by
number or by an odd number
even
an
the direct path preceded by
of loops.
We
can study, in a similar

55. Periods of hyperelliptic integrals.
manner, the different values of the definite integral
FW .fffl
JH VjR
(*)
two polynomials, of which the second, R (z\

vanishes for n distinct values of z
where P(s) and

of degree n,
We
.
()
are
shall suppose that the point Z Q is distinct
.,
we
J?
then the equation w
We
shall select
let the variable z
= R (* ) has
two
from the points

distinct roots
for the initial value of the radical
UQ
+U
lt
R (z).
e#
and
If
describe a path of any form whatever not pass
e n the value of the

e
e
-,
ing through any of the critical points lt f ,
determined
be
will
by con
radical Vfl(s) at each point of the path
en
e
e
the
of
-,
2
points t
Let us suppose that from each
,
tinuity.
cuts do
we make an infinite cut in the plane in such a way tha* these
to
Z
from
any point z
Q up
not cross each other. The integral, taken
cuts
these
of
not cross any
(which we shall
along a path that does
value
has a completely determined
/() for each
call a direct
path),
have now to study the influence of a loop,

point of the plane.
on the
e
described from Z Q around any one of the critical points
the
of
value
the
integral taken
value of the integral. Let 2 E be
the
incloses
Z
and
from Q
single criti
along a closed curve that starts
value of
The
U
radical
being Q
cal point e { the initial value of the
curve is
the
which
in
sense
the
on
does not
We
t,
this integral
depend
value of the radical at the point

described, but only on the initial
the integral taken along the same
of
In fact, let us call 2 E\ the value
.
II,
55]
117
curve in the opposite sense, with the same initial value U of the
Q
If we let the variable z describe the curve twice in succes
sion and in the opposite senses, it is clear that the sum of the inte
radical.
grals obtained
zero
is
but the value of the integral for the
first
turn
and we return to the point 3 Q with the value

U Q for the radi
i}
cal. The integral along the curve described in the
opposite sense is
2 E i} and consequently E\ = E
then equal to
The closed curve
considered may be reduced to a loop formed by the straight line
zâ,
the circle c of infinitesimal radius about e i} and the straight line az
Q
is
(Fig. 21)
e{
(z
If
the integral along
P ()/VjR()
)
cf is infinitesimal, since the product

e
approaches zero with the absolute value of z
.
we add together
the integrals
z
a
and
along Q
along az Q we find
,
/c\
/
where the integral is taken along
the straight line and the initial
value of the radical is U Q
/^^)^ 4
This being the case, the inte

gral taken along a path which
reduces to a succession of two
loops described about the points
ea , ep is equal to 2
2 Ep,
a
for
we
return after the
first
FIG. 21
loop
to the point Z with the value

Q
UQ for the radical, and the integral along the second loop is equal
to
2Ep. After having described this new loop we return to the
point Z Q with the original initial value u

the variable z can be reduced to an even
fi
from ZQ to
from among the numbers 1,2,
the path is, by what precedes,
direct path
n,
the value of the integral along
- E )+2(Ey -
2(E K
ft
If,
by
loops described
e
followed
e^
K
,
,
successively,
by the
y)
where the indices a, ft,
are
taken
A.
,
., *,
about the points
to
If the path described
number of
on the contrary, the path followed by the variable can be reduced

an odd number of loops described successively around the critical
points
e a) e
ft)
eK , e
F(z)=2(E
A,
e^ the value of the
2(E K
integral
is
-L
118
Hence the
sions 2
for
(E
it is
35
[II,
integral under consideration has as periods all the expres

these periods reduce to (n
1) of them
h ), but all
we can
clear that
write
- Eh )=2(E - En )-2(Eh - En
= M + 2 E n we see that all
Since, on the other hand, 2 E^
2(E
)=<o {
o>
the values
of the definite integral F(z) at the point z are given by the two
expressions
F(z)
F
where 7^,
2,
= I + m^ H-----h wn _
wn _ 1
=2E
?^ w _! are arbitrary integers.
This result gives rise to a certain number of important observa

tions. It is almost self-evident that the periods must be independent
of the point Z Q chosen for the starting point,
this. Consider, for example, the period
t
and
it is
2Eh
2E
easy to verify
this period is
equal to the value of the integral taken along a closed curve T pass
ing through the point Z Q and containing only the two critical points
e it e h .
If, for
defmiteness,
we suppose
that there are no other critical
whose vertices are # e if e h , this

points in the interior of the triangle
closed curve can be replaced by the boundary bb nc cmb (Fig. 21);
whence, making the radii of the two small circles approach zero, we
,
see that the period
is
equal to twice the integral
taken along the straight line joining the two
critical points ef , eh .
may happen that the (n 1) periods Wj, 2

independent. This occurs whenever the polynomial
It
o>
,(>_!
R (z)
is
are not
of even
1. With
is less than n/2
degree, provided that the degree of P(z)
the point Z Q as center let us draw a circle C with a radius so large
that the circle contains all the critical points and for simplicity let
;
us suppose that the critical points have been numbered from 1 to n

in the order in which they are encountered by a radius vector as it
turns about Z Q in the positive sense.
The
integral
taken along the closed boundary z Q AMAz formed by the radius z QA,
by the circle C, and by the radius Az Q described in the negative sense,
,
55]
II,
integrals along z Q A and along Az Q cancel, for the circle

number of critical points, and after having
The
zero.
is
119
contains an even
we return to the point A with the same value

the other hand, the integral along C approaches
zero as the radius becomes infinite, since the product zP(z)/~\/R(z)
approaches zero by the hypothesis made on the degree of the poly
nomial P(z)- Since the value of this integral does not depend on the
described this circle
of the radical.
On
radius of C, it follows that that value must be zero.

Now the boundary zQ AMAz Q considered above can be replaced by
en
a succession of loops described around the critical points e l9 2
<?
Hence we have the
in the order of these indices.
E - 2E + 2E -
which can be written

wx
in the
o>
and we see that the n

periods
o>
e^,
2,
now
Consider
the
_2
roots.
a2
+2E
-2E = 0,
_,
form
o>
<o
-f
<o
_l
1 periods of the integral reduce to
more general form

F(z)
where P, Q,
2 E^
relation
of integral
P(z)dz
are three polynomials of which the
last,
R (z),
has only simple
Among the roots of Q(z) there may be some that belong to R (z)
which do not cause R (z) to vanish. The
., a be the roots of Q (z)
let
a^
integral
Eh), where 2 Ei denotes always the inte
F(z) has, as above, the periods 2(Et
gral taken along a closed curve starting from Z Q and inclosing none of the roots
s
of either of the
a
i>
if
azi
R (z)
>
is
of
polynomials Q(z) and R(z) except a. But F(z) has also a cer
of polar periods arising from the loops described about the poles
e total number of these periods is again diminished by unity
as-
number
tain
even degree
n,
and
where p and q are the degrees
if
of the polynomials
and Q respectively.
Example. Let R (z) be a polynomial of the fourth degree having a multiple

Let us find the number of periods of the integral
root.
/
^ZA
If
R(z) has a double root
e^
R(z)
and two simple roots

"
FW-
dz
e2 , eg ,
the integral
THE GENERAL CAUGHT THEORY
120
has the period
B (z)
2E2
By
the pole e r
2J
and
3,
the remark
has two double roots,
also a polar period arising
made
it is
55
[n,
just above, these
from a loop around

two periods are equal. If
seen immediately that the integral has a single
polar period.
If
B (z)
has a triple root, the integral

dz
has the period

is
have
If
2E
2E2
by the general remark made above, that period

if
B(z) has a quadruple root. In re sume we
has one or two double roofs, the integral has a period ; if B (z) has a
l
The same thing
zero.
triple or
B (z)
is
but,
true
quadruple roof, the integral does not have periods.
easily verified
by
All these results are
direct integration.
56. Periods of elliptic integrals of the first kind.
The
elliptic integral
of the first kind,
R (z)
a polynomial of the third or the fourth degree, prime to

its derivative, has two periods by the preceding general theory.
shall now show that the ratio of these two periods is not real.
where
is
We
can suppose without loss of generality that R (z) is of the

third degree. Indeed, if R^z) is a polynomial of the fourth degree,
We
and if a is a root of this polynomial, we may write

2d ed.
110, 1st ed.)
105, note.
(I,
where
4-
\/y and where
R (?/)
a polynomial of the third
is
degree. It is evident that the two integrals have the same periods.
If R (z) is of the third degree, we may suppose that it has the roots
a -f- fy to
and 1, for we need only make a linear substitution z
reduce any other case to this one.

showing that the integral
F(z)
(59)
where a
is
different
Hence the proof reduces
to
V* (!-*)(-*)
from zero and from unity, has two periods whose
ratio is not real.
If
is
real,
the property
is
evident.
unity, for example, the integral has the

1
f
J V*(l
dz
2
-*)(-)
Thus,
if
two periods
is
greater than
II,
56]
of which the first
is
while the second
real,
is
121
a pure imaginary.
Moreover, none of these periods can be zero.
Suppose now that a is complex, and, for example, that the coeffi
i in a is positive. We can again take for one of the
periods
cient of
We
shall
apply Weierstrass
z varies from
formula
27) to this integral.
When
to 1, the factor
l/Vg(l g) remains positive, and

z describes a curve L whose general
the point representing I/ Va
nature is easily determined. Let A
be the point representing a when

z varies from to 1, the point a
z
;
AB
describes the segment

parallel
Ox and of unit length (Fig. 22).
Let Op and Oq be the bisectors of
to
the angles which the straight lines
OA and OB make with
Ox, and let

and
be
lines sym
straight
Op
Oq
metrical to them with respect to Ox.
If
we
V&
select that determination of
and
scribes
whose angle
lies
7T/2, the point
an arc
point I/
ft of Oq
V&
It
V#
between
FIG. 22
z de
from a point a on Op to a point ft on Oq hence the

from a point a on Op to a point
ft
follows that Weiers trass s formula gives
aft
z describes an arc a
is the complex number corresponding to a point situated in

the interior of every convex closed curve containing the arc a ft
It
is clear that this
Z
is
in
situated
the
and
that
it
point
angle p Oq
l
where Z^
cannot be the origin hence the angle of

We can take for the second period
;
lies
between
dz
or, setting
at,
dt
o,~2/":
Jo
?r/2
and
0.
122
In order to apply Weierstrass

that as
from
increases
formula to this integral,
[II,
let
to 1 the point at describes the
56
us notice
segment
OA and
at describes the equal and parallel segment

the point 1
1 to the point C. Choosing suitably the value of the
from %
radical, we see, as before, that we may write
o,
dt
= 2z,f
27TZ 2
Jo
where
is
and
between
number different from zero whose angle lies

The ratio of the two periods O 2 /O 1 or ZJZ^ is
a complex
7T/2.
therefore not a real number.
EXERCISES
1.
Develop the function

v
in
of x,
\-
m being any number.
powers
Find the radius of the
circle of convergence.
Find the different developments of the function l/[(z 2 + 1) (z

2)] in posi
or negative powers of z, according to the position of the point z in the plane.
2.
tive
3.
Calculate the definite integral /z 2 Log[(z + l)/(z

l)]dz taken along a
about the origin as center, the initial value of the logarithm at
circle of radius 2
2 being taken as real.

the point z
Calculate the definite integral
dz
taken over the same boundary.
Let /(z) be an analytic function in the interior of a closed curve C con

taken along
taining the origin. Calculate the definite integral J*(C)/ (z)Logzdz,
the curve C, starting with an initial value Z
4.
5.
Derive the relation

cK
2)+l
and deduce from
r
6.
5 ... (2
2.4.6
1)
7T
the definite integrals
it
r +x
dt
[( t
tt
)2
+ 2]-n
/3
(^2 +
Calculate the following definite integrals by means of the theory of residues
m and
a being
Jo
cos ax
i
cte,
a being
real,
real,
II,
123
EXERCISES
Exs.]
a and
C+
/3
being real,
cosxdx
Jo
(*
cos
x)
ox-
^
cos 6x
and
ffl
6 being real
the function
(To evaluate the last integral, integrate
boundary indicated by Fig.

7.
The
definite integral
and
positive-
# fe )/z 2 along
fe
(e
the
17.)
fQ *d$/[A + C
has any finite value, to err/^/A C, where

such a way that the coefficient of i in ei
e is
equal to
VAC /A
is
(7)cos0]
I
equal,
and
is
when
it
chosen in
is positive.
Let F(z) and G(z) be two analytic functions, and z = a a double root of
that is not a root of F(z). Show that the corresponding residue of
G(z) =
8.
F(z)/(z)isequalto
a
8[G"(a)]
In a similar manner show that the residue of F(z)/[G

a of
G (z)
is
equal to
F (a) G
(a)
F(a)
(z)]
for a simple root
G"(a)
[<??
9.
Derive the formula
_!
(x-a)Vl-x
the integral being taken along the real axis with the positive value of the
number or a real number whose absolute value
radical, and a being a complex
a2
be taken for Vl
is greater than unity. Determine the value that should
.
10. Consider the integrals
f(S) dz/Vl +
z8,
f(S^dz/Vl
z3 ,
where 8 and S t
The boundary S is composed of a

is made to expand indefinitely), of the
Ox
OA
on
(which
straight-line segment
line AO. The
circle of radius OA about O as center, and finally of the straight
denote two boundaries formed as follows
inclose the points

boundary S l is the succession of three loops which
3
0.
which represent the roots of the equation z + 1
Establish the relation that exists between the two integrals
f
which
a, 6, e
dx
I
arise in the course of the preceding consideration.
the boundary of the rectangle

integrating the function e~** along
=
=
x
=
R, and then making
+
lines
E, x =
formed by the straight
6,
y
0, y
E become infinite, establish the relation
11.
By
*
>-
cos 2 bx dx
= VTre-
&*.
124
[II,
Exs.
where n is real and positive, along a

of
placed along Oz, by an arc of a circle
radius OA about
as center, and by a radius BO such that the angle a =
lies between
and Tr/2. Making OA become infinite, deduce from the preced
ing the values of the definite integrals
12. Integrate the function
e-^z"-
+00
OA
boundary formed by a radius
AB
AOB
un - l e~ au cos bu du.
/>
where a and
13.
Jo
b are real
provided that
and
we have n
The
positive.
l-t*
14.
ctn
2n|_
Deduce from the preceding
15. If the real part of a
is
a=
Tr/2,
^
/2m
ctn
(
TT
Establish the formula
n).
<
+1 TT
\"I
2n
/J
result Euler s formula
2 n sin
positive
JC
n, ra
2n
1+
<
/2m +
2n
,,-r
dt
results obtained are valid for
(m
integers
00
un ~ 1 e~ au smbudu.
1.
<
m n be positive
r + Z2m_2m
=
Let m,
+00
Jo
and
/2m +
2n
\
less
than unity,
we have
(This can be deduced from the formula (39) ( 47) or by integrating the
function ect2 /(l + ez ) along the boundary of the rectangle formed by the straight
= + R, x
lines y
0, y = 2ir, x
E, and then making E become infinite.)
16.
Derive in the same
the relation
way
= 7r (ctn aw
1-
ctn
&TT),
real parts of a and b are positive and less than unity.

(Take for the path of integration the rectangle formed by the straight lines
y = 0, y = TT, x = E, x =
E, and make use of the preceding exercise.)
17. From the formula
where the
C
J7
z^ n
dz
= 2iri n(n
Zk+l
where n and k are positive

center, deduce the relations
*cos<n-
k)udu
VI
(Put z
e2t u ,
then cos u
= x,
18*. The definite integral
and
integers,
x2
is
= ,( +
a circle having the origin as
2.4.6-.-2n
and replace n by n
&,
and k by
n.)
EXERCISES
Il.Exs.]
when
it
has a
equal to
finite value, is
125
TT/V
ax + a 2 where
,
the sign
depends upon the relative positions of the two points a and x. Deduce from
this the expression, due to Jacobi, for the nth Legendre s polynomial,
=!/
Jo
(x
<,
+ V xz
cos
IT
Study in the same way the
19.
Jo
,
and deduce from the
_ ~~
1,
*L
/
(x
according as the real part of x
20 *. Establish the
last result
cos
formula
+ Vx 2 -
*V
where
+ Vx 2
result Laplace s
rn
definite integral
COS 0) n + 1
positive or negative.
is
by integrating the function

1
along a circle about the origin as center, whose radius
Sn denote
the
is
made
to
become
infinite.
Ts = e27rt s2/n where n and s are integers; and

sum TQ + Tl + ---- Tn _ i Derive the formula
21*. Gauss s sums.
Let
let
\-
2niz2/n
Zlriz
(Apply the theorem on residues to the function $(z) = e
/(e
1), taking
boundary of integration the sides of the rectangle formed by the straight
lines x = 0, x = n, y = + jR, y =
R, and inserting two semicircumf erences of
radius e about the points x = 0, x = n as centers, in order to avoid the poles
and z
n of the function 0(z) then let R become infinite.)
z =
for the
22. Let/(z) be an analytic function in the interior of a closed curve T con

If a, /S,
X are positive integers, show that
1.
taining the points a, 6, c,
,
the sum of the residues of the function
,
with respect to the poles
/(z)
x-a\
a, 6, c,
x-b\f
is
a polynomial F(x) of degree
+ \_
..
satisfying the relations
F(a)=/(o),
F(b)=f(b),
(Make use
of the relation
/x-JU
(a)=f(a),
JP
(x)
= /(x) +
[ jj r)
(z) efo]/2 Tri.)
23*. Let/(z) be an analytic function in the interior of a circle C with center

a. On the other hand, let a
be an infinite sequence of points
a2 ,
an ,
,
t
within the circle (7, the point an having the center a for limit as n becomes in
,
finite.
For every point
z within
there exists a development of the form
126
where
Fn (z) =
(z- aj
(z
_ a2
use of the following formula, which
(za )(zl
ttj
(z
(X-C4)
ax)
(z
and follow the method used
is
a_i) (z -
On)
in establishing
VIII, p. 325.]
easily verified,
a.2 )
(x-a-i)
Exs.
).
series, Vol.
[LAURENT, Journal de math&matiques, 5th
(Make
- an
(z
[II,
Taylor
(z
(x
z-x
at)
.
- an
an
(z
(x
04)
formula.)
be a root of the equation /(z) =

+ Yi = of multi
+
function f(z) is analytic in its neighborhood. The point
plicity n, where the
= 0,
x = a? y = 5 is a multiple point of order n for each of the two curves
Y = 0. The tangents at this point to each of these curves form a set of lines
24. Let z
6i
of the one bisects the angle between

equally inclined to each other, and each ray
the two adjacent rays of the other.
25. Let/(z)
X+
mth degree whose

the two
X=
curves
Yi
=A
+A
zm
0,
z m ~^
numbers
of
+ Am
be a polynomial of the
any kind. All the asymptotes of

pass through the point
A^/mA^ and are
coefficients are
arranged like the tangents in the preceding exercise.

26*. Barman s series.
Given two functions /(x), F(x)
of
a variable
x,
Burman s formula gives the development of one of them in powers of the other.
To make the problem more definite, let us take a simple root a of the equation
F(x)
0,
and
let
us suppose that the two functions /(x) and F(x) are analytic
In this neighborhood we have
in the neighborhood of the point a.
being regular f or x = a if a
Representing F(x) by y, the preceding relation
the function
and we
is
<(x)
y<f>
(x)
is
a simple root of F(x)
= 0.
equivalent to
0,
are led to develop/(x) in powers of y (Lagrange s formula).
e sin z = 0, where a and e are

a
27*. Kepler s equation. The equation z
and TT,
root lying between
real
has
one
e
1,
two positive numbers, a
TT,
and two roots whose real parts lie between rmr and (m -f l)ir, where m is any
odd integer. If m is positive and odd,
positive even integer or any negative
or negative and even, there are no roots whose real parts lie between rrnr and
<
(m
<
!)TT.
2d ed., p. 199.]
[BRIOT ET BOUQUET, TMorie desfonctions elliptiques,
=
when the vari
a
esinz
z
(Study the curve described by the point u
able z describes the four sides of the rectangle formed by the straight lines
x = rmr, x = (m + 1) TT, y = -f R, y = - R, where E is very large.)
28*.
whose
2 rmr
For very large values of

real parts lie between 2mir
Tr/2
[log (2/e)
the two roots of the preceding exercise

and (2m + !)TT are approximately equal to
log (2 rmr
Tr/2)]
[GouRiEu, Annettes de VEcole Normale, 2d
series, Vol.
VII,
p. 73.]
CHAPTER
III

The
part of this chapter is devoted to the demonstration of

of Weierstrass* and of Mittag-Leffler on inte
theorems
the general
on
and
functions
single-valued analytic functions with an
gral
first
number of singular points. We shall ^then make an applica

them to elliptic functions.
Since it seemed impossible to develop the theory of elliptic func
tions with any degree of completeness in a small number of pages,
infinite
tion of
is limited to a general discussion of the fundamental

to give the reader some idea of the importance of
so
as
principles,
these functions. For those who wish to make a thorough study of
the treatment
and their applications a simple course in Mathe

matical Analysis would never suffice they will always be compelled
to turn to special treatises.
elliptic functions
I.
WEIERSTRASS S PRIMARY FUNCTIONS. MITTAG-LEFFLER S
THEOREM
57. Expression of an
integral
function
as
product of primary
Every polynomial of the mth degree is equal to the prod

uct of a constant and m equal or unequal factors of the form x
a,
and this decomposition displays the roots of the polynomial. Euler
was the first to obtain for sin z an analogous development in an
functions.
but the factors of that product, as we shall see far

ther on, are of the second degree in
Cauchy had noticed that we
a
suitable
to
are led in certain cases
exponential factor to
adjoin
infinite product,
each of the binomial factors such as x
a.
But Weierstrass was
the first to treat the question with complete generality
by showing
that every integral function having an infinite number of roots can

be expressed as the product of an infinite number of factors, each
of which vanishes for only a single value of the variable.
*
of Weierstrass which are to be presented here were first published

paper entitled Zur Theorie der eindeutigen analytischen Functionen (Berl.
Abhandlungen, 1876, p. 11 = Werke, Vol. II, p. 77). Picard gave a translation of this
paper in the Annales de I Ecole Normale superieure (1879). The collected researches,
of Mittag-Leffler are to be found in a memoir in the Acta mathematica, Vol. II.
127
in a
The theorems
128
57
[III,
We
already know one integral function which does not vanish for
of 2, that is, e z The same thing is true of e ^\ where
value
any
g(z)
is a polynomial or an integral transcendental function.
Conversely,
ff
every integral function which does not vanish for any value of z is
expressible in that form. In fact, if the integral function G (z) does
not vanish for any value of
a is an ordinary point
every point z
for
G (z)/G(z) which
)
is
therefore another integral function

g^z)
Integrating both sides between the limits
where g (z)
is
new
G(z)
integral function of
g(z) ff
G(z )e
^=
z,
z,
we
find
and we have
<r<*>-<r<*
>
+ Lo st Gr
<*o>].
The right-hand
side is precisely in the desired form.

If an integral function G (z) has only n roots a lt a2 ,
or not, the function G (z) is evidently of the form
Let us consider
infinite
roots
ber
number
now
,an) distinct
the case where the equation G(z)=

has an
Since there can be only a finite number of
of roots.
less than or equal to any given num

these roots in such a way that their
whose absolute values are

(
41),
if
we arrange
absolute values never diminish as
we
proceed, each of these roots
appears in a definite position in the sequence
a v a^
(1)
where an
^ \an +
..
B,
.,
and where
an+1
becomes
with the index n.

l ,
\an
shall suppose that each root appears in this series as often as is
is
required by its degree of multiplicity, and that the root z
\
infinite
We
omitted from
it if
G (0) =
We
0.
an
shall first
show how
integral function G^(z) that has as its roots the

sequence (1) and no others.
to construct
numbers
in the
^ \ where Q v (z) denotes a polynomial, is

(1
st/an )e
= an
function
integral
[which does not vanish except for z
shall take for Q v (z) a polynomial of degree v determined in the fol
lowing manner write the preceding product in the form
Q
The product
an
We
Ill,
PRIMARY FUNCTIONS
57]
129
and replace Log (1

z/an ) by its expansion in a power series then
the development of the exponent will commence with a term of
;
degree v
The
+ 1,
integer v
provided we take
is still
We shall show that this number v
undetermined.
can be chosen as a function of n in such a way that the infinite product
and uniformly convergent in every circle C of

about the origin as center, however large R may be. The
having been chosen, let a be a positive number less than
will be absolutely
radius
radius
R
R
Let us consider separately, in the product (2), those factors

corresponding to the roots an whose absolute values do not exceed
unity.
R/a. If there are q roots satisfying this condition, the product of

these q factors
evidently represents an integral function of z. Consider

product of the factors beginning with the (q
l)th
now
the
If z remains in the interior of the circle with the radius R, we

== R
Si
and since we have an
R/a when n q, it follows
have
>
>
a an
A factor of this product can then be
have z
in
which
we have taken Q v (z),
from
the
manner
written,
that
we
also
if
we denote
<
this factor
by 1
1
-f
un we have
,
1
(JLY + -
_ e _ v+l\aj
(_!L\
+ 2\aj
+ 2_
"1.
Hence the proof reduces to showing that by a suitable choice of the

number v the series whose general term is Un = u n is uniformly
176, 2d ed.). In general,
convergent in the circle of radius R (I,
if m is any real or complex number, we have
\
m
\e
-l ê^
-l.
130
We
have then, a
noticing that z
But if x
we have
is
57
fortiori,
v+1 d+ v +
<
a an
\
+l
+
^M^kr^kl
t/ê^+iW
or,
[III,
when
is less
a real positive number,
)_i
than R,
1 is less than xe?
hence
!
1
z \v
+l
<
I- a
order that the series whose general term is Un shall be uni
it is sufficient
formly convergent in the circle with the radius R,
Iii
+
that the series whose general term is \z/an
converge uniformly
in the same circle. If there exists an integer p such that the series
p
p 1. If there exists no
converges, we need only take v
M
v
2|l/a
p that has this property,* it is sufficient to take v n \.

n
is uniformly convergent
series whose general term is \z/a n
the
For
in the circle of radius R, since its terms are smaller than those of
integer
the series ^\R/a n

series, or
\R/an \,
and the nth root of the general term of this

approaches zero as n increases indefinitely.!
last
Therefore we can always choose the integer v so that the infinite

in the
product F2 (z) will be absolutely and uniformly convergent
of a
sum
the
be
can
a
R.
Such
radius
of
circle
replaced by
product
terms are all

uniformly convergent series ( 176, 2d ed.) whose
is itself an analytic function
F
the
Hence
product
2 (z)
analytic.
within this circle (39). Multiplying F2 (z) by the product F^z),
which contains only a

the infinite
finite
number
of analytic factors,
we
see that
product
and uniformly convergent in the interior of the

circle C with the radius R, and represents an analytic function within
this circle. Since the radius R can be chosen arbitrarily, and since
is
itself absolutely
*For example, let n = logn (w^2). The series whose general term is (logn)-P
number p, for the sum of the first (w- 1)
divergent, whatever may be the positive
n.
terms is greater than (?i-l)/(logn)P, an expression which becomes infinite with
for v a number such that v + 1
f Borel has pointed out that it is sufficient to take
is convergent, for the
shall be greater than logn. In fact, the series ^\R/a n \ê
/! = w log|^/al. After a sufficiently large
general term can be written elogniogi
2
less than 1/w2
value of n, \a*\/R will be greater than e and the general term
is
Ill,
PRIMARY FUNCTIONS
57]
131
does not depend on A this product is an integral function Gfe)

which has as its roots precisely all the various numbers of the
sequence (1) and no others.
v
If the integral function G (z) has also the point &

jt?th order, the quotient
as a root of
the
Gz
an analytic function which has neither poles nor zeros in the

whole plane. Hence this quotient is an integral function of the form
e
where g(z) is a polynomial or an integral transcendental func
tion, and we have the following expression for the function G (z)
is
</(z)
fl
(4)
()- w
n(i-f)
1
l^-n
The
integral function g(z) can in its turn be replaced in an infinite

variety of ways by the sum of a uniformly convergent series of
polynomials
?(*)=
tfito
+ ^(*)+
+?(*)+
>
and the preceding formula can be written again
The
factors of this product, each of which vanishes only for one

2, are called primary functions.
value of
Since the product (4) is absolutely convergent, we can arrange the

primary functions in an arbitrary order or group them together in
any way that we please. In this product the polynomials Q v (z)
depend only on the roots themselves when we have once made a

choice of the law which determines the number v as a function of n.
But the exponential factor e g(z) cannot be determined if we know
only the roots of the function G(z). Take, for example, the function
sin TTZ, which has all the positive and negative integers for simple
roots.
In this case the
take v
1,
series
5 |l/a w
2
|
is
convergent; hence
we can
and the function
to the right of n means that we are not to

to
the
index n, has the same roots as sin irz.
the
value
zero*
give
where the accent placed
*When
this exception is to be
( ) after the
by placing an accent
made
in a formula,
we
shall call attention to it
symbol of the product or of the sum.
132
We
have then sin
TTZ
e ff ^G(z),
anything about the factor

reduces to the number TT.
The
58.
a2
class of
but the reasoning does not
We
shall
an integral function.
where
construct an
an
e ff(z)
[III,
becomes
show
us
later that this factor
Given an
infinite
tell
57
infinite
with
sequence
we have
just
of integral functions that
have all the terms of that sequence for zeros and no others. When
there exists an integer p such that the series ^\a n \~ p is convergent,
,
seen
how
to
we can
take
\an
infinite
\
the polynomials
all
n,
number
Q v (z)
of degree
1.
Given an integral function of the form
where P(z)
is
number p
a polynomial of degree not higher than

said to be the class of that function.
is
1,
the
Thus, the
function
is
of class zero
the function (sin TTZ)/^ mentioned above
is
of class
of the class of an integral function has given rise in

recent years to a large number of investigations.*
one.
The study
59. Single-valued analytic functions with a finite
number
of singular
When
a single-valued analytic function F(z) has only a

points.
of
number
finite
singular points in the whole plane, these singular
or isolated
are
necessarily isolated; hence they are poles
points
= GO
z
essentially singular points. The point
isolated
or
an
singular point ( 52).
point
an ordinary
Conversely, if a singleis
itself
valued analytic function has only isolated singular points in the entire
there can be only a finite
plane (including the point at infinity),
at
the
In
them.
number of
infinity is an ordinary point
fact,
point
for the function or an isolated singular point. In either case we can
C with a radius so large that the function will have

no other singular point outside this circle than the point at infinity
itself. Within the circle C the function can have only a finite number
describe a circle
of singular points, for if it had an infinite number of them there

would be at least one limit point (41), and this limit point would
not be an isolated singular point.
Thus a
BOBEL, Lemons sur Us fauctions entieres

BLUMENTHAL, Sur les fonctions entieres de genre
* See
single-valued
(1900),
analytic
and the recent work
inftni (1910).
of
ill,
PRIMARY FUNCTIONS
59]
133
function which has only poles has necessarily only a finite number
of them, for a pole is an isolated singular point.
Every single-valued analytic function which is regular for every

= GO is a constant. In fact, if the func
finite value of z, and for z
,
tion were not a constant, since it is regular for every finite value of
z, it would be a polynomial or an integral function, and the point at
infinity would be a pole or an essentially singular point.
Now
F(z) be a single-valued analytic function with n distinct

a n in the finite portion of the plane, and
-,
singular points a v a 2
let Gi[l/(z
be
the
principal part of the development of F(z)
a,-)]
let
in the neighborhood of the point ai

then G i is a polynomial or an
in
transcendental
function
In either case this
integral
!/(
a,-).
is
for
of
z
value
regular
principal part
every
(including z
oo)
;
a { Similarly, let P(z) be the principal part of the devel

of
opment
F(z) in the neighborhood of the point at infinity. P(z)
is zero if the point at
infinity is an ordinary point for F(z). The
except z
difference
D = F(z)-P(z)i
is
evidently regular for every value of z including z

and we have the equality*
= co
it is
there
fore a constant C,
*(*)
(5)
/"()
which shows that the function F(z) is completely determined, except

for an additive constant, when the principal part in the neighbor
hood of each of the singular points is known. These principal parts,
as well as the singular points,
may be assigned arbitrarily.

the singular points are poles, the principal parts Gi are
polynomials; P(z) is also a polynomial, if it is not zero, and the
When
all
right-hand side of (5) reduces to a rational fraction. Since, on the

other hand, a single-valued analytic function which has only poles
for its singular points can have only a finite number of them, we
conclude from this that a single-valued analytic function, all of whose

singular points are poles, is a rational fraction.
*
We
might obtain the same formula by equating
to zero the
sum
of the residues
of the function
F(X )(JL-.
_J_\
\X-Z X- ZQ/
where
and
are considered as constants and x as the variable (see
52),
134
[III,
60
60. Single-valued analytic functions with an infinite number of singu

If a single-valued analytic function has an infinite num
ber of singular points in a finite region, it must have at least one
limit point within or on the boundary of the region. For example,
lar points.
the function I/sin (1/s) has as poles all the roots of the equation
sin (1/z)
0, that is, all the points
I/&TT, where k is any integer
whatever. The origin is a limit point of these poles. Similarly, the
function
sin
smz,
has for singular points all the roots of the equation sin (I/*)
among which are all the points
z==
2k
Tr -h
= I/(&TT),
7T\
arc sinf
where k and k are two arbitrary integers. All the points l/(2 k ir)
are limit points, for if, k remaining fixed, k increases indefinitely,
the preceding expression has l/(2k 7r) for its limit. It would be
to construct more and more complicated examples of the same
easy
kind by increasing the number of sin symbols. There also exist, as

we shall see a little farther on, functions for which every point of a
a singular point.
may happen that a single-valued analytic function has only a
finite number of singular points in every finite portion of the plane,
certain curve
is
It
although
it
has an infinite number of them in the entire plane. Then

circle C, however great its radius may be, there are
outside of any
always an
infinite
of singular points, and we shall say that

a limit point of these singular points. In the
number
is
following paragraphs
tions with an infinite
we shall examine single-valued analytic func

number of isolated singular points which have
the point at infinity as their only limit point.

61. Mittag-Leffier s theorem. If there are only a finite number of
of the plane, we can, as we
singular points in every finite portion
have already noticed for the zeros of an integral function, arrange

these singular points in a sequence
av
(6)
that
in such a
way
with
We may
n.
av
we have
B,
>-,
\a n
a n+l and that a n becomes
suppose also that
all
infinite
the terms of this sequence
Ill,
PRIMARY FUNCTIONS
61]
135
To each term a { of the sequence (6) let us assign a

Gt [l/(z a,)],
or
an integral function in !/(
polynomial
,.),
taken in an entirely arbitrary manner. Mittag-Leffler s theorem may
be stated thus
are different.
a single-valued analytic function which is regular for

value
every finite
of z that does not occur in the sequence (6), and for
There
exists
which the principal part in the neighborhood of the point z
a{
is
We shall prove this by showing that it is possible to assign to

a .)] a polynomial P,-() such that the series
each function G [_1/(z
i
defines an analytic function that has these properties.

If the point z
occurs in the sequence (6), we shall take the
corresponding polynomial equal to zero. Let us assign a positive

number e to each of the other points a i so that the series 2e shall be
convergent, and let us denote by a: a positive number less than unity.
Let
be the circle about the origin as center passing through the

and C\ the circle concentric to the preceding with a radius
a^
point
to
a
a{
Since the function G f [l/(z
is analytic in the
equal
a,-)]
circle C we have for every point within Ci
-
t-,
H----
<*
in
zn H
The power
series on the right is uniformly convergent in the circle

C{; hence we can find an integer v so large that we have, in the
interior of the circle C
<,,
Having determined the number

PI(Z) the polynomial
a;-
v in this
a {1 z
manner, we shall take for

a iv z v
.
about the point z =

as
center. Let us consider separately the singular points a in the
sequence (6) whose absolute values do not exceed R/a. If there
Now
let
be a circle of radius
are q of them,
we
shall set
SINGLE- VALUED ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
136
The remaining
is
61
infinite series,
in the circle C, since for
and uniformly convergent
absolutely
[III,
if the index i is greater

the manner in which we
from
and
the
than q.
inequality (7),
value of the general
absolute
P
the
the
taken
have
polynomials l (z),
z
is
within the circle C.
when
than
is
less
series
second
the
of
term
%
every point in this circle
<
<
a a
From
Hence the function F2 (z) is an analytic function within

and it is clear that if we add *\(z) to it, the sum
this circle,
P()
(8)
have the same singular points in the circle C, with the same
These singular points are precisely the
principal parts, as F^(z).
absolute values are less than R, and
whose
terms of the sequence
will
(6)
a,-)].
the principal part in the neighborhood of the point a is Gi[l/(z
Since the radius R may be of any magnitude, it follows that the
satisfies all the conditions of the theorem stated above.
function
{
F(z)
we add
It is clear that if
to F(z) a polynomial or
any
integral
function whatever G(z), the sum F(z)+ G (z) will have the same
same principal parts, as the function JF(z).
singular points, with the
the general expression for single-valued
thus
have
Conversely, we
with corresponding
analytic functions having given singular points
of two such functions, being
difference
the
for
given principal parts
value of z, is a polynomial or a transcendental
regular for every finite
it is possible to represent the function G (z)
Since
integral function.
G (z)
of polynomials, the function F(z)
series
of
a
sum
the
in turn
;
by
term
can itself be represented by the sum of a series of which each
the
to
suitable
a
part
principal
is obtained by adding
polynomial
function is
If all the principal parts G { are polynomials, the
finite region of the plane, and
whole
in
the
for
poles
analytic except
function analytic except for
see, then, that every
conversely.
of
a series each of whose terms
sum
the
poles can be represented by
infinite
becomes
which
fraction
only for a single finite
is a rational
to the decom
is
This
analogous
variable.
of the
We
value
representation
rational fraction into simple elements.
position of a
is analytic except for poles can also be
Every function $(z) that
the quotient of two integral functions. For suppose
represented by
Ill,
PRIMARY FUNCTIONS
62]
that the poles of
3>
(V) are
counted according to
its
137
the terms of the sequence (6), each being

degree of multiplicity. Let G(z) be an
integral function having these zeros; then the product
has no poles. It
the equality
is
3>(z)
G(z)
therefore an integral function ^(z), and
we have
The preceding demonstration
of the
62. Certain special cases.
general theorem does not always give the simplest method of con
structing a single-valued analytic function satisfying the desired
conditions. Suppose, for example, it is required to construct a func
tion
having as poles of the first order all the points of the

each residue being equal to unity we shall suppose
that z =
is not a pole. The
principal part relative to the pole at is
a f ), and we can write
!/(
3>(V)
sequence
(6),
af
a:
the proof reduces to determining the integer v as a function of the

index i in such a way that the series
shall be absolutely
and uniformly convergent
in every circle de
scribed about the origin as center, neglecting a sufficient number of

terms at the beginning. For this it is sufficient that the series
S (z/ai) v+l be itself absolutely and uniformly convergent in the same
p
region. If there exists a number j9 such that the series S|l/a,-| is
l
convergent,
integer,
we
number
(9)
which
we need only
will take as
take v
above
=p
57)
v =
1.
If there exists
1, or v
>
no such
log
i.
The
having been thus chosen, the function
*(*)
^vT-J
+1+
4+
is analytic except for

poles, has all the points of the sequence
as
of
the
first
order
with each residue equal to unity.
poles
(6)
138
[HI,
62
It is easy to deduce from this a new proof of Weierstrass s theorem

on the decomposition of an integral function into primary functions.
In fact, we can integrate the series (9) term by term along any path
whatever not passing through any of the poles for if the path lies
;
in a circle
C having
replaced by
center at the origin, the series (9) can be

a series which is uniformly convergent in this circle,
its
sum of a finite number of functions analytic except

This results from the demonstration of formula (9). If
for the lower limit, we find
we integrate, taking the point z
together with the

for poles.
and consequently
the equation
easy to verify the fact that the left-hand side of
In
the
of
function
neighborhood of a value a
(10) is an integral
z
the
in
of z that does not occur
sequence (6) the integral fQ &(z)dz
hence the function
is analytic
It is
is
also analytic
and
different
from zero
for z
= a.
In the neighbor
hood of the point a we have

{
Jf
$ (z) dz = Log (z -
a {)
+ Q(z-
a,-),
P and Q are analytic. It is seen that this inte

the
terms of the sequence (6) for its roots, and the
has
function
gral
formula (10) is identical with the formula (3) established above.
where the functions
The same demonstration would apply also to integral functions hav

of order r, it would suffice
ing multiple roots. If a is a multiple root
a with a residue equal to r.
the pole z
to suppose that
(*) has
Let us try again to form a function analytic except for poles of
the second order at all the points of the sequence (6), the princi
a -) a We
of the point a{ being !/(
pal part in the neighborhood
series
the
that
is an ordinary point, and
shall suppose that z
4
8
also
will
is convergent; it is clear that the series S I/a*
2
{
<
]l/a
HI,
PRIMARY FUNCTIONS
63]
139
a2) 2 in powers
be convergent. Limiting the development of !/(

of z to its first term, we can write
(z
and the
- a,)
series
the conditions, provided it is uniformly convergent in

a
every circle C described about the origin as center, neglecting
if
we
take
Now
the
at
of
terms
number
sufficient
only
beginning.
those terms of the series coming from the poles a t for which we have
satisfies all
C and a a positive num

R/a, R being the radius of the circle
2
of
value
absolute
the
ber less than unity,
/a f)~ will remain
(1
less than an upper bound, and the series whose general term is
\a{
\>
2 z/a\
by the
z*/a\ is absolutely
and uniformly convergent in the
hypotheses made concerning the
63. Cauchy s method. If F(z)
is
poles a
circle C,
a function analytic except for poles,
us to form a series of rational terms

Mittag-Leffler theorem enables
same
the
has
whose sum F^(z)
poles and the same principal parts
find the integral function which is
to
remains
it
still
But
as
s
F(z).
equal to the difference F(z)
- Fjz).
Long
before Weierstrass
work,
which
Cauchy had deduced from the theory of residues a method by
under
for
a function analytic except
very general condi
poles may,
of
an infinite number
sum
into
a
be
the
on
tions
decomposed
function,
It is, moreover, easy to generalize his method.
in the
function
be
a
Let F(z)
analytic except for poles and regular
infinite
an
be
C
C
let
and
the
of
B
-,
2
origin
C\,
neighborhood
0, not pass
succession of closed curves surrounding the point 2
of rational terms.
with a value
ing through any of the poles, and such that, beginning
of n sufficiently large, the distance from the origin to any point what
remains greater than any given number. It is clear that
of F(z) will finally be interior to all the curves
whatever
any pole
The
Cn c
provided the index n is taken large enough.
ever of
>
Cn
+i>
definite integral
is any point within C n different from the poles,

increased
by the sum of the residues of F(z)/(z
F(x)
where x
to
is
equal
x) with
140
[III,
63
Let a k be one of
respect to the different poles of F(z) within C n
these poles. Then the corresponding principal part G k [l/(z
%)] is
a rational function, and we have in the neighborhood of the point ak
.
-f*-
-*i*vi
a k)\ m
(~
(&
-^J-i
a k)V
(~
(%
-1
i
(
In the neighborhood of this point we can also write

1
- a k -(z- ak)
a.
- aky
(x
- ak
(x
- aky
Writing out the product we see that the residue of F(z)/(z

with respect to the pole a k is equal to
~
x
We
ak
(x
x)
(12)
^(*)=y<
where the symbol 2 indicates a summation extended

within the curve
Cn
On
the other hand,
and write the preceding formula
in the
we can
replace !/(
The
a*
1-
2flr
by
F(z)
integral
x)
form
F(z)dz
(13)
to all the poles a k
F(z)dz
*J
with
equal to F(0) increased by the sum of the residues of F(z)/z
the definite
respect to the poles of F() within C n More generally,
is
integral
is
equal to
(
-1)1
of the residues of z~ T F(z] with respect to the poles of

r-1) tne residue of z~ r
If we represent by
within
C
F(z)
n
F(z)
plus the
sum
PRIMARY FUNCTIONS
63]
Ill,
relative to the pole
141
a k) we can write the equation (13) in the form
xp
(14)
j_ r
2irfJ(
fcL/5
w *-\f
In order to obtain an upper bound for the last term,

it
in the
let
us write
form
dz
F(z)
zp
z(z
x)
Let us suppose that along Cn the absolute value of z~ p F(z) remains

less than M, and that the absolute value of z is greater than 8. Since
the
number n
already taken
along
C n we
is
to
become
infinite,
so large that 8
shall have
may
it
we may suppose that we have

be taken greater than \x\\ hence
<i
If
Sn
is
the length of the curve
C n we have then
p+
Sn
\x\
1
M|<
27T
8(8-
a;|)
We shall have proved that this term R n approaches zero as n becomes

Cn
infinite if we can find a sequence of closed curves C 19 C 2
,
and a positive integer p satisfying the following conditions

1)
The absolute value
of z~ p F(z) remains less than a fixed
num
ber M along each of these curves.
S
of the curve C n to the minimum
2) The ratio n /8 of the length
distance 8 of the origin to a point of C n remains less than an upper
bound L as n becomes infinite.
If these conditions are satisfied, \R n is less than a fixed number
which becomes infinite with n. The term
divided by a number 8
|a;|
R n therefore approaches zero, and we have in the limit
\
x=
(15)
H-lim
0)
Thus we have found a development of the function F(x) as a sum

of an infinite series of rational terms. The order in which they occur
142
in the
C2
Cj,
series
,
is
C nJ
lutely convergent,
63
determined by the arrangement of the curves

in their sequence. If the series obtained is abso
we can
write the terms in an arbitrary order.
were a pole for F(z) with the principal

would suffice to apply the preceding method to the
Note. If the point z
part G(l/z~), it
function F(z)
[III,
G(l/z).
jr.
Let us apply this method to
which
has
ctn
the function F(z)
only poles of the first order
l/z,
=
k
is
where
at the points z
&TT,
any integer different from zero, the
64. Expansion of
ctnx and
of sin
We
shall take for the

residue at each pole being equal to unity.
BCB
the
C
such
as
curve C n a square,
, having
origin for center and
to
axes none of the
nir
TT
the
2
parallel
having sides of length
of the length Sn to the

poles are on this boundary, and the ratio
to
a
from
the
minimum distance 8
point of the boundary
origin
of
the absolute value of
to
The
8.
is constant and equal
square
ctn (x
+ yi)
**
_9
e ty
On
is
equal to
it
+ e -2y
2cos2x
EC and B C we have
than 1. On the sides BB and
the sides
cos 2
is less
CC
1,
the square of this absolute value
is less
than
FIG. 23
+ 1) TT, and the ex

n
becomes infinite.
when
pression thus obtained approaches unity
n
C
Since the absolute value of l/z along
n approaches zero when
We
must replace 2 y
becomes
in this
infinite, it follows that
l/z on the boundary

whatever n may be. Hence
ctn z
mula
formula by
(15), taking
p=
less
we can apply
than a fixed number
cos
*- sina
(16)
V
ctnz
We
X
A-"
and 4, which represents the residue of (ctn 2

equal to I/&TT.
to this function the for
have here
im (?F(0)= ix=0\
&7T, is
the absolute value of the function
Cn remains
We
0.
(2
have, then,
!/)/
for the pole
HI,
PRIMARY FUNCTIONS
64]
143
= is excluded from the summation. The infinite

by letting n become infinite is absolutely convergent,
the general term can be written in the form
where the value k

series obtained
for
11
kfr
JCTT
k7r(k7T
x)
kw)
and the absolute value of the factor sc/(l

x/kir) remains less than
a certain upper bound, provided x is not a multiple of TT. We have,
then, precisely
Integrating the two members of this relation along a path start

ing from the origin and not passing through any of the poles, we find
~far
Jf
from which we derive

(18)
The
factor eff^
is
here equal to unity.
If in the series (17)
two terms which come from opposite values
Combining the two factors

values of
fc,
we have
the
of
of the product (18)
we
we combine
the
obtain the formula
which correspond
to opposite
new formula*
(180
]
or, substituting irx for x,
sin TTX
j
Note 1. The last formulae show plainly the periodicity of sinx, which does
not appear from the power series development. We see, in fact, that (sin irx)/ir
is the limit as n becomes infinite of the polynomial
it
* This decomposition of sin x into an infinite product is due to Euler,

an elementary manner (Introductio in Analysin infinitorum)
in
who obtained
144
Replacing x by x
1,
formula
this
whence, letting n become
infinite,
sin (z
and therefore
sin (z
2?r)
may
we
64
find sin (TTX

TT)
[III,
IT)
sin TTX, or
sin z,
sinz.
In this particular example it is easy to justify the necessity of associ

x/a^ a suitable exponential factor
ating with each binomial factor of the form 1
For defimteness let us
if we wish to obtain an absolutely convergent product.
./Vote 2.
suppose x real and positive. The series Sx/n being divergent, the product
becomes
infinite
with m, while the product
- n, the
approaches zero as n becomes infinite (I, 177, 2d ed.). If we take m
if we make m and n become
product Pm Qm has (sin7rx)/7r for its limit; but
infinite independently of each other, the limit of this product is completely in
determinate. This is easily verified by means of Weierstrass s primary functions,
whatever
may be
the value of
x.
Let us note
first
that the two infinite products
are both absolutely convergent, and their product F^(x)Fz (x) is equal to (sin7rz)/7r.
With these facts in mind, let us write the product Pm Qn in the form
Pr\
mVn
^11/1
~
i
1/11/1
~_L\
ov a
n)
the two numbers m and n become infinite, the product of all the fac
on the right-hand side, omitting the last, has F^(x) F2 (x) = (sin TTX) fir for its
limit. As for the last factor, we have seen that the expression
When
tors
has for
its
limit log w,
The product
Pm Q n
where w denotes the
limit of the quotient
m/n
(I,
161).
has, therefore,
the
its limit. Hence we see the manner in which that limit depends upon
law according to which the two numbers m and n become infinite.
Note 3. We can make exactly analogous observations on the expansion of ctn x.
We shall show only how the periodicity of this function can be deduced from the
Let us notice first of all that the series whose general term is
series
for
(17).
J_
k-rr
(k-l)Tr~
k(k-l)ir
Ill,
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
65]
where the index k takes on

k
0,
A:
all
the integral values from
absolutely convergent and

from 2 to + oo, then from
1, is
145
ing k vary first

the development of ctn x in the form
its
sum
1 to
oo to
is
GO.
klT
2/?r,
We
as
+
is
co., excepting
seen on mak
can therefore write
1) 7T
(k
where the values k = 0, k = 1 are excluded from the summation. This results
from subtracting from each term of the series (17) the corresponding term of
the convergent series formed by the preceding series together with the additional
term 2/ir. Substituting x + TT f or x, we find
ctn (x
TT)
-l7rJ
~T~
or, again,
kl
where
takes on
integral values except 0.
all
The right-hand
side
is
identical with ctnx.
DOUBLY PERIODIC FUNCTIONS. ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
II.
65. Periodic functions. Expansion in series.
single-valued analytic
said to be periodic if there exists a real or complex
w such that we have, whatever may be z, f(z
to)
f(z)
function f(z)
number
number
this
is
to
is
called
a period. Let us mark

in the plane the point
representing to, and let
us lay off on the unlim
ited straight line pass
ing through the origin

and the point to a length
any number
equal to
of times in both direc
o>
We
tions.
obtain thus
the points
,
points
mo,
these
to,
w,
3
o>,
and the
no,
w,
to,
Through
different
FIG. 24
points
and through the origin let us draw parallels to any direction differ
ent from 0(o the plane is thus divided into an infinite number of
;
cross strips of equal breadth (Fig. 24).
146
[III,
65
If through any point z we draw a parallel to the direction Oto, we

shall obtain all the points of that straight line by allowing the real
oo to
oo. In
parameter A in the expression z -f- Ato to vary from
the point z describes the first strip AA BB the corre

&
to will describe the
contiguous strip BB CC the
point
sponding
third
and so on in this manner.
2
the
w
will
describe
z
4strip,
point
particular, if
All the values of the function f(z) in the first strip will be duplicated
at the corresponding points in each of the other strips.
be two unlimited straight lines parallel to the
Let LL and
MM
direction
Let us put u
Oco.
2i7r2/a)
<?
and
let
us examine the region
of the w-plane described by the variable u when the point z remains

in the unlimited cross strip contained between the two parallels LL
MM
If a -f fti is a point of LL we shall obtain all the other

a
Aw and making
points of that straight line by putting z
and
= +
A vary from
2<r
(3i>
Thus, we have
oo to -f oo.
jB.-
A>
27ru e
2^^
;
oo u describes a circle C l having the

oo to
hence, as A varies from
that as z describes the straight line
we
see
for
center.
Similarly,
origin
with the first as the point
C
concentric
on
a
circle
u
remains
,
MM
z describes the unlimited strip contained between the two straight

the point u describes the ring-shaped region contained
lines LL ,
,
MM
between the two
C l} C 2
circles
corresponds only one value of

infinite
number
with the
of values of z
common
difference
periodic f unction /(z),
But while
to
u, to a value of
any value of z there

u there correspond an
which form an arithmetic progression,
forever in both directions.

to, extending
with the period to, that is analytic in the
MM
is equal
between the two straight lines LL
of the new variable u which is analytic in the
ring-shaped region between the two circles C l and C a ,For although
to a value of u there correspond an infinite number of values of z,
all these values of z give the same value to f(z) on account of its
infinite cross strip
to a function
<j>(u)
periodicity.
Moreover,
corresponding value of
if
z,
U Q is a particular value of u, and

any
that determination of z which approaches
u approaches U Q is an analytic function of u in the neighbor

We can therefore
hood of U Q hence the same thing is true of
the ring-shaped
In
s theorem to this function
Laurent
apply
circles C v C 2 this function is
two
the
between
contained
region
equal to the sum of a series of the following form
Z Q as
<f>(u).
<(?/).
Ill,
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
66]
Keturning to the variable
we conclude from
2,
terior of the cross strip considered

is
sum
equal to the
147
this that in the in
above the periodic function

f(z)
of the series
(19)
/(*)=2>,,<r=~.
oo
If the function /()
that the
two straight
is
analytic in the whole plane, we can suppose

LL
which bound the strip, recede
,
lines
MM
indefinitely in opposite directions.

is
Every periodic integral function

therefore developable in a series of positive and negative powers of
2niz/<o
convergent for every finite value of
z.
66. Impossibility of a single-valued analytic function with three periods.
By
famous theorem due to Jacobi, a single-valued analytic function cannot have

more than two independent periods. To prove this we shall show that a singlevalued analytic function cannot have three independent periods.* Let us first
prove the following lemma
Let a, 6, c be any three real or complex quantities, and m, n, p three arbi
trary integers, positive or negative, of which one at least is different from zero.
:
If
we
give to the integers m, n,
all
systems of possible values, except
m=n
the lower limit of
ma +
nb
+ pc
0,
equal to zero.
is
\
Consider the set (E) of points of the plane which represent quantities of the
form ma + nb + pc. If two points corresponding to two different systems of
integers coincide,
we
have, for example,
ma +
nb
and therefore
mj +
a
(m
where
at least one of the
case the truth of the
+ pc = mâ +
(n
numbers
lemma
is
nx ) b
evident.
(pp )c =
1?
+ p t c,
nt &
Q,
nx p
p l is not zero. In this
the points of the set (E) are dis
,
If all
be the lower limit of ma + nb + pc

this number 2 5 is also the
lower limit of the distance between any two points whatever of the set (E). In
fact, the distance between the two points ma + nb + pc and m t a + nfi + p^c is
equal to (m
mj a + (n n t ) 6 + (p p) c We are going to show that we
tinct, let 2 5
\.
are led to an absurd conclusion by supposing
Let
N be a positive
integer
of the values of the sequence
let
>
0.
us give to each of the integers m, n,
JV,
(^V
1),
0,
-,
1,
p one
N, and
let
us combine these values of m, n, p, in all possible manners. We obtain thus

+ I) 3 points of the set (J), and these points are all distinct by hypothesis.
(2
Let us suppose |a|j==|&|^|c|; then the distance from the origin to any one
of the points of (E) just selected is at most equal to 3 N\ a
These points there
fore lie in the interior of a circle C of radius 3jV|a| about the origin as center
or on the circle itself. If from each of these points as center we describe a
\.
Three periods a, b, c are said to be dependent if there exist three integers m, n,p
which ma + nb + pc = 0. TRANS.
(not all zero) for
148
66
[III,
5, all these circles will be interior to a circle C l of radius equal

about the origin as center, and no two of them will overlap, since
the distance between the centers of two of them cannot be smaller than 2 5. The
sum of the areas of all these small circles is therefore less than the area of the
circle of radius
to 3
N\a\ +
circle
C 1? and we have
N + 1)
(3JV|a|
5)
>
(2
3 2
or
SN\a\
s<
(2N+ 1)1-1
The right-hand
side approaches zero as
equality cannot be satisfied for

Consequently the lower limit of
hence that lower limit
is
all
ma
|
N becomes infinite
hence this in
lemma is established.
integers m, n, p (except m = n = p
and the truth
zero,
values of JV by any positive number 5.

+ nb + pc cannot be a positive number
We see, then, that when no systems of
of the
= 0)
ma + nb + pc = 0, we can always find integral values for these

that ma + rib + pc will be less than an arbitrary positive num
exist such that
numbers such
In this case a single-valued analytic function/^) cannot have the three

independent periods a, &, c. For, let z be an ordinary point for/(z), and let
ber
e.
as center, where e is so
e about the point z
small that the equation /(z) =f(z Q ) has no other root than z = Z inside of this
circle ( 40). If a, b, c are the periods of /(z), it is clear that ma + nb + pc is
us describe a circle of radius
also a period for all values of the integers
If
we
choose m, n,
equation /(z)
which
is
When
=/(z
in such a
impossible.
there exists
between
a, b, c
ma +
without
all
the
may have
n,
numbers m,
n,
the periods a,
hence we have
ma +
that
|
would have a root
(20)
/(z)
manner
m,
z l different
nb
+ pc
from
is less
than
where
the
e,
\z 1
<e,
& relation of the form
nb
+ pc =
0,
zero, a single-valued analytic function

but these periods reduce to two periods or to
p being
6, c,
We may suppose that the three integers have no common divisor

Let D be the greatest common divisor of the two numbers
Dm n = Dn Since the two numbers m n are prime to each other,
m, n m
m V 5= 1. Let us put
such that m
we can find two other integers
a single period.
other than unity.
m",
ma+
then we
shall have, conversely, a
n"
n"
m"a
,
n"a
ri b
=mb
m"d
If
a and
b are
the
periods of /(z), a and & are also, and conversely. Hence we can replace
The re
system of two periods a and b by the system of two periods a and b
and p being prime to each other, let us
lation
becomes Da -f pc =
.
(20)
D p = 1, and let us put

take two other integers D and p such that Dp
D af + p c = c We obtain from the preceding relations a
pc c = DC
whence it is obvious that the three periods a, b, c are linear combinations of the
.
two periods
Note.
As
and
a corollary of the preceding
real quantities and

the lower limit of
|
lemma we
see that
if
a and
ft
are two
m, n two arbitrary integers (of which at least one is not zero),

ma + np is equal to zero. For if we put a = a, b = /3, c = i,
\
Ill,
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
67]
the absolute value of
have p
ma +
ma +
n/3
+ pi
From
can be
less
149
than a number
<
only
if
we
follows that a single-valued analytic

function /(z) cannot have two real independent periods a and 0. If the quotient
and n such that ma + n^3
/3/a is irrational, it is possible to find two numbers
is less than e, and it will be possible to carry through the reasoning just as
0,
n/3
<
e.
this
it
before. If the quotient
p/a
ma
ma
is
and equal
and n such that
rational
to the irreducible fraction ra/n,
m n = 1, and let us put

mn
n $ = y. The number y is also a period, and from the two relations
x
n /3 = y we derive a =
ny, (3
my, so that a and j3
np = 0, m a
us choose two integers
let
are multiples of the single period y. More generally, a single-valued analytic

function f(z) cannot have two independent periods a and b whose ratio is real,
for the f unction f(az) would have the two real periods 1 and b/a.*
67. Doubly periodic functions.

doubly periodic function is a
single-valued analytic function having two periods whose ratio is
not real. To conform to Weierstrass s notation, we shall indicate the
two periods by 2 to and 2 to and we

i in w
/w is positive. Let us
and the points 2 to
mark in the plane the points 2 to, 4 to, 6 to,
4 a/, 6 to
let us draw parallels to the
Through the points 2
independent variable by
u, the
shall suppose that the coefficient of
m<o
FIG. 25
direction
tion
0<o.
O<D
and through the points
The plane
is
2m
to
parallels to the direc
divided in this manner into
net of
congruent parallelograms (Fig. 25). Let /(?/) be a single-valued

from the two
analytic function with the two periods 2 w,
2<o
relations
* It
is
f(u
now
2<o)=/(V),
f(u + 2w )=/(w)
we deduce
at once
easy to prove that there exists for any periodic single-valued function
at least one pair of periods in terms of which any other period can be expressed as an
TRANS.
integral linear combination such a pair is called ^primitive pair ofperiods.
;
150
f(u
+ 2 ww + 2ra
ci>
= /(tt),
so that 2 raw
for all values of the integers ra and ra
[III,
67
+ 2 ra V is also a period
We shall represent this
general period by 2w.

The points that represent the various periods are precisely the
vertices of the preceding net of parallelograms. When the point u
2 -f- 2 a/,
describes the parallelogram OABC whose vertices are 0, 2
o>
<o,
+ w describes the parallelogram whose

w + 2 2 w + 2 w + 2 a/, 2 w + 2 a/,
2
the point u
the
are
points 2w, 2
2
a>
vertices
and the
o>,
function f(u) takes on the same value at any pair of corresponding

points of the two parallelograms. Every parallelogram whose ver
2 w, U Q -\- 2
U Q -f- 2 w 4- 2
tices are four points of the type U QJ U Q
<o
o>
called a parallelogram of periods ; in general we consider the

parallelogram OABC, but we could substitute any point in the plane
is
2 w will be designated for brevity

The period 2
of
the
while
the
center
2
parallelogram OABC is the point
by
the points w and w are the middle points of the sides OA and OC.
for the origin.
o>
o>",
o>";
Every integral doubly periodic function is a constant. In fact, let

function if it is integral, it is analytic in
f(u~) be a doubly periodic
the parallelogram OABC, and the absolute value of /(M) remains
in this parallelogram. But on
always less than a fixed number
;
account of the double periodicity the value of f(u) at any point of the
plane is equal to the value of f(u) at some point of the parallelogram
OABC. Hence the absolute value of f(u) remains less than a fixed
number M.
It follows
by Liouville
theorem that f(u)
is
a constant.
68. Elliptic functions. General properties. It follows from the pre

ceding theorem that a doubly periodic function has singular points
in the finite portion of the plane, unless it reduces to a constant.
The term elliptic function is applied to functions which are doubly

of
periodic and analytic except for poles. In any parallelogram
of poles the num
number
a
certain
function
has
an
elliptic
periods
;
ber of these poles
is
called the order of the function, each being
its degree of multiplicity *. It should be noticed

function f(u) has a pole U Q on the side OC, the
situated on the opposite side AB, is also a pole but
counted according to
that
if
an
point M O
elliptic
+2
(o,
we should count only one of these poles

of poles contained in OABC. Similarly, if
in evaluating the
the origin
is
number
a pole,
all
the
*It is to be understood that the parallelogram is so chosen that the order is as

small as possible. Otherwise, the number of poles in a parallelogram could be taken to
TRANS.
be any multiple of this least number, since a multiple of a period is a period.
(See also the footnote, p. 149.)
Ill,
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
68]
151
vertices of the net are also poles of

/(%), but we should count only
If, for example, we move that
one of them in each parallelogram.

vertex of the net which
as
lies at the origin to a suitable

point as near
to
the
the
function
no
please
origin,
given
longer has
f(u)
on
the
of
the
When
we
have occa
poles
boundary
parallelogram.
we
any
sion to integrate an elliptic function

f(u) along the boundary of the
of
we
shall
parallelogram
periods,
always suppose, if it is necessary,
that the parallelogram has been displaced in such a
way that/(V)
has no longer any poles on its boundary. The application of the

general theorems of the theory of analytic functions leads quite
easily to the fundamental propositions
:
1)
to the
The sum of
the residues of
an
elliptic
function with respect
poles situated in a parallelogram of periods
zero.
is
Let us suppose for defmiteness that f(u) has no poles on the

boundary OABCO. The sum of the residues with respect to the poles
situated within the boundary is equal to
the integral being taken along OABCO. But this integral is zero, for
the sum of the integrals taken along two opposite sides of the
paral
Thus we have
is zero.
lelogram
if
we
substitute
C f(u)du=
J (BC)
Similarly, the
along
CO
is
self-evident
-f
<o
for
P/O + 2
sum
o/2u>
2io
in the last integral,
we have
C f(u)du.
ff(u)du=- J(OA)
t/2w
Jl<a
zero.
x,2u>
J (BC)
Jo
J(OA)
and
/2
of the integrals along
In
from the
AB
fact, this property is
figure (Fig. 26).
For
and
almost
let
us
consider two corresponding elements of the two inte

and
grals along OA and along BC. At the points
of
the values of f(u) are the same, while the values
du have opposite signs.

The preceding theorem proves
that an elliptic func
tion f(u) cannot have only a single pole of the first

order in a parallelogram of periods. An elliptic function
of the second order.
FIG. 26
is
at least
152
The number of
2)
an
zeros of
elliptic
[III,
68
function in a parallelogram
that function (each of the zeros

of periods is equal to the order of
its
to
counted according
degree of multiplicity).
being
Let/(w) be an elliptic function the quotient f(u) //(?/)

also an elliptic function, and the sum of the residues of
(u) in a par
diminished
of
of
zeros
number
the
by the
f(u)
allelogram is equal to
to the
theorem
the
number of the poles (48). Applying
preceding
;
is
<f>(u)
<j>
function
we see the truth of the proposition just stated. In gen

number of roots of the equation /(w) = C in a parallelogram
<j>(u),
eral,
the
for the function

equal to the order of the function,
the constant C.
be
whatever
as
has the same poles
may
f(u),
of periods
f(u)
is
The difference between the sum of the zeros and the sum of the
in a parallelogram of periods is equal to
poles of an elliptic function
3)
a period.
Consider the integral
/
P(<H\
du
OABC. This integral is

along the boundary of the parallelogram
sum of the zeros of f(u)
the
to
seen ( 48),
equal, as we have already
of the poles of f(u)
sum
the
within the boundary, diminished by
sum of the integrals
the
us
evaluate
Let
within the same boundary.
BC
OA
and
sides
resulting from the two opposite
:
2w
2w
r u
r
^jri du +
J2u,
/"O)
Jo
If
or,
we
substitute
+2
a>
for
/W
2a
/O)
f^\
/W
*
du
in the last integral, this
sum
is
equal to
on account of the periodicity of f(u), to
-f
Jo
The
integral
C
I
Jo
f(u)
M\ du
/O)
of Log[/(w)] when u describes the side OA;

equal to the variation
of Log[/(w)]
but since f(u) returns to its initial value, the variation
of the inte
sum
The
is an integer.
2 27ri, where
is equal to
z
is
- w
sides
grals along the opposite
OA and BC
is
therefore equal to
Ill,
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
68]
= 2w
(4m27rio) )/27rt
AB
and along
CO
sum of the integrals along

The difference considered
Similarly, the
2
of the form Im^.
is
o>
m^ +
153
that is, to a period.

2 ra 2
therefore equal to 2
that the proposition is
shown
it
can
be
By a similar argument
of
roots
the
the
to
also applicable
C, contained in a
equation f(u)
C.
constant
of
the
value
for
of
any
periods,
parallelogram
above
is
o>
Between any two
4)
exists
an
elliptic
functions with the same periods there
algebraic relation.
Let /(M), /jOO be two elliptic functions with the same periods
2w, 2(o In a parallelogram of periods let us take the points a v
a m which are poles for either of the two functions f(u),
a
let /^ be the higher order of multi
or for both of them
.
fi(u)
a with respect to the two functions, and let

Ar Now let F(x, y) be a polynomial of degree n
_j_
_|_
_l_
m
with constant coefficients. If we replace x and y by/(w) and/^w),
result a new elliptic func
respectively, in this polynomial, there will
plicity of the point
^ ^
fji
am
than the points a v 2
(u) which can have no other poles
of
a
addition
the
them
from
deducible
are
which
those
and
period.
by
In order that this function <(V) may reduce to a constant, it is
tion

in the
necessary and sufficient that the principal parts disappear
a
Now
the
a
of
the
of
each
m
point a,
points lt 2
neighborhood
the
con
to
most
at
order
of
an
is a pole for
n^. Writing
equal
(u)
.
<
ditions that all the principal parts shall be zero,

in
all,
at
most
nfa+^+
we
shall
have then,
o+^^Nn
homogeneous equations between the coefficients of the poly

nomial F(x, y) in which the constant term does not appear. There
linear
are
n(n
n (n
_j_
+ 3)/2
3)
>
if we choose n so large that

we obtain a system of linear
number of unknowns is greater
of these coefficients;
2 Nn, or n
homogeneous equations
+3
in
>
2 N,
which the
than that of the equations. Such equations have always a system of

solutions not all zero. If F(x, y) is a polynomial determined by
these equations, the elliptic functions f(u), f^(u} satisfy the algebraic
relation
where C denotes a constant.

Notes. Before leaving these general theorems, let us make some
further observations which we shall need later.
is said to be even if we
single-valued analytic function f(u)
have /( u) f(u) it is said to be odd if we have /( u)
f(u).
154
The
[ill,
68
derivative of an even function
is an odd function, and the

odd function is an even function. In general, the
derivatives of even order of an even function are themselves even
functions, and the derivatives of odd order are odd functions. On
the contrary, the derivatives of even order of an odd function are
odd functions, and the derivatives of odd order are even functions.
Let f(u) be an odd elliptic function if w is a half-period, we
must have at the same time f(w)= /( w) and f(w) = f( w),
derivative of an
since
w=
2 w.
iv -f
or infinite, that
is,
It is necessary, then, that
that
w must be a zero or a pole
f(w)
shall be zero
for f(u).
The order
of multiplicity of the zero or of the pole is necessarily odd

were a zero of even order 2n for/(w), the derivative/(2n) (i),
w.
is odd, would be analytic and different from zero for u
if
which
If
were a pole of even order for/(V), it would be a zero of even order

for \/f(u). Hence we may say that every half-period is a zero or a
pole of an odd order for any odd elliptic function.
If an even elliptic function f(u) has a half-period
for a pole or
for a zero, the order of multiplicity of the pole or of the zero is an

were a zero of odd order 2 n -f 1, it
even number. If, for example,
would be a zero of even order for the derivative / (w), which is an

odd function. The proof is exactly similar for poles. Since twice a
period is also a period, all that we have just said about half-periods
applies also to the periods themselves.
We
have already seen that every elliptic

69. The function p(u).
function has at least two simple poles, or one pole of the second order,
in a parallelogram of periods. In Jacobi s notation we take func
tions having
two simple poles for our elements
in Weierstrass s
notation, on the contrary, we take for our element an elliptic func

tion having a single pole of the second order in a, parallelogram.
Since the residue must be zero, the principal part in the neighbor
2
In order to
hood of the pole a must be of the form A/(u
a)
make the problem completely definite, it suffices to take A = 1 and
and
to suppose that the poles of the function are the origin u
all the vertices of the network 2 w = 2 ma -j- 2 raV. We are thus
.
led first to solve the following problem
To form an
the points
elliptic
2w =
2 mta
function having as poles of the second order all

and
are any two integers
2 ra V, where
whatever, and having no other poles,
neighborhood of the point
2w
so that the principal part in the
shall be !/(?
2
>/
Ill,
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
69]
155
Before applying to this problem the general method of

prove that the double series
62,
we
shall
first
where
and
take on
the integral values from
all
=m =
(the combination m
<x>
to
oo
-f-
is
convergent, provided
being excepted),
that the exponent JJL is a positive number greater than 2. Consider the
raw
w f r
0, u
raw, u
triangle having the three points u
of
the
are
sides
of
the
three
the
its vertices
triangle
respec
lengths
+m
|raa>
+ ra w We have, then, the relation

= w w| + ra w + 2 rara ww |cos 8,
raw
tively |raw|, |ra/w
|,
ra
|.
2
a>
is the angle between the two directions Ow, 0w (0<0<7r).

where
= b, and let us suppose a^=b. The pre
For brevity let w = a,
written in the form
be
then
can
ceding relation
o>
+ ra w = ra
2
raw
|
where the angle
^2
+ ra & 2 rara a& cos

if
^ 7r/2, and to TT
2
6 if
equal to 8
7r/2.
cannot be zero, since the three points 0, w, a/ are not in
The angle
a straight
|rao>
and we have
line,
+ ra
is
2
a>
= (1 -
^= cos
2
cos
(m a
>
We have, then, also

6
cos
?^ ^)
(ma
) +
1.
<
-f ra
2
,
and consequently
|rao>
+ ra
From
2
o>
^(l- cos)(m
a2
-f ra
)^(l- cos)a (m + m
2
).
follows that the terms of the series (21) are respectively

2
/2 M/2
??
less than or equal to those of the series S l/(m
multiplied
)
this
it
by a constant factor, and we know that the last

if the exponent fi/2 is greater than unity (I,
convergent if we put
result derived in
62, the series
series (21) is
"1
ii
+^
^W
L(^
3 or
/JL
series is
convergent
172).
Hence the
4.
According to a
~~
2?,^)
4^ J
~A
represents a function that is analytic except for poles, and that has
the same poles, with the same principal parts, as the elliptic function
shall show that this function
(u) has precisely the two
sought.
We
<f>
periods 2 w and 2
where 2 w
o>
Consider
first
the series
2 raw 4- 2 raV, the summation being extended to

and ra except the combinations
integral values of
all
the
m=m =
156
and
m=
results
1,
m = 0.
from the
omit two terms.
by considering
it
This series
is
69
absolutely convergent, for it

2
for u and
substitute
when we
series
[III,
(u)
It is easily seen that the
<o
<f>
as a double series
sum
of this series
is
zero
and evaluating separately each
of the rows of the rectangular double array.

from (u), we can then write
Subtracting this series
combinations (m = ? = 0), (m =
excluded from the summation. Let us
m =
<
the
1,
0)
being always
2
to u
now change u
o>
then we have
the combination
m=
the summation.
But the right-hand
1,
m =
being the only one excluded from

side of this equality
is
identical
This function has therefore the period 2 w, and in like

This is the func
manner we can prove that it has the period 2
tion which Weierstrass represents by the notation p(u), and which
with
<f>(u).
<o
is
thus defined by the equation
we put u =
double sum are
If
in the difference
zero,
p (u)
and that difference
l/^
p (u) possesses, then, the following properties

It is doubly periodic and has for poles
1)
all
the terms of the
is itself zero.
The function
all
the points 2
and
only those.
2)
3)
The
The
of the origin
principal part in the neighborhood
2
0.
is zero for u
difference p (u)
l/u
is
1/w
These properties characterize the function p (u). In fact, any analy

function f(u) possessing the first two properties differs from p(u)
is a doubly periodic func
only by a constant, since the difference
= for u 0,
tion without any poles. If we have also f(u)
1/u?
is also zero for u = 0; we have, therefore,/(w) = p(w).
p(u)
f(u)
tic
The function p ( u)
we have, then, p( u)=
evidently possesses these three properties

which
p(w), and the function p(u) is even,
;
from the formula (22).

Let us consider the period of p (11) whose absolute value is smallest,
and let 8 be its absolute value. Within the circle C with the radius
about the origin as center, the difference p(u)
1/u? is
8, described
is
also easily seen
fi
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
69]
Ill,
157
in positive powers of u.
analytic and can be developed
term of the series (22), developed in powers of u, gives
~~
(u
and
it is
2 w) 2
TV?
+
~(2wf
+
(2w/
The general
"
(2w)
n+z
easy to prove that the function
5
1
dominates this series in a

expression obtained from
circle of radius 8/2, and, a fortiori, the
- u/\w by l 2u/S
by replacing 1
dominates the series. Since the series S l/H* is convergent, we
have the right to add the resulting series term by term (9). The
coefficients of the odd powers of u are zero, for the terms resulting
from periods symmetrical with respect to the origin cancel, and we
can write the development of p (u) in the form
it
=^+cM +c
a
p (u)
(23)
M4
where
(24)
to the whole plane, the new

(22) is applicable
in the interior of the circle C s hav
valid
only
development (23)
the nearest vertex
ing its center at the origin and passing through
Whereas the formula

is
of the periodic network.

The derivative p (u) is itself an elliptic function having all the
third order. It is represented in the
points 2w for poles of the
whole plane by the series
(25)
In general, the nth derivative p (n \u) is an elliptic function having

all the points 2 w for poles of order n + 2, and it is represented by
the series
(26)
We
p()=(
leave to the reader the verification of the correctness of these

which does not present any difficulty in view of the,
developments,
properties established above
39 and 61).
158
The
70.
theorem of
origin
we
have, from the formula
M =-
~3
In the neighborhood of the
(23),
+ 4cu +
*
"i
the terms of the series not written are zero for u
\\rhere
70
algebraic relation between p(u) and p (). By the general

68 there exists an algebraic relation between p(^) and
It is easily obtained as follows
(u).
[ill,
The
0.
4 p (w) has therefore the origin as a pole of the

second order, and in the neighborhood of this point we have
difference
(^)
p() - 4 p
=-
_ 28 c. +
??
where the terms not written are zero for u

20 c2 p (w)
Hence the elliptic function
with the same principal parts, as the
their difference
is
when u
and we have
zero
therefore identical,
write in the form
a
[p ( M )]
(27)
I/-
0.
has the same poles,
2
4 p 8 and
elliptic function p
These two elliptic functions are
,
the desired relation, which
4 p(t,) -
0.
28
(u)
-g
we
shall
9,
where
4
20 c
60
28
The
relation (27) is fundamental in the theory o^ elliptic func

the quantities # 2 and g are called the invariants.
All the coefficients CA of the development (23) are polynomials in
tions
</
terms of the invariants g 2 and g s
In
taking the derivative of

by 2p (u), we derive the
fact,
the relation (27) and dividing the result
formula
(28)
On
the other hand,
w)=l
we have
+ 2c + 12 cX +
2
in the neighborhood of the origin
...
+(2 A- 2)(2X -
2A ~ 4
3)<y
Ill,
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
71]
159
Replacing p(u) and
by their developments in the relation

p"(^)
and remembering that (28) is satisfied identically, we obtain
(28),
the recurrent relation
[>=2,3,...,(X-2)],
73)2/yA-,,
which enables us to calculate step by step all the coefficients cx in

c and c
and consequently in terms of 2 and g^ we find
2
g
terms of
</
thus
c.
2 4 .3.5 2
~2
.5.7.1l
This computation brings out the remarkable algebraic fact that all
2 l/(2w) 2n are expressible as polynomials in terms of the
the sums
two.
first
We
know a priori the roots of p (u). This function, being of the

third order, has three roots in each parallelogram of periods. Since
u
it is odd, it has the roots u
u
-f,
68,
(
notes).
3
are precisely
g8
(27) the roots of the equation 4 p
gjp
These three roots are ordinarily
the values of p(u) for u
a/,
o>,
o>"
<o
</
By
CD".
o>,
represented by e^
=
*i
^
W>
These three roots are
^=P
P (w %
all different
for if
we
<>
had, for example,
e
l
=e
a,
the equation p(u)= e l would have two double roots

and
in the
interior of a parallelogram of periods, which is impossible, since p
(u)
<o
is
of the second order.
o>
Moreover, we have
and between the invariants ^ 2
</
and the
roots e x e a e
g
,
we have
the
relations
e
+e +e =
2
The discriminant
ê 2
0,
(gl
27 grj)/16
+^
is
=-
^v. = f
necessarily different from zero.
we
2
integrate the function p(w)
1/w
along any path whatever starting from the origin and not passing
through any pole, we have the relation
71.
The function
(M).
If
/
Jo
The
series
on the right represents a function which is analytic

all the points u = 2 w, except u = 0, for
except for poles, having
160
Changing the sign and adding the
poles of the first order.

tion I/u, we shall put
The preceding
jf"
[P
()
<*
J]
frac
= - () +
and, taking the derivatives of the two sides,
we
find
= -?
(31)
from either one of these formula that the function

odd. In the neighborhood of the origin we have by (23)
It is easily seen
is
(w)
71
relation can be written
(30)
and
[ill,
(30),
cannot have the periods 2 w and 2 o/, for it would

of
the first order in a parallelogram of periods.
have only one pole
2 ?/?) and (u) have the same deriva
functions
the
two
But since
(u
The function
(")
the
p(w), these two functions differ only by a constant hence
when
the
constant
a
increases
function (ii)
argument u
quantity
by
tive
by a period. It is easy to obtain an expression for this con

Let us write, for greater clearness, the formula (30) in the form
increases
stant.
Changing u
to
+2w
(M
We
+2
and subtracting the two formulae, we
to)
(w)
=-
p (v) dv.
shall put
2^
=- f
00<fv,
T/
Then
7y
and
77
the path of integration.

the residues of p(v) are zero.
u and of
evident a priori, since all

The function (M) satisfies, then, the
is
relations
l(u
we
find
p (;) rfv.
are constants independent of the lower limit
This last point
If
r
1/U
t/H
two
find
~M + 2lO
o,)
{(M)
+ 2 ^,
put in these formulae w

o/.
co
^(i*
o>
and u
a/)
f( w )
-*<J
+ 2j.
respectively,
we
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
71]
Ill,
161
There exists a very simple relation between the four quantities

To establish it we have only to evaluate in two ways the
ifj if.
integral / (u) du, taken along the parallelogram whose vertices are
o>
to
U Q U Q 4- 2 to, U Q 4- 2 to 4- 2 w M O 4- 2 w We shall suppose that

has no poles on the boundary, and that the coefficient of i in
/
.
o>
(u)
is
positive, so that the vertices will be encountered in the order in

which they are written when the boundary of the parallelogram is
described in the positive sense. There is a single pole of (ii) in the

interior of this boundary, with a residue equal to 4- 1
hence the
to
2
TTI.
On
the
is
other
under
consideration
hand, by
integral
equal
;
68 the sum of the integrals taken along the side joining the vertices
4- 2 w and along the opposite side is equal to the expression
WQ UQ
,
2u
Similarly, the sum of the integrals

have, then,
equal to 4 0/17.
coming from the other two
sides
We
is
to
(32)
0*77
77
7T
if
which is the relation mentioned above.

Let us again calculate the definite integral
/
F(u)=
2o>
(v)dv,
c/M
taken along any path whatever not passing through any of the poles.
We
haVe
F (u) =
(u 4- 2
to)
C (Ô
77,
so that F(u) is of the form F(ii) = 2 iju 4- A the constant K being

determined except for a multiple of 2 TT/, for we can always modify
the path of integration without changing the extremities in such a
way as to increase the integral by any multiple whatever of 2 tri
,
To
find this constant
K let
us calculate the definite integral
dv
>>-
along a path very close to the segment of a straight line which joins
This integral is zero, for we can replace the
the two points w and
to.
patti
the
of integration by the rectilinear path, and the elements of

in the
integral cancel in pairs. But, on replacing u by
new
<a
expression which gives F(ii)j

^
/+
-to
we have
162
[III,
71
and since we have also
C+
we can
take
K=2
as to the path of integration,
(33)
where
integral
rj
have, in general,
(u
w)
+ (2 m + 1) TT
i,
u.
an integer, and we have an analogous formula for the
is
u
we
=2
t(v)dv
dv
Hence, without making any supposition
TTI.
170)
ta
*"
t(v)dv.
fu
72. The function o-(u). Integrating the function

I/M along
any path starting from the origin and not passing through any pole,
we have
(")
and consequently
lw f[*-a-
(34 )
The
integral function on the right
functions which have
function
the simplest of the integral

it is the
for simple roots
<r(u):
-w=
(35)
The
is
the periods 2
all
equality (34) can be written

r[v<
L
Jo
(34
>-
rl*
wj
<T(u)=ue
obtain
whence, taking the logarithmic derivative of both sides, we
The function
periodic.
being an integral function, cannot be doubly

argument increases by a period, it is multiplied
as follows
factor, which can be determined
<T(M),
When
its
by an exponential
From the formula (34
we have
u
<r(u)
This factor was calculated in

ff
2oi)=
ai
71,
+
->
whence we
find
=-
+(Sw+1)lrf
<r(w)
Ill,
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
73]
It is easy to establish in a similar
(38)
From
<r(u
2o>
manner the
eW
=)
163
relation
+u
><r(u).
either of the formulae (35) or (34
it
follows that cr(u)
is
an odd function.
we expand
If
this function
in
<r(u)
powers of
obtained will be valid for the whole plane. It

all the coefficients are polynomials in y and g
2
f
q
O
<r(w)=
We
see that there
is
K
O
ê
is
For we have
ot
u
D
5
3>4
u, the expansion
easy to show that
,2
\
/o
f^\L
1 \
A\
1J
"
no term in w 8 and that any coefficient is a

s and therefore in the invariants
g^ and ^3
polynomial in the c x
first five terms are as follows
the
2 3 .3.5.7
2 4 .3.5
2 9 .3 2 .5.7
2 7 .3 2 .5 2 .7.11
The three functions p(u),

o-(u) are the essential elements of
the theory of elliptic functions. The first two can be derived from
tr(u) by means of the two relations (u)
(M).
(u)/<r(u), p(u)
()>
<r
73. General expressions for elliptic functions.
Every elliptic function
or again
f(u) can be expressed in terms of the single function
in terms of the function
(u) and of its derivatives, or finally in
terms of the two functions p(u) and p (w). We shall present con
<r(u),
cisely the three methods.
Method
ttj,
a2
Expression of f(u) in terms of the function er(w). Let

a n be the zeros of the function f(u) in a parallelogram of
1.
b n the poles of f(u) in the same parallelogram,

periods, and b r b^
each of the zeros and each of the poles being counted as often as is
required by its degree of multiplicity. Between these zeros and poles
,
we have
(40)
the relation
ai
+ ... + as = 5, + 5 +
2
+ $ + 20,
where 2 O is a period.
Let us now consider the function
-
<r(u-ad>
<r(u-a n )
<r(u-bj.-.<r(u-bn
-2a)
This function has the same poles and the same zeros as the function
are u = a and the
a,-)
f(u), for the only zeros of the factor a-(u
{
164
73
[III,
only by a period. On the other hand,

for if we change u to u + 2
periodic,
doubly
(u)
for example, the relation (37) shows that the numerator and the
the two factors
denominator of
(u) are multiplied respectively by
values of u which differ from
this function
is
u>,
<j>
<
(_
!(
>-<*!
j_yig2
and these two
-a, -----
/_
an\
factors are equal,
ê
by
-J\ng2
(40).
rj(n
Similarly, we find that

00 * s therefore a doubly
c uo ^ ent
2
l
)= ? 0no infinite values
periodic function of u having
constant, and we can write
<t>(u
o>
<(
/W/0
that
is,
it
is
- bn -20)
it is sufficient to give to the variable u
neither a pole nor a zero.
to express an elliptic function f(u) in terms of
To determine the constant C

any value which
is
More
generally,
the function o-(w),
fice to choose
when we know
n zeros
-,
its
<)
and its
and n poles
zeros,
poles
b2,
(b ly
will suf
it
-
6)
in
that each root of f(u) can be obtained

such a way
of
the quantities a-, and each pole by
one
to
a
period
by adding
zeros
of
the
one
to
a
quantities b-. These poles and
adding
period
the
in
the
in
situated
be
preceding
plane, provided
way
that 2a,
2- and
any
may
conditions are satisfied.
and of its
Expression of f(u) in terms of the function
function
the
aof
k
derivatives. Let us consider k poles a v 2 ,
/(M)
such that every other pole is obtained by adding a period to one
Method
2.
could take, for example, the poles lying in the same

Let
parallelogram, but that is not necessary.
of them.
We
A&
AAd)
l
yl 2
(u
- y
__-A^
i
(u
ni
t
be the principal part of f(u) in the neighborhood of the point ^.
The
difference
"I
"("-O
an analytic function in the whole plane. Moreover, it is a doubly

we change u to u + 2 this function is
periodic function, for when
2 -rj$A j\ which is zero, since Âf represents the sum
increased by
is
o>,
Ill,
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
73]
of the residues in a parallelogram.
165
That difference
is
therefore a
constant, and we have
;=C
(42)
The preceding formula is due to Hermite. In order to apply it we

must know the poles of the elliptic function f(u) and the corre
sponding principal parts. Just as formula (41) is the analogon of the
formula which expresses a rational function as a quotient of two
polynomials decomposed into their linear factors, the formula (42)
is the analogon of the formula for the decomposition of a rational
fraction into simple elements. Here the function (u
a) plays the
part of the simple element.
Method
3.
us consider
Expression off(ii) in terms ofp(u) and of p (u). Let

an even elliptic function/^). The zeros of this
first
We
can
function which are not periods, are symmetric in pairs.
a n ) such that all the zeros except
n zeros (a v a2
the periods are included in the expressions
therefore find
ax
We
o>
-f-
+ 2 w,
a2
+ 2 w,
an
-f
2 w.
shall take, for example, the parallelogram whose vertices are

co
and the zeros in this parallelogram
eo
w
a/, w
,
o>
o>,
lying on the same side of a straight line passing through the origin,
carefully excluding half the boundary in a suitable manner. If a
zero a is not a half-period, it will be made to appear in the sequence
{
av az
*,
a n as often as there are units in its degree of multiplicity.

is a half-period, it will be a zero of even
If the zero a 1? for example,
order 2 r
68, notes).
(
in the sequence a v a 2
,
[POO-
We
make this zero appear only r times

this understanding, the product
With
-,.
shall
PK)][P- PK)]
[PW- PK)]
has the same zeros, with the same orders, as f(u), excepting the case
of /(O) = 0. Similarly, we shall form another product,
[p 00
- P (*i)] [P 00 - P &)]
CP
W - P (*)]
having the poles of f(u) for its zeros and with the same orders,
again not considering the end points of any period. Let us put
./
*(
~ P Wl
O) ~ P K)1 fP
P (**)]
P (W [P 00
[P 00
f>
~
00
[P 00
[P
166
[III,
73
which has a finite

the quotient
(u) is an elliptic function
is not a period.
u
of
which
for
value
zero
value different from
every
This elliptic function reduces to a constant, for it could only have
f(u)/<f>
periods for poles
We
poles.
and
if it did, its
would not have any
reciprocal
have, then,
)
~ P K)]
[P
(")
- P K)]
is an even function,
^M) is an odd elliptic function, ./jOO/P
and therefore this quotient is a rational function of p(u). Finally,
even function and an
any elliptic function F(u) is the sum of an
odd function
:
.
* /\ u ) ~
F(u)+F(-u)
F(u)-F(-u)
Applying the preceding

can be expressed in the
results,
we
see that every elliptic function
form
F(u)=R[p(u)^p (u)R l [p(u)l
(43)
where R and R
are rational functions.
74. Addition formulae.
for the function sin
The addition formula
enables us to express sin (a 4- b) in terms of the values of that func

There exists an
b.
a and x
tion and of its derivative for x
that the expression

analogous formula for the function p(w), except
is somewhat more
of
terms
in
for p(u
p(w), p(v), p (w), p
v)
denominator.
of
a
the
of
on account
presence
complicated
Let us first apply the general formula (41), in which the function
once
function p(n)
p(v). We see at
appears, to the elliptic
the
same
with
function
is
an
that
elliptic
-f
<r(u)
v) a-(u
<r(u
v)/<r\u)
and the same poles as p(u)
zeros
p(v)
sides
by
and to let u approach

whence we derive
2
<r
C(T (v),
<r(u
P()-P
(44)
We
have, then,
v)
v)<r(u
-^-
<r(u
p(u)-p(v)=Cin order to determine the constant
to multiply the two

thus find the relation
it suffices
zero.
We
+ v)<r(u-v)
>
take the logarithmic derivative on both sides, regarding

a constant and u as the independent variable, we find
If
we
P
.
(U)
.
{(
+ *) +
(-")-
2 {(),
v as
HI,
or,
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
74]
167
interchanging u and v in this result,
two
Finally, adding these
(u
(45)
+ v)
we
results;
(v)
(u)
obtain the relation
7:
~/^r
which constitutes the addition formula for the function (w).

to u, we should obtain
Differentiating the two sides with respect
the
for
the
right-hand side would contain
p (n + v)
expression
the second derivative
p"(w-),
which would have to be replaced by

is somewhat long, and we can obtain
This calculation
6 p*(u)
g 2 /2.
the result in a more elegant
p(u
(46)
+ v) +
way by
proving
p(u)+p(v) = [t(u
the relation
first
+ v)-
W )- COO] 8
Let us always regard u as the independent variable the two sides

0,
are elliptic functions having for poles of the second order u
the addition of
them
from
deducible
the
all
and
u
by
points
v,
;
a period.
(w
In the neighborhood of the origin
+ v)- (w)(tO=00 +
_
we have
W-^(V
{ (*OH
M
/y>
4-
aw
and consequently
cf/
also for the left-hand side. Let us

principal part is 1/w as
of the pole
the
principal parts in the neighborhood
compare similarly
v -f h, we have
v. Putting u
u
2
The
-*(- +
-*
"
*)-(")=%
W+
>
side of (46) in the neighbor

principal part of the right-hand
2
v is, then, l/(w
hood of the point u
just as for the leftv)
sides of (46) is
two
the
hand side. Hence the difference between
The
a constant.
find this constant, let us compare, for instance, the

have in this
in the neighborhood of the origin.
To
developments
We
neighborhood
p(u
+ v) + p (u) + p(v) = -5 + 2 p(v) + up (v) +
..
168
[III,
74
Comparing this development with that of [(M + v)

(u~)
(v)]
we see that the difference is zero for u = 0. The relation (46) is there
fore established.
Combining the two equalities (45) and (46) we
2
obtain the addition formula for the function p(u):
(47)
Hermite
75. Integration of elliptic functions.
mula (42) lends itself immediately

function. Applying it, we find
decomposition for
to the integration of
an
elliptic
We
see that the integral of an elliptic function is expressible in

terms of the same transcendentals o-,
p as the functions themselves,
,
but the function o-(w) may appear in the result as the argument of
a logarithm. In order that the integral of an elliptic function may
be itself an elliptic function, it is necessary first that the integral
that is, all the
shall not present any logarithmic critical points
must be zero. If this is so, the integral is a function
residues
;
A$>
analytic except for poles. In order that it be elliptic, it will suffice

that it is not changed by the addition of a period to u, that is, that
2Co>
-2AS>
whence we derive C
0,
S^gP
2 Ceo
0,
0-
A$>=
i,
0;
If these conditions are satisfied,
the integral will appear in the form indicated by Hermite
theorem.
When
the elliptic function which is to be integrated is expressed in terms

and p (w), it is often advantageous to start from that form instead of
employing the general method. Suppose that we wish to integrate the elliptic
function R [p (u)] + p (u) R l [p (u)], R and R l being rational functions. We have
of p(u)
only to notice in regard to the integral fR v [P(M)]P (M) du that the change of
As for the
t reduces it to the integral of a rational function.
variable p(u)
integral
[p(u)] dw, we could reduce it to a certain number of type forms by
means of rational operations combined with suitably chosen integrations by
parts but it turns out that this would amount to making in another form the
fR
same reductions that were made

if
we make
in
Volume
the change of variable p (u)
(u)
du
dt,
or
du
t,
105, 2d ed.
(
which gives
110, 1st ed.).
For,
HI,
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
75]
the integral/E [p
(it)]
169
du takes the form
R (t) dt
f
We
have seen how
V4
form ftn dt/ V4 s
of the radical
this integral
gr 3 ,
g<,
decomposes into a rational function of
sum
# 3 and finally a certain
g2 t
and
number of integrals of the

number of integrals of the form
of a certain
dt
>Q(t)
f
where P(t) is a polynomial prime to its derivative and also to 4t s
gz t
gr 3
and where Q (t) is a polynomial prime to P (t) and of lower degree than P (t)
Returning to the variable M, we see that the integral fR[p(u)] du is equal
to a rational function of p(u) and p (w), plus a certain number of integrals
such asj[p(tt)] n dw and a certain number of other integrals of the form
,
(4 9)
and
and
can be accomplished by rational operations (multiplications

combined with certain integrations by parts.
this reduction
divisions of polynomials)
We
can easily obtain a recurrent formula for the calculation of the integrals
n
In
f[p(u)~\
we
replace
If, in
du.
the relation
/2
g 2 p (u)
g s and 6p (w)
(w) and p"(w) by 4 p (u)
respectively, there results, after arranging with respect to p(w),
g 2 /2
-^{
du
and from
(50)
By
we
this
[p(M)]
n~1
derive,
/
(M)
by integrating the two
(4n
putting successively n
2)In +
in
sides,
1\
)gr
/M _i
(n
I)gr 3
7n _ 2
In
II =
f (M).
it will be necessary to know
we know these roots, we can reduce the
in this formula, all the integrals
1, 2, 3,
can be calculated successively from the first two, 7

To reduce further the integrals of the form (49),
M,
the roots of the polynomial P(t). If

calculation to that of a certain number of integrals of the form
du
p(u)-p (v)
where p(v) is
4 3 _ g^ _ g o
zero.
different
m
from e^
The value
The formula
e2 , e3 , since
the polynomial P(t)
of v is therefore not a half-period,
~ p/ (V)
-
f (u
v)
f (u
v)
is
and p
prime
(v) is
P (u)
established in
(51)
74,
then gives
_=_
[Log<r(w
v)
Logo-
(it
v)
2wf(t>)]
C,
to
not
170
76.
The function
The
0.
series
by means
76
[III,
which we have defined the func
of
tions p(u), f(w), a-(u) do not easily lend themselves to numerical computation,
which is valid for the
including even the power series development of
<r(u),
whole plane. The founders of the theory of elliptic functions, Abel and Jacobi,
had introduced another remarkable transcendental, which had previously been
encountered by Fourier in his work on the theory of heat, and which can be
developed in a very rapidly convergent series
it is
called the 6 function.
the Weierstrass
=r+
<r
function can be easily deduced from
(u)
We
and show how
shall establish briefly the principal properties of this function,

it.
be a complex quantity in which the coefficient s of i is positive.

If v denotes a complex variable, the function 6 (v) is defined by the series
Let T
si
I
= -2_
6(v)
(52)
(-l)n q
+ ly
2) e (2n
which may be regarded as a Laurent

for
z.
This series
general term
if
=a+
j3i
is
is
which
series in
eniv
6**,
has been substituted
absolutely convergent, for the absolute value
Un
of the
given by
hence
positive values,
+ l)7Tt^
Z7n
approaches zero when n becomes
and the same
is
Vl7_ n
true of
infinite
through
It follows that the function
function of the variable v. It is also an odd

(v) is an integral transcendental
function, for if we unite the terms of the series which correspond to the values
to +
the development
1 of the index (where n varies from
n and
n
6
<x>),
can be replaced by the following formula
(52)
+
0(v)
(53)
00
2^(-l)
o
1\2
Vsm(2n+l)irv,
q(
which shows that we have
0(-v)=-0(v),
0(0)
0.
When
v is increased by unity, the general term of the series (52) is multi

n
1. We have, then, 0(v+ 1) =
0(o). If we change v to
by e ( 2n + 1 ) no
simple relation between the two series is immediately seen but if
T,
plied
v
we
write
,-
0(V
+ T)=* *?(-l)nq(
n+
+2n+l
eUn+,
00
and then change n
to
1 in this series,
the general term of the
equal to the general term of the series (52) multiplied by

the function (v) satisfies the two relations
is
Since the origin

the points
+ l)=-0(v),
0(o
(54)
r)
27riv
q- ie~
series
Hence
=- q-ier**to0(v).
a root of #(v), these relations show that 0(v) has for zeros all
where l and ra 2 are arbitrary positive or negative integers.
2 T,
is
m +m
0(v
new
ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS
76]
Ill,
171
These are the only roots of the equation (v) = 0. For, let us consider a
v + 1, v + 1 + r, u + r,
t?
parallelogram whose vertices are the four points
the first vertex V Q being taken in such a way that no root of
(v) lies on the
= has a single root in this
boundary. We shall show that the equation (v)
the integral
parallelogram. For this purpose it is sufficient to calculate
,
Md
made upon
along its boundary in the positive sense. By the hypothesis
encounter the vertices in the order in which they are written.
From the relations (54) we derive
0(v
0(v)
6(v-\-l)
0(v)
r)
these relations shows that at the corresponding points n and n

the function
(v)/0(v) takes on the same value.
(Fig. 27) of the sides AD, BC,
Since these two sides are described in
The
first of
contrary senses, the
sum
is
D(v
the cor-
of
On
zero.
responding integrals
contrary, if we take two corresponding
points m,
value of
on the sides AB, DC, the
is
at the point
equal to the value of the same function
at the point m, diminished by 2 iri. The
sum of the two integrals coming from
these
(v)/0(v)
two
therefore equal to
2 iridr that is to 2 iri As there
sides
it
Mvj
FIG. 27
is
/coco
in the parallelogram
m + m T,
C(VO +I+T)
mf
+r)
the
ABCD
which
is
follows that the function
is
and onl y one p
evidentl y one
int
represented by a quantity of the form

no other roots than those found
(v) has
above.
Summing up, the function 9 (v) is an odd integral function it has all the
and it satisfies the
it has no other zeros
points TO! + TO 2 r for simple zeros
be two periods such that the coefficient of i in
2
relations (54). Let now 2
v by w/2w and r by w /w,
&//w is positive. In 0(v) let us replace the variable
;
o>,
and
let
(u)
be the function
(55)
=
=
mV
2 mw + 2
all the periods 2 w
(u) is an odd integral function having
for zeros of the first order, and the relations (54) are replaced by the following
Then
0(w
(56)
2o>)*=
These properties are very nearly those of the function O-(M). In order to re
duce it to ff (M), it suffices to multiply (u) by an exponential factor. Let us put
where is the function of w and w defined as in 71. This new function (u)
The first of the
is an odd integral function having the same zeros as 0(w).
;
\f/
172
76
becomes
relations (56)
t(u
(58)
We
[III,
have next
or, since TJO/
rfc*
-rri/2,
V( w
(59)
The
for the function
2w
e2
and (59) are identical with the relations established above

Hence the quotient \(/(u)/<r(u) has the two periods 2w
relations (58)
<T(M).
and 2
for the two terms of this ratio are multiplied by the same factor when
u increases by a period. Since the two functions have the same zeros, this
quotient is constant moreover, the coefficient of u in each of the two develop
ments is equal to unity. We have, then, ff(u) = (u), or
,
\j/
and the function
(u) is expressed in terms of the function 0, as we proposed.

give the argument v real values, the absolute value of q being less than
shall not further elaborate
unity, the series (53) is rapidly convergent.
these indications, which suffice to suggest the fundamental part taken
by the
<r
we
If
We
9 function in the applications of elliptic functions.
III.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS. CURVES OF DEFICIENCY ONE
Relations between the periods and the invariants. To

every
to
whose ratio
is not real,
system of two complex numbers
77.
<o
<o,
/<o
corresponds a completely determined elliptic function p(u), which

has the two periods 2 w, 2
and which is regular for all the values
of u that are not of the form 2
2 ra to all of which are poles of
<o
m<o
the second order.
The
and
which are deducible

from p(u) by one or by two integrations, respectively, are likewise
determined by the system of periods (2 CD, 2 to ). When, there is any
functions
reason for indicating the periods,

r
p(u\w,
,
(?/)
we
shall
O-(M),
make use
of the notation
to denote the three
fundamental
functions.
But
it is
we can replace the system

to
) by
of other systems (O, Q ) without changing the
For let m,
n be any four positive or negative
, n,
to be noticed that
(<o,
an
infinite
number
function p(w).
integers such that we have
O = mw
we
mn
-f ?Ko
mn=
Q =m
1.
If
we put
nw
to -f-
shall have, conversely,

to
(n
O - nO ),
f
<o
(m
- m Q),
Ill,
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
77]
173
it is clear that all the periods of the elliptic function p(u) are
combinations of the two periods 2O, 2O as well as of the two
The two systems of periods (2 2 to ) and (2 O, 2 O )
periods 2 w, 2
and
o>
o>,
are said to be equivalent. The function p(u\Q,, (V) has the same
periods and the same poles, with the same principal parts, as the
function
to
p(u\<a,
and
),
their difference is zero for
0.
They
are
This fact results also from the development

set
of
for
the
+ 2 m w is identical with the
quantities 2
(22),
For the same reason, we have
set of quantities 2 rafi + 2 m Q,
therefore identical.
m<D
O )=
(u O,
w
(tt|a>,
and
O)=
<r(w|H,
O-(M|W,
o>
).
w) are completely deter

Similarly, the three functions p(u), (w
mined by the invariants g^ g& For we have seen that the function
)>
"(
(u) is represented by a power-series

cients are polynomials in g 2 g^.
development
(r
all
of
whose
We
coeffi
have, then, (u)=

(w)/<r(tt),
functions
which
to
indicate
the
order
In
and finally p(u)
(u).
correspond to the invariants g 2 and 3 we shall use the notation
,
<r

(H
ffv
ff*)>
Just here an essential question presents
itself.
ffv $3)-
While
it is
evi
dent, from the very definition of the function p(V), that to a system
an elliptic function p(w), provided the ratio
(w,
) corresponds
is not real, there is nothing to prove a priori that to evert/
o)
<o
/o>
system of values for the invariants g 2 g^ corresponds an elliptic

27 g\ must be
function. We know, indeed, that the expression g\
this
is suffi
that
condition
not
certain
it
is
but
different from zero,
in
here
amounts
the
end
treated
must
be
which
cient. The problem
,
to solving the transcendental equations established above,
ff,=
(61)
for the
unknowns
,>
w, o/, or at least to
determining whether or not
is not real
these equations have a system of solutions such that
27 g\ is not zero. If there exists a single system of solu
whenever g\
tions, there exist an infinite number of systems, but there appears
o//a>
no way of approach for a direct study of the preceding equations.

can arrive at the solution of this problem in an indirect way by
to be
We
studying the inversion of the
elliptic integral of the first kind.
is not real. The corre

Note. Let w, w be two complex numbers such that
7
sponding function p (u w, w ) satisfies the differential equation
<//
174
77
[III,
where g 2 and g 3 are defined by the equations (61). For u = w, p(w) is equal to
one of the roots e l of the equation 4p 3
g2 p
g s = 0. When u varies from
to w, p(w) describes a curve L going from infinity to the point e r From the
relation du = dp/V4p 3
g2 p
g s we conclude that the half-period w is equal
to the definite integral
=
taken along the curve L.
4p 3
gz p
An
analogous expression for w can be obtained by

the preceding integral.
have thus the two half -periods expressed in terms of the invariants 2 3
replacing
We
dp
/ oo
el
by
e 2 in
</
In order to be able to deduce from this result the solution of the problem before
us, it would be necessary to show that the new system is equivalent to the system
(61),
that
78.
is,
that
it
defines g 2
The inverse function
and g 3 as single-valued functions
of w,
to the elliptic integral of the first kind.
Let
R (z)
be a polynomial of the third or of the fourth degree which is

prime to its derivative. We shall write this polynomial in the form
R(*)
where a v
ag
= A(z-
a,) (z
2)
(z
a,) (z
&4 denote four different roots
- a ),
t
if
R ()
is
of the
fourth degree. On the other hand, if R (z) is of the third degree, we

shall denote its three roots by a^ & 2 a s and we shall also set &4
oo,
oo by unity in the expression R(z).
agreeing to replace z
,
The
elliptic integral of the first
kind
form
of the
is
(62)
where the lower limit Z Q is supposed, for definiteness, to be different

from any of the roots of R (z) and to be finite, and where the radical
has an assigned initial value. If R(z) is of the fourth degree, the
and each of the
radical V/i(^) has four critical points a lt 2
3
4
,
a pole of the second

order. If R(z) is of the third degree, the radical
(z) has only
if
a 2 3 but
the variable
three critical points in the finite plane
determinations of
V#() has the
point z
oo for
V>t
t ,
z describes a circle containing the three points
values of the radical are permuted. The

branch point for the function ~vR (z).
Let us
point z
a lt a^ ag the two
,
= oo
recall the properties of the elliptic integral
is
therefore a
u proved
in
55. If u(z) denotes one of the values of that integral when we

go from the point Z Q to the point z by a determined path, the same
integral can take on at the same point z an infinite

minations which are included in the expressions
(63)
it
(z)
wo>
2 H/V,
=/-
ti
(z)
number
of deter
if
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
78]
Ill,
the path
and m are two entirely

whose
ratio is not real,
two periods
In these formulae
varied.
is
arbitrary integers, 2w and

and / a constant which we
2<o
175
take equal, for example, to the

the point a r
about
integral over the loop described
with the periods
constructed
function
w ) be the elliptic
Let p (u
in that func
us
substitute
Let
2
2 CD of the elliptic integral (62).
may
o>,
<o,
u the integral (62) itself diminished by 1/2,

thus obtained
function
the
(z) be
tion for the variable
and
let
<
*(,)=
(64)
]=
P(
-2
() is a single-valued function of z. In fact, if we

u
replace
by any one of the determinations (63), we find always,
whatever m and m may be,
This function
<E>
or
is single-valued.
which shows that
Let us see what points can be singular points for this function
$(). First let z 1 be any finite value of z different from a branch
point. Let us suppose that we go from the point Z Q to the point z l
3>(z)
by a
definite path.
and
radical
point z v
We
arrive at z l with a certain value for the
a value u^ for the integral.
l/V/2()
In the neighborhood of the

z, and we have a
is
development of the form
Whence we derive
(65)
If i^
7/2
-^+
is
r,r
(^
^)
4-
j^ (z
z,y
-.
not equal to a period, the function p (u
1/2)
is
u and consequently $ (z)

analytic in the neighborhood of the point v
If u^
is analytic in the neighborhood of the point z r
1/2 is a
is a pole of the second order for p(n
1/2), and
period, the point
for in the neigh
therefore z 1 is a pole of the second order for
<J(.t),
borhood of the point u^
where
is
an analytic function.
176
Suppose next that approaches a

borhood of the point a we have
critical
point at
[III,
78
In the neigh
where
is
analytic for z
=a
or
{,
whence, integrating term by term, we find

(66)
1/2) is an analytic function of u

1/2 is not a period, p (u
u
of
the
Substituting in the develop
point
neighborhood
u { the value of the difference
ment of this function in powers of u
u _ u obtained from the formula (66), the fractional powers of
If HI
in the
_
(2
a .) must disappear, since we know that the left-hand side is a

in
(z) is analytic
single-valued function of z hence the function
<l>
Let us notice in passing that this

the neighborhood of the point a
a
must
be
shows that u {
Similarly, if ?*,.
1/2 is
half-period.
1/2
a
is a pole of the first order for $().
the
to
a
{
point
period,
equal
let us study the function $() for infinite values of z.
{
Finally,
have to distinguish two cases according as R (z) is of the fourth
R (z) is of the fourth
degree or of the third degree. If the polynomial
We
the origin as center and

degree, exterior to a circle C described about
of 1/VS (z) is
determinations
of
the
each
four
the
roots,
containing
an analytic function of l/. For example, we have for one of them

1
_ô
V^~Z*
a.
+ ** + *^
,
^0
and it would suffice to change all the signs to obtain the develop
ment of the second determination. If the absolute value of z becomes
the value which we have just
infinite, the radical 1/V/e (z) having
value u^, and we have in
finite
a
the
integral approaches
written,
the neighborhood of the point at infinity
not a period, the function p(u - 1/2) is regular for

the point %, and consequently the point z = oo is an ordinary point
u is a pole of the second
for $ (z). If u^
1/2 is a period, the point x
If
u^
_ 7/2
is
Ill,
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
78]
order for p (u
1/2),
= oo
the point z
and since we can
177
write, in the
neighborhood of
oo is also a pole of the second order for the function &(z).

the point z
If R (z) is of the third degree, we have a development of the form
which holds exterior
containing the three critical
(68)
having the origin for center and

points a v a 2 as It follows that
to a circle
= ^_
Reasoning as above, we see that the point at infinity
is
an ordi
(z)
nary point or a pole of the first order for &(z). The function
has certainly only poles for singular points it is therefore a rational
function of z, and the elliptic integral of the first kind (62) satisfies
;
a relation of the form
p(- !)=*(*),
(69)
where & (z)
a rational function.
is
of this function, but
we
shall
We do not know as yet the degree
show that
it is
For
equal to unity.
shall study the inverse function. In other words,

we shall now consider u as the independent variable, and we shall
examine the properties of the upper limit z of the integral (62), con
that purpose
we
We
shall divide the study,

sidered as a function of that integral u.
which requires considerable care, into several parts
:
1)
To every
finite value
of u correspond
values of z if
is
the
degree of the rational function &(z)For let MJ be a finite value of u. The equation (z)
p(u l 1/2)
determines
values for z, which are in general distinct and finite,
though it is possible for some of the roots to coincide or become
<
U Y Let z l be one of these values

of the elliptic integral u which correspond to this
value of z satisfy the equation
infinite for particular values of
of
we
z.
The values
have, then, one of the two relations
= w + 2m
1
1 a>-f-2
o>
=I
u^
+ 2 m^
o>
-f-
178
[III,
78
In either case we can make the variable z describe a path from Z Q to

such that the value of the integral taken over this path shall be
zl
$() is of degree m, there are then ra

which the integral (62) takes a given value u.
of u to which corresponds a finite value
2) Let u^ be a finite value
z of z that determination of z which approaches z^ when u approaches
u is an analytic function ofu in the neighborhood of the point u^
For if z 1 is not a critical point, the values of u and z which ap
proach respectively u^ and z l are connected by the relation (65), where
the coefficient aQ is not zero. By the general theorem on implicit
functions (I,
187, 1st ed.) we deduce from it a
193, 2d ed.
ur
in
z
z
for
integral powers of u
positive
development
l
precisely
values of
uv
If the function
for
If, for
we could
the particular value u it z were equal to the critical value a iy

in the same way consider the right-hand side of (66) as a
at
Since aQ is not zero, we can
in powers of Vz
development
a ., and therefore for z

solve (66) for Vz
ut
them as a power series in u
{,
expressing each of
u^ be one of the values which the integral u takes on when

becomes infinite the point u^ is a pole for that determination ofz
3) Let
\z
whose absolute value becomes
infinite.
the value of the integral u which approaches u x is repre

sented in the neighborhood of the point at infinity by one of the
for 1/z a
developments (67) and (68). In the first case we obtain
In
fact,
development in a
series of positive
in the second case
powers of u
- Mao ) + &(u - *o +
u^.
we have a
>
ft
similar development for
and
l/"v,
therefore
therefore a pole of the first or second order for

fourth or of the third
according as the polynomial R (z) is of the
The point u^
is
degree.
are going to show finally that to a value of u there can cor

us suppose that as the variable z
respond only one value of z. For let
two different points z v z.2 the
to
describes two paths going from Z Q
these two paths are equal. It
over
two values of the integral taken
4)
We
would then be possible

such that the integral
to find a path
r
JL
dz
z z
joining these two points v t
Ill,
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
78]
=X
we
-\- Yi by the point

represent the integral u
of
in
the system
rectangular axes OX,
Y)
see that the point u would describe a closed curve F when
would be
If
zero.
with the coordinates
OY, we
179
(A",
the point z describes the open curve L. We shall show that this is
not consistent with the properties which we have just demonstrated.
To each value of u there correspond, by means of the relation
of values of z, each of which

1/2)
(z), a finite number
varies in a continuous manner with u, provided the path described
by u does not pass through any of the points corresponding to the
p (u
3>
oo.* According to our supposition, when the variable u

describes in its plane the closed curve F starting from the point
A (U Q ) and returning to that point, z describes an open arc of a con
value z
tinuous curve passing from the point z l to the point z 2

and P (Fig. 28) on the curve F.
two points
Let the
z
z"
Let us take
initial
value of z at
be the values obtained
be z v and
let
when we reach
the points
and P respectively, after u has
described the paths
and A MNP. Again,
AM
let z[
be the value with which
we
arrive at
u has described the arc

AQP. It results from the hypothesis that
and z[ are different. Let us join the two
and P by a transversal MP interior to the curve F, and let
points
us suppose that the variable u describes the arc AmM and then the
transversal MP let z!2 be the value with which we arrive at the
will be different from
or else from z[
If
point P. This value
it is different from z[
the two paths AmMP and AQP do not lead
to the same value of z at the point P. If
and z 2 are different, the
two paths AmMP and AmMNP do not lead to the same value at P;
with the value z for z, we
therefore, if we start from the point
to P
obtain different values for z according as we proceed from
the point
after
z"
"
z"
z"
MP
or along the path MNP. In either case we see

along the path
that we can replace the closed boundary F by a smaller closed bound
partly interior to F, such that, when u describes this closed

boundary, z describes an open arc. Repeating this same operation on
the boundary F^ and continuing thus indefinitely, we should obtain
ary
Fj,
an unlimited sequence of closed boundaries F, F t F2

having the
same property as the closed boundary F. Since we evidently can
,
We
assume the properties of implicit functions which
(Chapter V).
will be established later

.1
180
[HI,
78
make the dimensions of these successive boundaries approach zero,

we may conclude that the boundary Tn approaches a limit point \.
From the way in which this point has been defined, there will always
exist in the interior of a circle of radius
described about
A.
as a
center a closed path not leading the variable z back to its original
value, however small c may be. Now that is impossible, for the point
A.
an ordinary point or a pole for each of the different determina
is
is a single-valued function of u in the

thus
led to a contradiction in supposing
of
are
A.
neighborhood
that the integral fdz/^/R(z), taken over an open path L, can be zero,
that to a value of
or, what amounts to the same thing, by supposing
tions of
in both cases z
We
u correspond two values of
z.
We have noticed above that, if for two different values of z we have

$ ) = $ (z ), we can find a path L from to * such that the integral
(
dz
Hence the rational function (z) cannot take on the same

two different values of z that is, the function (z) must be
= (az + b)/(cz + d). It follows, from the
of the first degree:
will be zero.
3>
value for
4>
3>(z)
relation (69), that
b-dp(u--J
(70)
cû--Jand we may state the following important proposition The upper

limit z of an elliptic integral of the first kind, considered as a function
second order.
of that integral, is an elliptic function of the
in a thorough manner by
studied
had
been
integrals
Elliptic
Abel and
Legendre, but it was by reversing the problem t^hat
Jacobi were led to the discovery of elliptic functions.
:
actual determination of the elliptic function z=f(u) con

stitutes the problem of inversion. By the relation (62) we have
The
and therefore V/2 ()=/(%).
It is clear that the radical
itself an elliptic function of u.
We
can restate
results in geometric language as follows
Let
R (z)
derivative
all
V/2()
polynomial of the third or fourth degree, prime

the coordinates of any point of the curve C,
be a
is
the preceding
to its
Ill,
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
78]
(T\ \
ir*
y~
{ti.)
can be expressed in terms of

first
kind.
181
7? /V\
ft(X),
functions of the integral of the
elliptic
r dx_
in such a way that to a point (x, y) of that curve

corresponds only
one value of u, any period being disregarded.
To prove
that
all
the last part of the proposition, we need only remark

the values of u which correspond to a given value of x are
included in the two expressions
UQ
2 wijw
+ 2m
UQ
-f
m^ -f 2 m
o>
All the values of u included in the
first expression come from an

even number of loops described about critical points, followed
by
the direct path from X Q to x, with the same initial value of the
The values of u included in the second expression

come from an odd number of loops described about the critical points,
followed by the direct path from XQ to x, where the
corresponding
initial value of the radical Vff
(x) is the negative of the former. If
we are given both x and y at the same time, the corresponding
radical VJR(aJ).
values are then included in a single one of the two formulae.

From the investigation above, it follows that the elliptic function
= f(u)
has a pole of the second order in a parallelogram if R

(x)
of the third degree, and two simple poles if R
(x) is of the fourth
degree hence y =f(u) is of the third or of the fourth order, accord
is
ing to the degree of the polynomial
R (x).
Note. Suppose that, by any means whatever, the coordinates

(x, y)
of a point of the curve y*
R (x) have been expressed as elliptic
functions of a parameter v, say x
<(V), y
^(V). The integral of
the first kind u becomes, then,
The
elliptic
function
<^
always have a
finite
rdx_ r
J y ~J
(v)/^(v ) cannot have a
pole, since
value for every finite value of v
u must
it
reduces,
kv -f- 1. The constant I
then, to a constant k, and we have u
evidently depends on the value chosen for the lower limit of the
;
integral u.
The
particular value.
coefficient
k can be determined by giving to v a
182
[III,
79
A new
definition of
p(z/) by means of the invariants. It is now
answer the question proposed in 77. Given two num
bers 2 g8 such that g\
27 g\ is not zero, there always exists an
which
and g^ are the invariants.
elliptic function p (u) for
g^
For the polynomial
79.
quite easy to
<7
prime to
is
its
two periods, 2
and the elliptic integral Jdz/^jR (z) has

be the
whose ratio is imaginary. Let p (u
)
derivative,
w,
a/,
u>
o>,
We
shall substitute for the argu

corresponding elliptic function.
ment u in this function the integral
(72)
where // is a constant chosen in such a way that one of the values

We shall take H, for example,
u shall be equal to zero f or z =
of
<x>
equal to the value of the integral
j^dz/^R (z)
taken over a ray L
We
shall show first that

starting at ZQ
the function thus obtained is a single.
valued analytic function of
z.
Let * be
any point of the plane, and let us denote

by v and v the values of the integrals
1
S-
~^J YA
= C
dz
J (v
>Vfl(*)
dz
same initial value for

over the two paths
taken
and
-^R(z)
z Qmz, zQnz, which together form a closed
starting with the
of the radical.
curve containing the three critical points

Consider the closed curve z Q mznz Q ZMNZz Q
v 2 a
formed by the curve z^mznz^ the segment z^Z, the circle C of very
The function l/V/2 (z) is analytic
large radius, and the segment Z
in the interior of this boundary, and we have the relation
,
which becomes, as the radius of the

v
circle
+ v -2H =
0.
C becomes
infinite,
Ill,
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
79]
183
resulting from the two paths z Q mz, z^nz therefore

From this we conclude that the
u
0.
satisfy the relation u
function
The values
of
dr
a
a single-valued function of z.
function of the form (az
b)/(cz
is
We
have seen that
+ d).
it is
To determine
a linear
a, b, c,
it
development of this function in the neigh

have in this neighborhood
borhood of the point at infinity.
will suffice to study the
We
jA~^=
__9*_
hence the value of u, which
g*
zero for z infinite,
is
is
represented by
the series
whence
i = *Yi
-u
g2
It follows that the difference
difference (as
+ b)/(cz + d)
=
-\
= z - -&*20 z
p (u)
zero for z
is
z can be zero for z
=
co
GO
But the
if
only
we
reduces to z
d\ and the function p (u co,
)
0,
when we substitute for u the integral (72). Taking the point at
have
0, b
o>
infinity itself for the lower limit, this integral
can also be written in
the form
(72-)
and
makes p (w)
this relation
= z,
where the function p (u)
is
con
2 co of the integral fdz/^/R(z).

structed with the periods 2
Comparing the values of du/dz deduced from these relations,
<o,
have
p (w) = V^ (s),
p
(73)
(u)
or,
we
after squaring both sides,
= R(z)=p* (u) -
<7
p ( M ) - ^.
invariants of the elliptic func

This result answers
tion p (u), constructed with the periods 2 CD, 2
If
27
in
77.
the question proposed above
g\ is not zero, the
g\
of
number
infinite
systems of values
equations (61) are satisfied by an
The numbers gv g^ therefore, are the
o>
for
co,
co
If e v e a e & are the three roots of the equation

,
184
one system of solutions
79
by the formulae
given, for example,
is
[III,
dz
(W)
from which
all
other systems will be deducible, as has been explained.
In the applications of analysis in which elliptic functions occur, the function

is usually denned by its invariants. In order to carry through the numerical
computations, it is necessary to calculate a pair of periods, knowing g% and gr 3
p (u)
is a given
also to be able to find a root of the equation p(u)
A, where
constant. For the details of the methods to be followed, and for information
and
regarding the use of tables,
we can only
refer the reader to special treatises.*
80. Application to cubics in a plane.
When
27
g\
g\ is not zero,
the equation
y*
(75)
= 4x*-fftX-g
represents a cubic without double points.
y =
putting x =
This equation
is satisfied
wnere
p(
p(u),
by
p (w) are precisely g^ and 3 To each point of the cubic corresponds a
of periods. For the equa
single value of u in a suitable parallelogram
in
=
u
a
x has two roots u^ and 2
tion p (u)
parallelogram of periods,
two
values
the
the sum u^ + 2 is a period, and
p (^) and p (w 2 ) are
^ ne
invariants of the function
0>
</
the negatives of each other. They are therefore equal respectively

to the two values of y which correspond to the same value of x.
In general, the coordinates of a point of a plane cubic without

double points can be expressed by elliptic functions of a parameter.
We know, in fact, that the equation of a cubic can be reduced to
the form (75) by means of a projective transformation, but this
transformation cannot be effected unless we know a point of inflec
tion of the cubic, and the determination of the points of inflections
of a
depend upon the solution of a ninth-degree equation
We
special
that the parametric representation of a

cubic by means of elliptic functions of a parameter can be obtained
without having to solve any equation, provided that we know the
coordinates of a point of the cubic.
form.
Suppose
shall
first
now show
that the equation of the cubic

if
(76)
!>
xs
+ 3 ^x* + 3
b,2
4-
of the form
is
ft
* The formulae (39) which give the development of a (it) in a power series, and
those which result from it by differentiation, enable us, at least theoretically, tc
and consequently f (w) and p (u), for all systems of values
calculate (u),
(M),
<T
<r
of u,
g2 g3
,
<T"(M),
Ill,
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
o]
which case the point at
in
185
infinity is a point of inflection.
equation can be reduced to the preceding form by putting y

x =
bJb Q + 4 x /b Q which gives
Thig
= 4 y /b
Q,
where the invariants
</
2,
gs are given by the formulae
12 (6 -6062)
Hence we obtain
for the coordinates of a point of the cubic

(76)
the following formulae
a;=-r1 + r-p(w),
VQ
Let us now consider a cubic
4
= j-p
(u).
Q
and
<7
8,
let (a, /3)
be the coordinates
of a point of that cubic. The tangent to the cubic at this point (a, ft)
meets the cubic at a second point (a ft ) whose coordinates can be
1
obtained rationally. If the point (a ft ) is taken as origin of coor

dinates, the equation of the cubic is of the form
,
^(x, y)
where
<
2 (aj,
y)
+ ^ (*,
y)
0,
y) denotes a
homogeneous polynomial of the i th degree

us
Let
cut
the cubic by the secant y=tx\ then x is
2, 3).
(I
determined by an equation of the second degree,
<;(#,
= 1,
whence we obtain
_
where
R (t)
denotes the polynomial
in general of the fourth degree.
<$
(1, t)
<
3 (1,
#)
^ (1,
),
which
The
roots of this polynomial are

precisely the slopes of the tangents to the cubic which pass through
the origin.*
know a priori one root of this polynomial, the slope
of the straight line which joins the origin to the point (a, ft). Putting
is
We
+ 1/t
we
find
R t (t ) is now only of the third degree. The

of a point of the cubic C3 are therefore expressible
rationally in terms of a parameter t and of the square root of a
where the polynomial
coordinates
(x, y)
*Two
roots cannot be equal (see Vol.
I,
103,
2d ed.
108, 1st ed.).
TRANS.
186
polynomial
ft
1
We
)_of_the third degree.
[III,
80
have just seen how to
and ^/R^t ) as elliptic functions of a parameter u hence

express
we can express x and y also as elliptic functions of u.
It follows from the nature of the methods used above that to a
point (x, ij) of the cubic correspond a single value of t and a definite
value of V/t(), and hence completely determined values of t and
VjR^ ). Now to each system of values of t and V-R^ ) corre
sponds only one value of u in a suitable parallelogram of periods, as
t
= fl (u)
already pointed out. The expressions x =f(u), y
obtained for the coordinates of a point of C 8 are therefore such
that all the determinations of u which give the same point of the
we have
cubic can be obtained from any one of
them by adding
to
it
various
periods.
This parametric representation of plane cubics by means of elliptic functions
very important.* As an example we shall show how it enables us to deter
mine the points of inflection. Let the expressions for the coordinates be
is
x =/(u), y =fl (u); the arguments of the points of intersections of the cubic
are the roots of the equation
with the straight line Ax + By + C =
Af(u)
Bfû)
+C=
0.
Since to a point (z, y) corresponds only one value of it in a parallelogram of

it follows that the elliptic function Af(u) + Bfû) + C must be, in
are evidently independent
general, of the third order. The poles of that function
periods,
of
A, B, C; hence
if
u v u 2 u s are the three arguments corresponding respec

,
tively to the three points of intersections of the cubic
must have, by
68,
M!
where
in/(u)
is
the
w2
M3
=K+ 2m
and the straight
we
+ 2 w 2 a/,
of the poles in a parallelogram. Replacing u by

the relation can be written in the simpler form
sum
and/1 (w),
line,
K/3 +
l (u=u l )
Conversely, this condition is sufficient to insure that the three points
= M 2 ), s (u = u 3 ) on the cubic shall lie on a straight line. For let B be
2 (u
with the cubic, and u%
the third point of intersection of the straight line M^
2
sum u l + w 2 + u 8
is equal to a period,
coincides with
u 3 and Mg differ only by a period, and consequently
3
%
If u is the value of the parameter at a point of inflection, the tangent at that
to a
point meets the curve in three coincident points, and 3 it must be equal
of inflec
period. We must have, then, u = (2m 1 w + 2ra 2 o/)/3. All the points
the values 0, 1, 2.
tion can be obtained by giving to the integers m l and
2
the corresponding argument.
Since the
Hence there are nine points
of inflections.
The straight
line
which passes through
* CLEBSCH, Ueber diejenigen Curven, deren Coordinaten sich als elliptische

tionen eines Parameters darstellen lassen (Crelle s Journal, Vol. LXIV).
Funo
HI,
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
81]
the two points of inflection (2m 1 w + 2ra 2 w )/3 and

the cubic in a third point whose argument,
mj)
o>
(m 2
ra2 )
187
/
(2m
o>
+ 2w 2 o/)/3
meets
again one third of a period, that is, in a new point of inflection. The number
of straight lines which meet the cubic in three points of inflection is therefore
equal to (9 8)/(3 2), that is, to twelve.
is
points of intersection of the standard cubic (75) with the straight

n
n are given by the equation p (u)
rap (w)
0, the left-hand
0. The sum of the
side of which has a pole of the third order at the point u
arguments of the points of intersection is then equal to a period. If w x and u 2
Note.
line
The
= mx +
w 2 f or the argu
wt
are the arguments of two of these points, we can take
of the third point of intersection, and the abscissas of these three points
ment
We
can deduce from this a new proof

are respectively p (MJ), p (w 2 ), p (w t + w 2 ).
of the addition formula for p(u). In fact, the abscissas of the points of inter
section are roots of the equation
4x 8
g2 x
- gz =
(mx
n)
hence
x,
x2
x3
p(w t )
p(w 2 )
P(M!
M2 )
2
=m
On the other hand, from the straight line passing through the two points MûJ,
we have the two relations PÛJ) = mp (u^) + w, p (w 2 ) = mp (w 2 ) + n, whence
2 ),
M (w
and
this leads to the relation already
found in
74,
81. General formulae for parameter representation. Let R(x) be a

of the fourth degree prime to its derivative. Consider
polynomial
the curve C 4 represented by the equation
(77)
We
shall
f = R (x)= a
x4
+ 4^05* + 6a
2
2
cc
show how the coordinates x and y
V+
a4
of a point of this curve
can be expressed as elliptic functions of a parameter. If we know a

root a of the equation R (x) = 0, we have already seen in the treat
ment
of cubics
how
to proceed.
Putting x
= a + I/a;
the relation
(77) becomes
where R^x ) is a polynomial of the third degree. Hence the curve C4

2
=
for
by means of the relations x a + I/a; y y /a corresponds point
,
188
81
[III,
2
R i (x ).
point to the curve Cg of the third degree whose equation is y
Now x and y* can be expressed by means of a parameter u, in the form
x
ap (u), by a suitable choice of a, ft and of the
ap(u) 4- ft, y
We
invariants of p(w).
expressions for x and y
whence we find du
deduce from these relations the following
dx/y, so that the parameter
is
identi
cal, except for sign, with the integral of the first kind, Jdx/^J R (#),
and the formulae (78) constitute a generalization of the results for
the simple case of parametric representation in

80.
Let us consider now the general case in which we do not know any
root of the equation R (x)
0.
are going to show that x and y
We
can be expressed rationally in terms of an
known
and of its
function p (u) with

without introducing any
elliptic
derivative
invariants,
p (M),
other irrationality than a square root. Let us replace for the moment
x and y by t and v respectively, so that the relation (77) becomes
(77
v2
= R(t)= a/ + 4
<*/
The polynomial R (t) can be expressed
/ + 4V +
in the
K (o = w, cor -*,(o
number
<V
form
<MO
of ways, where
are polynomials of
2
15
3
the degrees indicated by their subscripts. For let (a, ft) be the coor
dinates of any point on the curve C 4 Let us take a polynomial 2 (t)
in
an
infinite
<
<
<
</>
such that
<
= ft
(a)
which can be done in an
then the equation

R(t)
will
R (t)
number
the auxiliary cubic
a.
^>
C&
of
ways
_^ (t)T =
= a, and we can put 1 (^) = t

been
having
put in the preceding form,
have the root
nomial
infinite
let
The poly
us consider
represented by the equation
(79)
If
we
cut this cubic
by the secant y
tx } the abscissas of the
variable points of intersection are roots of the equation
and can be expressed in the form
two
Ill,
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
81]
189
where v is determined by the equation (77 ). Conversely, we see that

t and v can be expressed
rationally in terms of the coordinates x, y
of a point of C& by the equations
,-
(80)
Now x and y can be expressed as

we know a
elliptic functions of a
Cs
point on the cubic
parameter
u,
Then t
and v can also be expressed as elliptic functions of u. The method is
evidently susceptible of a great many variations, and we have intro
duced only the irrational ft = ~VR (#), where a is arbitrary.
since
that
the origin.
is
We
are going to carry through the actual calculation, supposing,

always admissible, that we have first made the coefficient a^ of t*
disappear in R (t). We can then write
as
is
aQ R
= (a/ ) +
2
(t)
6a
and put
The
auxiliary cubic
(81)
a^xif
C8
4
-f
a/ + 4 a^t + a
has the form
aâ^y
-f
aQ a4 ^ 3
-f 2
2
a-
?/
= 0.
Following the general method, let us cut this cubic with the
y=tx\ the equation obtained can be written in the form
secant
-2a
t///
- (6
V/ +
and
R (t)
+a
=
<0
whence we obtain
X
Conversely,
On
we can express
~^/a
in terms of x
the other hand, solving the equation (81) for y,
and y\
we have
V4
The polynomial under the radical has the root x = 0. Applying the
method explained above, we can then express x and y as elliptic
functions of a parameter.
\
_
2a,p(u)-a
Doing
so,
we
obtain the results
190
where the invariants g 2) g & of the

following values
elliptic
[III,
81
function p(u) have the
a\
0,00,4
(84)
Substituting the preceding values for x and y in the expressions

(82),
we
find
(85)
We
can write these results in a somewhat simpler form by noting
that the relations
are compatible according to the values (84) of the invariants

On the other hand, we can substitute for
gr a
and g s
equivalent p(u 4- v) 4- p(%)

p(v). Combining these results and
x and y respectively, we may formulate
and
replacing
(^) by
the result in the following proposition
its
V^
The coordinates (x, y) of any point on the curve C 4 represented by

in te rms of a vari
the equation (77) (ivhere a^
0), can be expressed
able parameter u by the formulce
,
ivhere the invariants g^ and gjiave the values given by the relations (84),
and where p(v), p ( v ) are determined by the compatible equations (86).
From
the formula (45), established above (

differentiating the two sides of that equality,
74),
we
derive,
by
HI,
82]
that
is,
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
dx/du
= y/â
Q,
or
= [/y] dx.
du
191
The parameter
u, there
Va
of the first kind,

/foe/V.R(a;j,
fore, represents the elliptic integral
solution of the generalized prob
furnish
the
and the formulse (87)
lem of parameter representation.
An
C n of degree
double
points without
2)/2
T)(n
Cn is not
curve
If
the
curves.
distinct
into
several
degenerating
the
difference
d
double
has
points,
degenerate and
82. Curves of deficiency one.
algebraic plane curve
n cannot have more than (n
Curves of deficiency zero are

the coordinates of a point of such a curve
can be expressed as rational functions of a parameter. The next
simplest curves are those of deficiency one a curve of deficiency
is
called the deficiency of that curve.
called unicursal curves
one has (n
V)(n
2)/2
3)/2 double points.
n(n
deficiency one can be

a
as
parameter.
of
functions
elliptic
expressed
The coordinates of a point of a curve of
In order to prove this theorem,

of the (n
the n(n
2)th order, that
is,
let
us consider the adjoint curves

C n _ 2 which pass through
the curves
l)/2 points
2)(n
3)/2 double points of C n Since (n
the
are necessary to determine a curve of the (n
degree,
2)th
still
C
curves
_
upon
n 2 depend
adjoint
.
arbitrary parameters. If we also require that these curves pass

3 other simple points taken at pleasure on CB we obtain
through n
,
a system of adjoint curves which have, in

3 of
n (n
3)/2 double points of C n and n
F(x, y)
be the equation of
/,(*, y)
Cn and
+ \f (x,
9
y)
common with C n
its
simple points.
the
Let
let
+ M/afo
y)
be the equation of the system of curves C _ 2 where A and /-i are arbi
in only three
trary parameters. Any curve of this system meets C n
variable points, for each double point counts as two simple points,,
TC
and we have
n (n
Let us now put
(88)
_ 3) 4. n _ 3 = n (n - 2) - 3.
192
when
82
[m,
(x, y) describes the curve C B the point (# y ) de

an algebraic curve C whose equation would be obtained by
= 0.
the elimination of x and y between the equations (88) and F(x,
y)
The two curves C and C n correspond to each other point for point
the point
scribes
by means of a birational transformation.
This means that, con
versely, the coordinates (x, y) of a point of C n can be expressed

rationally in terms of the coordinates (x } y ) of the corresponding
To prove this we need only show that to a point (x y )
point of C
.
of
there corresponds only one point of
Cn
or that the equations

have
a
0,
single system of solu
only
(88), together with F(x, y]

tions for x and ?/, which vary with x
and y
Suppose that to a point of C there correspond actually two points

b ) of C n which are not among the points taken as the
(a, b), (a
basis of the system of curves C n _ 2
Then we should have
,
~
_
.(. *)
/.(.
*)
/,(
*)
and all the curves of the system which pass through the point (a, b)
would also pass through the point (a b ). The curves of the system
which pass through these two points would still depend linearly
upon a variable parameter and would meet the curve C n in a single
1
variable point.
with
Cn would
The coordinates
of this last point of intersection
then be rational functions of a variable parameter,
and the curve C n would be
But
unicursal.
this
is
impossible, since
3)/2 double points. Hence to a point (x y ) of C

one
point of C n) and the coordinates of this point
corresponds only
of
the
are, by
elimination, rational functions of x and y
theory
it
has only n(n
(89)
^(x y ),
,
+Jx y ).
C
,
In order to obtain the degree of the curve

the
ax
number
+ by
common
-f-
of points
c
C and
let
us try to find
and any straight line

number of points
the
finding
to this curve
This amounts to
0.
to the curve
since to a point of
common
the curve
corresponds a single point of
C n and
,
conversely.
Now there are only three points of intersection which vary with a, b,
c.
therefore of the third degree. To sum up, the coor

dinates of a point of the curve C n can be expressed rationally in
terms of the coordinates of a point of a plane cubic and since the
The curve C
is
coordinates of a point of a cubic are elliptic functions of a parameter,

the same thing must be true of the coordinates of a point of C n
.
Ill,
EXERCISES
Exs.]
193
It results also from the demonstration, and from what has been
seen above for cubics, that the representation can be made in such a
way that to a point (x, y) of C n corresponds only one value of u in
a parallelogram of periods.
= if/(u)) y = ^(u) be the expressions for x and y derived

then every Abelian integral w = fR (x, y) dx associated with
the curve C n (I,
103, 2d ed.;
108, 1st ed.) is reduced by this
Let x
above
change of variables to the integral of an elliptic function hence this

aintegral w can be expressed in terms of the transcendentals p,
;
of the theory of elliptic functions. The introduction of these tran

scendentals in analysis has doubled the scope of the integral calculus.
curve of the fourth degree with two double

double points are the circular points at in
finity, the curve C4 is called a bicircular quartic. If we take for the origin a
point of the curve, we can take for the adjoint curves Cn _2 circles passing
through the origin
=
x 92
Xx
Example. Bicircular
points
is
quartics.
If the
of deficiency one.
+
,
y*
0.
In order to have a cubic corresponding point for point to the quartic C4 we

need only follow the general method and put x = x/(x 2 + ?/ 2 ), y = y/(x 2 + y 2 ).
We have, conversely, x = x /(x 2 + y 2 }, y = y /(x 2 +
These formulas define
an inversion with respect to a circle of unit radius described with the origin
,
y"*).
as center.
To
obtain the equation of the cubic
C3
it
will suffice to replace
and y in the equation of C 4 by the preceding values. Suppose, for example,

that the equation of the quartic C4 is (x 2 -f y 2 ) 2
the cubic C s will
ay
have for its equation ay (y 2 + x /2 )
1 = 0.
;
Note.
When
a plane curve
Cn
has singular points of a higher order,
it is
of
singular points are equivalent to n (n

3)/2
For example, a curve of the fourth degree having a
deficiency one, provided that
all its
ordinary double points.

single double point at which
two branches
of the curve are tangent to each
other without having any other singularity is of deficiency one to verify this
it suffices to cut the quartic by a system of conies tangent to the two branches
of the quartic at the double point and passing through another point of the
;
2
quartic. The curve y = R (), where R (x) is a polynomial of the fourth degree
prime to its derivative, has a singularity of this kind at the point at infinity.
It is reduced to a cubic by the following birational transformation
:
from which
it is
= y + V^~ x
2
,
easy to obtain the formulae (87).
EXERCISES
Prove that an integral doubly periodic function
of the development
+00
2mVz
1.
is
a constant by means
00
(The condition f(z
= f(z)
requires that
we have
An =
if
0.)
194
If
2.
not a multiple of
is
d)-
TT,
1 H
a/
Exs.
the formula
Z\ T-T
/.,
==
sm a
(Change z to
and z.)
we have
[III,
/i
J-J- I\
*H
\
)
enn
mr)
a in the expansion for ctn z, then integrate between the
limits
Deduce from the preceding
3.
cos^-fo)
cos a
sin
result the
new
infinite
products
r
+ _2z_
A L i+ 2a-(2n-l)ir
â +z_\ff
W-LJ-L
*M
a
sina
cos z
a
a
a/\
a 2/
a + w/J-J-\
a + 2n7r/\
(2n-l)*a
cos
cos
-L-L \
2 HTT
2 n?r
or/ \
-a
Transform these new products into products of primary functions or into

as
products that no longer contain exponential factors, such
4.
Derive the relations

1
Establish analogous relations for

1
sin a
sin z
5.
cos a
cos z
Establish the relation

sin TTZ
[(n+l)!]
6.
Decompose the functions

1
f \/
\ -/
into simple elements.

7.
If
p (au
where a
is
of I/[P (M)
we have
0,
0,
3)
= ap (u
0,
sr 3 ),
p (au
0,
gr 3 )
= p (w
0,
gr 8 ),
one of the cube roots of unity. From this deduce the decomposition
= 0.
p (v)] into simple elements when gr 2
EXERCISES
EXS.]
Ill,
Given the integrals
8.
/ax +
r ax 2
dx,
J
it is
dx,
required to express the variable x and each one of these integrals in terms
9. Establish
sum
Hermite
f,
<r.
decomposition formula
10.
(It
73)
by equating
to zero
a paral
F(z)[(x
an elliptic function and where x, x are
of the residues of the function
lelogram of periods, where F(x)

considered as constants.
in
t
r
J V(l-
dx
xVx -x
of the transcendentals p,
the
195
is
z)
f(x
z)] in
w0 (0).
Deduce from the formula (60) the relation t]=
"(0)/12
does not contain any terms
should be noticed that the series for
<r(u)
w 8 .)
11*. Express the coordinates x
functions of a parameter
elliptic
and y
of one of the following curves as
y
y*
- A [(x -a) (x= A (x - a) 2 (x -
=A
=A
,/8
- c)] 2
- c) 3
(x
(x
b)
3
&)
(te
+ mx +
n)?/
y*
y*
= A [(x - a) (x - &)],
= A (x - of (x - 6) 8
,
= A (x-a) 3 (x-&) 4
- a) 4 (x - &) 5
y* = A (x
+ ^ (x _ a X _ 6) X - c)] 2 = 0,
3
(x-a) (x-6) (x-c)5,
3
(x-a) (x-6)5,
2
j-
J4\2
ye
) (
,44 \2
+^^j-0,
(Q3
2?x
(
/15\2
=
fe
-p4B)
(44
The
variable parameter
is
equal, except for a constant, to the integral f(l/y) dx.
[BRIOT ET BOUQUET, TMorie desfonctions doublement

pgriodiques, 2d ed., pp. 388-412.]
CHAPTER IV
ANALYTIC EXTENSION
I.
DEFINITION OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION BY MEANS

OF ONE OF ITS ELEMENTS
83. Introduction to analytic extension. Let f(z) be an analytic func

tion in a connected portion A of the plane, bounded by one or more
curves, closed or not, where the word curve is to be understood in
the usual elementary sense as heretofore.

If we know the value of the function f(z) and the values of all
its successive derivatives at a definite point a of the region A, we
can deduce from them the value of the function at any other point b
of the
same
region.
To prove
lying entirely in the region A

any form of curve whatever.
this, join
;
the points a and b by a path L

by a broken line or by
for example,
Let
8 be the
lower limit of the dis
tance from any point of the path L to any point of the boundary of
the region A so that a circle with the radius B and with its center at
any point of L will lie entirely in that region. By hypothesis we
,
know
the value of the function f(a) and the values of its successive
for z
a.
can therefore write the
derivatives / (a), /"(a),
-,
power
series
We
which represents the function /()
of the point a
in the neighborhood
The radius
it
may
of convergence of this series is at least equal to 8, but

be greater than 8. If the point b is situated in the circle of
convergence C Q of the preceding series, it will suffice to replace z by

b in order to have/(#). Suppose that the point b lies outside the circle
C and let a^ be the point where the path L leaves C* (Fig. 30).
Let us take on this path a point ^ within C and near al9 so that the
,
* Since the value of

/(z) at the point 6 does not depend on the path so long as it
does not leave the region A, we may suppose that the path cuts the circle C in only
in at most two points.
one point, as in the figure, and the successive circles (71( C2
This amounts to taking for a\ the last point of intersection of L and C and similarly
for the others.
196
,
IV,
ELEMENTS OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION
83]
197
distance between the two points ^ and

shall be less than 8/2. The
o^
and those obtained from it by successive differentiations
series (1)
enable us to calculate the values of the function
/() and
of all
its
(n)
for 2
z
derivatives, f(z l \f(z^),
,
,
r The coefficients
of the series which represents the function
/() in the neighborhood
(>i)>
of the point z are therefore determined if we know the coefficients of

l
first series
(1), and we have in the neighborhood of the point % l
the
/(*)
(2)
The
= /(*,) + 1 T V(
n\
radius of the circle of convergence
of this series
is
equal to 8; this circle contains, then, the point a^ within

there is also a part of it out
side of the circle C
If the
at least
it,
and
point b
Cj,
it
is
in this
new
circle
will suffice to put z
=b
in the series (2) in order to

have the value of f(b). Sup
pose that the point b

outside of
C lt and
is
let
again
a2 be
the point where the path z^b

leaves the circle. Let us take
on the path L a point # 2

FIG. 30
within Cj and such that the
distance between the two points # 2 and a2 shall be
The
series (2)
and those which we obtain from
ferentiations will enable us to
derivatives f(z 2 ), f(z^),
form a new
(3)
f"(&^)>
less
than 8/2.
by successive dif
calculate the values of f(z) and its
a^ ^ ne Pi n ^ *V
e sna ^ then
it
series,
/(*)=/(*,)
/ (^ +
which represents the function f(z)

greater than or equal to
8.
in a
If the point b
new
circle
C2
with a radius
in this circle
is
C a we
,
shall
the preceding equality (3) if not, we shall continue

by
to apply the same process. At the end of a finite number of such
operations we shall finally have a circle containing the point b within
replace z
b in
it
for we can
(in the case of the figure, b is in the interior of C8 )
in such a way that the dis
always choose the points 1? z^ z s
tance between any two consecutive points shall be greater than 8/2.
;
On
the other hand, let
S be the length of the path
L.
The length
of
ANALYTIC EXTENSION
198
[IV,
83
-z p _^z p is always less than S hence we have

Let
p be an integer such that (p/2 + 1) 8 S.
p&/2 +
The preceding inequality shows that after p operations, at most,
we shall come upon a point zp of the path L whose distance from
the point b will be less than 8; the point b will be in the interior
of the circle of convergence Cp of the power series which represents
the broken line

zp
az^
<
S.
>
the function f(z) in the neighborhood of the point zp and it will

suffice to replace z by b in this series in order to have/(7>). In the
,
can be calculated.
same way all the derivatives f(b), /"(&),
The above reasoning proves that it is possible, at least theoretically,
to calculate the value of a function analytic in a region A, and of
all its
derivatives at
any point of that region, provided we know
the sequence of values,

(4)
/(),
of the function
that region.
/(),
and of
its
-,
/"(),
/<">(),
successive derivatives at a given point a of

any function analytic in a region A is
It follows that
in
completely determined in the whole of that region if it is known
a region, however small, surrounding any point a taken in A, or
even if it is known at all points of an arc of a curve, however short,
ending at the point a. For if the function f(z) is determined at
same must
every point on the whole length of an arc of a curve, the
be true of its derivative / (, since the value f(z^) at any point of
is equal to the limit of the quotient [/( 2)
j)
/(^)]/(^ 2
the point 2 approaches z^ along the arc considered the deriv
ative f(z) being known, we deduce from it in the same way /"(),
All the successive derivatives
and from that we deduce
(-),
that arc
when
/"
We
shall say
a.
of the function f(z) will then be determined for z
for brevity that the knowledge of the numerical values of all the
terms of the sequence (4) determines an element of the function

can now be stated in the following man
f(z). The result reached
ner A function analytic in a region A is completely determined if
:
we know any one of its
elements.
We
can say further that two func

have a common element
tions analytic in the same region cannot

without being identical.
We
have supposed for defmiteness that the function considered,

can be
was
analytic in the whole region; but the reasoning
/(),
extended to any function analytic in the region except at certain
the variable in
singular points, provided the path L, followed by
of the
going from a to b, does not pass through any singular point
function. It suffices for this to break up the path into several arcs,
IV,
as
84]
199
we have already done
in a closed
(
31), so that each one can be inclosed
boundary inside of which the branch of the function f(z)
considered shall be analytic. The knowledge of the initial element

and of the path described by the variable suffices, at least theoreti
cally, to find the final element, that
is,
the numerical values of
all
the
terms of the analogous sequence

(5)
84. New definition of analytic functions. Up to the present we have

studied analytic functions which were defined by expressions which
give their values for all values of the variable in the field in which
they were studied. We now know, from what precedes, that it is

possible to define an analytic function for any value of the variable
as soon as we know a single element of the function
but in order to
;
present the theory satisfactorily from this new point of view, we must
add to the definition of analytic functions according to Cauchy a new
convention, which seems to be worth stating in considerable detail.
/2 (^) ke ^ wo functions analytic

A A 2 having one and only one part
A in common (Fig. 31). If in the com
mon part A we have /2 () = ./i(*), which
Let f^z),
regions
will be the case if these
a single
respectively in the two
lt
two functions have
common element
/ ()
shall regard
and
in this region,
/ ()
2
as
we
forming a
single function F(z) analytic in the region

A l -f- A Z) by means of the following equalities
in
*v and **(*) =/*(*) in A r
y
FIG
^W=/iW
We
thaty2 () is the analytic extension into the region

of the analytic function 1 (^), which is supposed to be defined
only in the region A r It is clear that the analytic extension of
into the region of A 2 exterior to A I is possible in only one way.*
AZ
shall also say
/)
*In order
to
show that
the preceding convention is distinct from the definition of

it suffices to notice that it leads at once to the following
functions analytic in general,
consequence: If a function f(z)

tion f\(z),
under
analytic in a region A, every other analytic func

which coincides with f(z) in a part of the region
let us consider a function F(z) defined for all values
is
identical ivithf(z) in A. Now

of the complex variable z in the following
is
However odd
these conventions,
this sort of convention
manner:
may
appear,
it
has nothing in
it
contra
dictory to the previous definition of functions in general analytic. The function

thus defined would he analytic for all values of z except for z
Tr/2, which would
ANALYTIC EXTENSION
200
Let us now consider an
84
[IV,
sequence of numbers, real or
infinite
imaginary,
ay a v a 2
(6)
an
that the series

subject to the single condition
(7)
V+V +
2
-+
."
from zero. (We take z

converges for some value of z different
for the initial value of the variable, which does not in any
restrict the generality.)
circle of
convergence
series (7) has, then, by hypothesis, a

is infinite,
is not zero. If
radius
convergent for every value of

function of the variable. If the radius
the series
gral
The
C whose
=
way
is
and represents an
has a
finite
inte
value dif
ferent from zero, the sum of the series (7) is an analytic function
But since we know only the
in the interior of the circle C Q
.
/"()
a
sequence of coefficients (6), we cannot say anything priori regard
do not
outside of the circle C
function
the
of
nature
the
ing
.
know whether
or not
it is
possible to
add
We
CQ an adjoin
region A such that
to the circle
a connected
ing region forming with the circle
there exists a function analytic in A and coinciding with/(s) in the
The method of the preceding paragraph enables us to
interior of C
.
is the case or not. Let us take in the circle C Q

a point a different from the origin. By means of the series (7),
and the series obtained from it by term-by-term differentiation we
can calculate the element of the function /() which corresponds to
determine whether this
the point
(8)
a,
and consequently we can form the power
/() +
series
/ ()+
which represents the function /() in the neighborhood of the point

This series
a radius
is
a.
about a as center with

certainly convergent in a circle
but it may be convergent in a larger circle
a\
(8),
whose radius cannot exceed
a\.
For
if it
were convergent in
be a singular point of a particular nature. But the properties of this function F(z)
the
would be in contradiction to the convection which we have just adopted, since
for
two functions F(z) and sin z would be identical for all the values of z except
of the two functions.
one
for
be
a
would
only
which
z
point
singular
7T/2,
the theory of analytic
Weierstrass, in Germany, and Meray, in France, developed
functions by starting only with the properties of power series their investigations
are also entirely independent. Meray s theory is presented in his large treatise,
the text how we can
nouvelles sur V
infinitesimale. It is shown in
;
Lemons
Analyse
but always
define an analytic function step by step, knowing one of its elements
functions.
supposing known the theorems of Cauchy on analytic
IV,
84]
R
R
201
+ 8, the series (7) would be convergent in

about the origin as center, contrary to the
Let us suppose first that the radius of the circle of con
a circle of radius
a circle of radius
-}-
-f 8
hypothesis.
a wherever the
vergence of the series (8) is always equal to R
in
a
taken
C
be
the
circle
Then
there
exists no means
may
point
|
|,
of extending the function /() analytically outside of the circle, at

we make use of power series only.
can say that there
does not exist any function F(z) analytic in a region A of the plane
We
least if
greater than
in the circle
and containing the circle

and coinciding with f(z)
for the method of analytic extension would enable
<?
CQ
us to determine the value of that function at a point exterior to the

circle C
as we have just seen. The circle C is then said to be a
,
Further on we shall see
natural boundary for the function /(V).
some examples of
this.
Suppose, in the second place, that with a suitably chosen point

circle C Q the circle of convergence C l of the series (8) has a
a in the
radius greater than
This
exterior to
the
Cl
circle
sum
a
|.
has
a part
(Fig. 32),
and
of the series (8)
is
an analytic function f^(st) in

the circle C r In the interior
of the circle y with the center
which is tangent to the
a,
circle
we have
internally,
/!()=/()
(8); hence this
equality must subsist in the

whole of the region common
to the
two
circles
FIG. 32
C C r The
,
series (8) gives us the analytic extension of the function f() into
Let a be a new
the portion of the circle C l exterior to the circle C
point taken in this region by proceeding in the same way we shall
.
form a new power

vergent in a circle
new
series in
C2
powers of z
If the circle
series will give the extension of
We
C2
is
/()
which
will be con
not entirely within C v the

in a more extended region,
then, how it is possible to

extend, step by step, the region of existence of the function /(),
which at first was defined only in the interior of the circle C
and so on
in the
same way.
see,
It is clear that the preceding process can be carried out in an in

finite number of ways. In order to keep in mind how the extension
was obtained, we must define precisely the path followed by the
ANALYTIC EXTENSION
202
[IV,
84
Let us suppose that we can obtain the analytic extension

denned by the series (7) along a path L, as we have
Each point x of the path L is the center of a circle of
just explained.
r in the interior of which the function is rep
radius
of
convergence
x. The
resented by a convergent series arranged in powers of z
radius r of this circle varies continuously with x. For let x and x be
variable.
of the function
two neighboring points of the path Z, and r and r the corresponding

radii. If x is near enough to x to satisfy the inequality \x
r,
x\
have
x
and
r
the radius r will lie between r
X\,&SWG
-\-\x
\x
<
x
r approaches zero with \x
seen above. Hence the difference r
Now let C be a circle with the radius R/2 described with the origin
1
|.
a is any point on the circle C QJ the radius of conver

to R/2, but it may be greater.
the
series
of
(8) is at least equal
gence
Since this radius varies in a continuous manner with the position of
as center; if
the point a,
of the circle
it
passes through a minimum value R/2 -f- r at a point

We cannot have r 0, for if r were actually posi
.
>
function F(z) analytic in the circle of radius

tive, there would exist a
R -f r about the origin as center and coinciding with /() in the
For a value of z whose absolute value lies between R

and R -f- r, F(z) would be equal to the sum of any one of the series
a
a is a point on C such that \z
R/2 -f r. According
(8), where
to Cauchy s theorem, F(z) would be equal to the sum of a power
series convergent in the circle of radius R + r, and this series would
interior of
<
be identical with the series (7), which is impossible.

There is, therefore, on the circumference of C Q at least one point a
such that the circle of convergence of the series (8) has R/2 for its
and this circle is tangent internally to the circle C at a point

a where the radius Oa meets that circle. The point a is a singular
radius,
C In a circle c with the point a for

point of /(z) on the circle
there cannot exist
center, however small the radius may be taken,
in
the part common
an analytic function which is identical with /()
to the two circles C and c. It is also clear that the circle of conver
.
of the radius Oa for center

gence of the series (8) having any point
is
tangent internally to the circle

* If
all
at the point a.*
the coefficients a n of the series (7) are real and positive, the point
on C In fact, if it were not, the power series
necessarily a singular point
which represents /(z)
in the
z=R
is
=
radius
neighborhood of the point z R/2, would have a
The same would be true a fortiori of the series
of conrergence greater than .R/2.
IV,
84]
203
Let us consider now a path L starting at the origin and ending at

C and let us imagine a moving
any point Z outside of the circle
to describe this
moving always in the same sense from
,
path,
point
to Z. Let a^ be the point where the moving point leaves the circle ;
to con
if this point ax were a singular point, it would be impossible
it is
that
shall
this point.
L
suppose
tinue on the
We
beyond
path
we can then form a power series arranged in

not a singular point
a t and convergent in a circle C l with the center a v
powers of
in the part common to the two cir
whose sum coincides with
;
/()
we could employ, for

f(aj,
Oar The sum of the
radius
the
on
example, an intermediate point
the
us
with
analytic extension of /()
second series would furnish
C and
cles
C\.
To
calculate /(aj,
moving point does not leave

lies in
the
path starting from
the circle C r In particular,
at the
function
of
the
value
the
will
the interior of C 1? that series
give
a
shall
we
the
C
at
circle
the
leaves
point 2
t
point Z. If the path
C
with
in
circle
a
series
convergent
2
form, similarly, a new power
a
finite
after
that
first
shall
on.
suppose
the center a and so
L from a^
along the path
so long as the
if all
We
a,
Cp with the center ap con

of operations we
follows ap and in partic
L
which
the
of
path
taining all the portion
to
suffice
will
ular the point Z. It
replace z by Z in the last series
arrive at a circle
number
used and in those which we have obtained from
it
by term-by-term
differentiation in order to find the values of /(Z),/ (Z), f"(Z), -,

with which we arrive at the point Z, that is, the final element of the
function.
arrive at any point of the path L with com

for the function and all its derivatives.
values
pletely determined
C2
Cp
could
-,
we
that
Let us note also
replace the circles C C v
It is clear that
we
by a sequence of circles similarly defined, having any points 1? 2

z of the path L as centers, provided that the circle with the
z
center z { contains the portion of the path L included between i and
same
the
L
ath
tne
extremities,
also
can
keeping
*
P
,
We
modify
without changing the
whatever the angle w
may
>
final values of
be, for
we have
/(),
when a
/"(),
for the
evidently
are positive. The minimum of the radius of convergence

describes the circle CQ would then be greater than R/2.
since all the coefficients a

of the series (8),
/ (),
ANALYTIC EXTENSION
204
circles
l}
Cp
[IV,
84
cover a portion of the plane forming a kind of
which the path L lies, and we can replace the path L by any
other path L going from z =
to the point Z and situated in that
strip in
Let us suppose, for

we have to
strip.
definiteness, that
make use
of three consecutive
circles
Let Z
be a
C2 (Fig. 33).
new path lying-
in the strip
formed by these
C,,
three circles, and let us join

the two points
and n. If we
go from
to
m
m
first
by the
path Oa^nij then by the path
33
Onm,
it is
clear that
we
arrive
with the same element, since we have an analytic function in

the region formed by C Q and C
r Similarly, if we go from m to Z
ma
Z
the
or
the
by
path
by
path mnZ, we arrive in each case at
2
the point Z with the same element. The path L is therefore equiv
at
alent to the path OnmnZ, that is, to the path L

The method of
is
the
whatever
be
the
of
number
the successive
proof
same,
may
.
circles.
In particular, we can always replace a path of any form
whatever by a broken
line.*
85. Singular points. If we proceed as we have just explained, it

may happen that we cannot find a circle containing all that part of
the path L which remains to be described, however far we continue
the process. This will be the case when the point a is a singular point
p
on the circle Cp _ for the process will be checked just at that point.
1,
If the process can be continued forever, without arriving at a circle

inclosing all that part of the path L which remains to be described,
the points cep _ lt ap) ap+1
approach a limit point X of the path Z,
,
which may be either the point Z itself or a point lying between

and Z. The point X is again a singular point, and it is impossible
to push the analytic extension of the function
/() along the path L
beyond the point X. But if X is different from Z, it does not follow
that the point Z is itself a singular point, and that we cannot go
from
to Z by some other path. Let us consider, for example, either
of the two functions Vl -fand Log (1 -f z) we could not go from
;
The reasoning
since then the strip

cover part of itself.
little more attention when the path L has double points,

formed by the successive circles
may return and
C\, (72
But there is no essential difficulty.
requires a
<7
IV,
85]
205
2 along the axis of reals, since we could

the origin to the point z
1. But if we cause the vari
not pass through the singular point z
able z to describe a path not going through this point, it is clear that
we
2 after a finite number of steps,

shall arrive at the point z
for all the successive circles will pass through the point z
1.
It should be noticed that the preceding definition of singular points
depends upon the path followed by the variable a point \ may be

a singular point for a certain path, and may not for some other, if
the function has several distinct branches.
;
When two paths L l} L l} going from the origin to Z, lead to dif

ferent elements at Z, there exists at least one singular point in the
interior of the region which would be swept out by one of the paths,
L
for example, if we were to deform it in a continuous manner so

it into coincidence with Z(, retaining always the same
as to bring
extremities during the change.

pose, as
paths L ly
Let us sup
always permissible, that the two

L{ are broken lines composed of the
is
same number of segments Oa l b l c l

a[b{c{ ...l[Z (Fig. 34). Let a ar 5 2
I^Z and
,
a,
be the middle points of the segments aâ ^

the path Z 2 formed by the
Wi9 c i c
broken line 0& 2 & 2 c 2
l^Z cannot be equivai>
>
-,/,
Wl
&i\
same time to the two paths L lt L(

does not contain a singular point. If the
path L 2 does contain a singular point, the
lent at the
if it
If the two paths L

is established.
and Z 2 are not equivalent, we can deduce from
FIG 34
them a new path L 3 lying between L l and L 2
by the same process. Continuing in this way, we shall either reach
a path Lp containing a singular point or we shall have an infinite
-.
These paths will approach a limit
sequence of paths L V Z 2 L 3
theorem
ing path A, for the points a v
between a t and
path
A must
2,
,-
!,-, and similarly
approach a limit point lying

This limiting
for the others.
necessarily contain a singular point, since
we can
draw two paths as near as we please to A, one on each side of

to different elements for the function at Z. This
it, and leading
could not be true
if
did not contain any singular points, since

A must lead to the same elements
the paths sufficiently close to

at Z as does A.
The preceding
and does not
tell
definition of singular points
is purely negative
us anything about the nature of the function in
206
ANALYTIC EXTENSION
the neighborhood.
No
[IV,
85
hypothesis on these singular points or on
their distribution in the plane can be discarded a priori without

danger of leading to some contradiction.
study of the analytic
extension is required to determine all the possible cases.*
From what precedes, it follows that an analytic

when we know one of its elements,
86. General problem.
function
that
is,
is
virtually determined
when we know
a sequence of coefficients aQ a v aa
,
a n)
such that the series
+ ^(x
)+
a n (x
)"
-.
has a radius of convergence different from zero. These coefficients

being known, we are led to consider the following general problem
To find the value of the function at any point ft of the plane when the
:
variable
to
is
made
the point
a definitely chosen path from the point a

can also consider the problem of determining
to describe
We
ft.
a priori the singular points of the analytic function; it is also

clear that the two problems are closely related to each other. The
method of analytic extension
itself
furnishes a solution of these two
problems, at least theoretically, but
is practicable only in
very
For example, as nothing indicates a priori the
particular cases.
number of intermediate series which must be employed to go from
it
the point a to the point ft, and since we can calculate the sum of
each of these series with only a certain degree of approximation, it
appears impossible to obtain any idea of the final approximation
which we shall reach. So the investigation of simpler solutions was

necessary, at least in particular cases. Only in recent years, how
ever, has this problem been the object of thorough investigations,
which have already led
some important
to
results. t
*Let/(x) be a function analytic along the whole length of the segment ab of the
In the neighborhood of any point a of this segment the function can he
represented by a power series whose radius of convergence R (a) is not zero. This
radius 7?, being a continuous function of a, has a positive minimum r. Let p be a
out by a circle with
positive number less than r, and E the region of the plane swept
the radius p when its center describes the segment ab. The function / (a:) is analytic
be an upper bound for its absolute value
in the region E and on its boundary let
from the general formula (14) ( 33) it follows that at any point x of ab we have the
real axis.
inequality
(Cf.
I,
197,
2d ed.
191, 1st ed.)
For everything regarding

lent work, La serie de Taylor
t
matter we refer the reader to Hadamard

son prolongement analytique (Naud, 1901).
this
et
tains a very complete bibliography.
excel
It
con
IV,
86]
The
207
must not be attributed

however great it may be.
fact that these researches are so recent
entirely to the difficulty of the question,
The functions which have
actually been studied successively
by
mathematicians have not been chosen by them arbitrarily rather,

the study of these functions was forced upon them by the very nature
;
of the problems which they encountered. Now, aside from a small

number of transcendentals, all these functions, after the explicit
elementary functions, are defined either as the roots of equations
which do not admit a formal solution or
as integrals of algebraic
It is clear, then, that the
differential equations.
functions and of functions denned by
study of implicit
differential equations
must
logically have preceded the study of the general problem of which

these two problems are essentially only very particular cases.
It is easy to show how the study of algebraic differential equa
tions leads to the theory of analytic extension. Let us consider, for
concreteness,
two power series y(x) (), arranged according to pos

and convergent in a circle C of radius R described
y
itive powers of x
about the point x
as center.
On
the other hand, let F(x,
Let
y,
preceding
series,
series y(x),
and
y\
,,
(p
(q)
y \ , ,.-, z ) be a polynomial in x, y,y ,- -, y \ ,
us suppose that we replace y and z in this polynomial
(p
y\
,
p)
,
y",
z",
y<
y")
z (q \
by the
the successive derivatives of the
by
by the derivatives of the
series
(sc);
again a power series convergent in the circle C. If all

the coefficients of that series are zero, the analytic functions y(x)
and z (x) satisfy, in the circle C, the relation
the result
is
(p
F(x, y,y ,.-, y \ *,*
(9)
We
are
now going
,-,
*(
to prove that the functions obtained by the analytic

and z (x) satisfy the same relation in the
extension of the series y (x)
whole of their domain of existence. More precisely, if we cause the

variable x to describe a path L starting at the origin and proceeding
from the circle C to reach any point a of the plane, and if it is pos
sible to continue the analytic extension of the two series y(x) and
z (x) along the whole length of this path without meeting any singular
(x
a) with which we arrive
a) and
point, the power series Y(x
represent, in the neighborhood of that point, two ana

which satisfy the relation (9). For let x 1 be a point
functions
lytic
of the path L within the circle C and near the point where the path L
at the point
leaves the circle C.
With
the point x l as center
we can
describe a
two power
partly exterior to the circle C, and there exist
in the circle C l and
are
that
x
series y(x
convergent
t)
jCj), z(x
circle
Cv
ANALYTIC EXTENSION
208
[IV,
86
the values of the two series y (x) and

whose values are identical
z (x) in the part common to the two circles C C r Substituting for y
and z in the two corresponding series, the result obtained is a power
with
in the circle C
x^) convergent
r
circles C, C l we have
(x
x^)
has therefore all its coefficients zero, and the
series
P(x
to the
two
Now in the part common

the series P (x
x^
two new
series
y(x
x^
z (x
x^ satisfy the relation (9) in the circle C r Continuing
in this way, we see that the relation never ceases to be satisfied
and
by the analytic extension of the two series y(x) and z(x) whatever
the path followed by the variable may be; the proposition is thus
demonstrated.
f
The study
of a function defined
by a differential equation is, then,

of
the general problem of analytic
a
case
particular
essentially only
extension. But, on the other hand, it is easy to see how the knowledge
of a particular relation between the analytic function and some of
derivatives may in certain cases facilitate the solution of the
its
problem.
We
have to return
shall
to this point in the study of
differential equations.
II.
The study
of modular elliptic functions furnished Hermite the

example of an analytic function defined only in a portion of
the plane. We shall point out a very simple method of obtaining
analytic functions having any curve whatever of the plane for a
natural boundary (see
84), under certain hypotheses of a very
first
general character concerning the curve.

87. Singular lines. Natural boundaries.
a preliminary proposition.*
We
shall first demonstrate
cn
be two sequences of
an
and c v c2
Let a v a 2
-,
-,
any kind of terms, the second of which is such that 2 V is absolutely
convergent and has all its terms different from zero. Let C be a
circle with the center Z Q containing none of the points a in its interior
-
and passing through a
single one of these points
then the series
(10)
*PoiNCARri, Acta Societatis Pennies, Vol. XIII, 1881; GOURSAT, Bulletin des
sciences mathematiqiies, 2d series, Vol. XI, p. 109, and Vol. XVII, p. 247.
JV,
87]
209
represents an analytic function in the circle C which can be devel

series of powers of
ZQ The circle of convergence of this
oped in a
series is precisely the circle C.
We
can clearly suppose that ZQ
0,
we change
for if
z to Z Q
We
Z and c v does not change.

shall also sup
replaced by a v
Q
pose that we have \a^= R, where R denotes the radius of the circle C,
R for i 1. In the circle C the general term c v/(a v z) can
and
av
is
>
>
a<|
be developed in a power series, and that series has (\c v /R)/(l

z/R)
for a dominant function, as is easily verified. By a general theorem
\
demonstrated above
2 c v being convergent, the func

power series in the circle C, and that
can be obtained by adding term by term the power series which
9),
the series
tion F(z) can be developed in a

series
represent the different terms.
(10
=A +A
F(z)
We
have, then, in the circle
+ A *+...+A.,r +
t
...,
4,_g-jt..
v
v =
\
Let us choose an integer
such that
<*>
shall be smaller
cv
than
v=p + l
|cJ/2,
which
series
S|c v
is
is
|
always possible, since c l is not zero and since the

convergent. Having chosen the integer p in this
way, we can write F(z)
F^(z)
is
circle
F^z)
+ F (),
2
where we have
set
a rational function which has only poles exterior to the

it is therefore
developable in a power series in a circle C
with a radius
>
(11)
R.
(s)
As
for
= B + 7^2
Q
(),
we have
M
h A*2 H
4-
where
^=
We
(^TI + (^TI +
can write this coefficient again in the form
but we have, by hypothesis, \a l /a

the
----
sum
of the series
fL
\<
1,
of
ANALYTIC EXTENSION
210
87
[IV,
by the method of choosing the integer p. The

n +1
and
absolute value of the coefficient Bn is therefore between cJ/2 R
n+l
the
term
the
absolute
of
and
value
in magnitude,
general
3|cJ/2 R
n
and (3 cJ/2 R)\z/R n
of the series (11) lies between ( c x |/2 R) z/R
is less
than
/2,
R. By adding to the series

therefore divergent if \z\
the
with
radius
F2 (z), convergent in the circle
R, a series F^z), con
it
R
is
clear that the sum F(z) has
R,
vergent in a circle of radius
that series
is
>
>
the circle
C with
the radius
for
its
circle of
convergence
this
proves the proposition which was stated.

Let now Z be a curve, closed or not, having at each point a definite
radius of curvature. The series
v being absolutely convergent, let
us suppose that the points of the sequence a lt az

on the curve L and are distributed on it in such a
,
way
are all
that on a
curve there are always an infinite number of points
finite arc of this
The
of that sequence.
series
^)=2^ I^
(12)
convergent for every point Z Q not belonging to the curve Z, and

of that point.
represents an analytic function in the neighborhood
is
To prove
this it
would
suffice to repeat
the
first
part of the preced
Z
ing proof, taking for the circle C any circle with the center Q and
not containing any of the points a f If the curve L is not closed,
.
and does not have any double points, the series (12) represents an
of the plane except for the
analytic function in the whole extent
from this that the
conclude
cannot
L.
curve
of
the
points
ourselves that
to
assure
we
have
Z
is
a
curve
yet
singular line;
across
is
not
of
extension
the analytic
any portion
possible
F(z)
however small it may be. To prove this it suffices to show that
of
We
L,
the circle of convergence of the power series which represents F(z)
in the neighborhood of any point Z Q not on L can never inclose an
arc of that curve, however small it may be. Suppose that the circle C,
with the center Z actually incloses an arc aft of the curve L. Let us
Q,
take a point a t on this arc aft, and on the normal to this arc at a { let
us take a point z so close to the point a{ that the circle Ct-, described
a { \, shall lie entirely

about the point z as center with the radius \z
in
common with the
have
not
C
of
and
in the interior
any point
which has just
the
theorem
a
itself.
the
arc aft other than
By
point t
been demonstrated, the
power series
But this
circle
is
the circle of convergence for the
which represents F(z) in the neighborhood of the point

is in contradiction to the general properties of power
IV,
88]
211
convergence cannot be smaller than the

with the center 2 which is tangent internally to the circle C.
If the curve L is closed, the series (12) represents two distinct
series, for that circle of
circle
analytic functions. One of these exists only in the interior of the

curve L, and for it that curve is a natural boundary the other
;
function, on the contrary, exists only in the region exterior to the

curve L and has the same curve as a natural boundary. Thus the
L is a natural boundary for each of these functions.

Lp closed or not, it will be pos
Given several curves, L lt L^
sible to form in this way series of the form (12) having these curves
for natural boundaries the sum of these series will have all these
curve
curves for natural boundaries.
AB
be a segment of a straight line, and a, /3 the complex

88, Examples. Let
B. All the points y = (ma + n/3)/(w + n) ,
quantities representing the extremities
and n are two positive integers varying from 1 to + GO, are on the seg
where
ment AB, and on a finite portion of this segment there are always an infinite
number of points of that kind, since the point 7 divides the segment AB in the
ratio m/n. On the other hand, let Cm n be the general term of an absolutely
convergent double series. The double series
,
ma +
7i/3
ra+ n
AB
for a natural boundary.

represents an analytic function having the segment
can, in fact, transform this series into a simple series with a single index
in an infinite number of ways. It is clear that by adding several series of this
We
kind
it
will be possible to
form an analytic function having the perimeter
of
any given polygon as a natural boundary.

Another example, in which the curve L is a circle, may be defined as follows
Let a be a positive irrational number, and let v be a positive integer. Let us put
:
the points a v are distinct and are situated on the circle C of unit radius
having its center at the origin. Moreover, we know that we can find two inte
and n such that the difference 2 IT (na
m) will be less in absolute value
gers
Then
all
than a number e, however small e be taken.

There exist, then, powers of a whose angle is as near zero as we wish, and
consequently on a finite arc of the circumference there will always be an infinite
number of points a v Let us next put c v = a v /2 v the series
.
by the general theorem, an analytic function in the circle

which has the whole circumference of this circle for a natural boundary.
represents,
ANALYTIC EXTENSION
212
Developing each term in powers of
power
z,
we
88
[IV,
obtain for the development of F(z) the
series
It is easy to prove directly that the function represented by this power series
cannot be extended analytically beyond the circle C for if we add to it the
;
series for 1/(1
z),
there results
21-2
2
in this relation z to oz, then to a z,
Changing
g(OT)
(14)
^ JX
,)
-^
we
find the general relation

...
^_ l( |_ m)+
+
8(1
tf[
li)
which shows that the difference 2 n F(az)

F(z) is a rational function (z) hav
1
order
first
the
of
the
n
I/a,
1,
poles
ing
on
the
established
been
The result (14) has
supposition that we have \z\
and a| = 1. If the angle of a is commensurable with TT, the equality (14) shows
that F(z) is a rational function to show this it would suffice to take for n an
n = 1. If the
angle of a is incommensurable with TT, it is im
integer such that a
on a finite arc AB of the circum
possible for the function F(z) to be analytic
however small it may be. For let a-* and an ~P be two points on the
,
I/a""
<1
ference,
arc AB(n>p).
The numbers n and p having been chosen in this way, let us

made to approach a~P; a n z will approach a *-*, and the two
is
thatz
suppose
functions F(z) and F(an z) would approach finite limits if F(z) were analytic
on the arc AB. Now the relation (14) shows that this is impossible, since the
1
function
<j>(z)
has the pole
CL-P.
An
analogous method is
considered by Weierstrass,
applicable, as
Hadamard has shown,
to the series
F(z)=2Vz
(15)
where a
is
a positive integer
>
and
6 is a constant
whose absolute value
is less
than one. This series is convergent if |z| is not greater than unity, and diver
with a unit radius is therefore the
gent if z is greater than unity. The circle C
for the func
circle of convergence. The circumference is a natural boundary
on a
tion F(z). For suppose that there are no singular points of the function
|
we
replace the variable z in F(z) by

a divisor of a, all the
2e2Wir/c*
positive integers and c
the
terms of the series (15) after the term of the rank h are unchanged, and
function F(z)
zkni/c
the
would
Neither
is
a
difference .F(z)
polynomial.
)
F(ze
have any singular points on the arc akpk which is derived from the arc a/3 by a
rotation through an angle 2 kir/c h around the origin. Let us take h large enough
= 1, 2,
c*, it
to make 2 ir/c h smaller than the arc or/3
taking successively k
finite arc
?
ctfi
of the circumference.
If
where k and h are two

1
is
clear that the arcs
a^, a2
/3 2
cover the circumference completely. The
IV,
89]
213
function F(z) would therefore not have any singular points on the circumfer
ence,
which
is
absurd
84).
This example presents an interesting peculiarity the series (15) is absolutely

and uniformly convergent along the circumference of C. It represents, then, a
continuous function of the angle
along this circle.*
;
89. Singularities of analytical expressions. Every analytical expres

sion (such as a series whose different terms are functions of a vari
able 2, or a definite integral in which that variable appears as a
parameter) represents, under certain conditions, an analytic function
neighborhood of each of the values of z for which it has a

meaning. If the set of these values of z covers completely a connected
in the
the plane, the expression considered represents an

analytic function of z in that region A but if the set of these values
of z forms two or more distinct and separated regions, it may happen
region
of
that the analytical expression considered represents entirely distinct

have already met an exam
functions in these different regions.
We
38. There we saw how we could form a series of

ple of this in
rational terms, convergent in two curvilinear triangles PQR, P Q R
(Fig. 16), whose value is equal to a given analytic function /() in
PQR and to zero in the triangle P Q R By adding two

such series we shall obtain a series of rational terms whose value is
the triangle
equal to f(z) in the triangle PQR and to another analytic function

These two functions /() and (z) being
in the triangle P Q R
(z)
.
<
<f>
Fredholm has shown,
similarly, that the function represented
by the
series
is a positive quantity less than one, cannot be extended beyond the circle of
convergence (Comptes rendus, March 24, 1890). This example leads to a result which
is worthy of mention. On the circle of unit radius the series is convergent and the
where a
value
F(0) = S a[cos (nW) +
sin
(n0)]
a continuous function of the angle 9 which has an infinite number of derivatives.

This function F(0) cannot, however, be developed in a Taylor s series in any interval,
however small it may be. Suppose that in the interval (0o - a, 0o + a) we actually
is
have
The
in
series on the right represents an analytic function of the complex variable
for center. To this circle c
the circle c with the radius a described with the point
corresponds, by means of the relation z = e*, a closed region A of the plane of the vari
able z containing the arc 7 of the unit circle extending from the point with the angle
+ a.. There would exist, then, in this region A

to the point with the angle
an analytic function of z coinciding with the value of the series Sa M zn2 along 7 and also
in the part of A within the unit circle this is impossible, since we cannot extend the
0Q- a
sum
of the series
beyond the
circle.
ANALYTIC EXTENSION
214
[IV,
89
arbitrary, it is clear that the value of the series in the triangle P Q R

will in general bear no relation to the analytic extension of the value
of that series in the triangle
The following
PQR.
another very simple example, analogous to an

example pointed out by Schroder and by Tannery. The expression
z n ), where n is a positive integer which increases in
")/(!
(1
is
the limit
definitely, approaches
if
\z\
Now
is
If
>1.
the
sum
\z
= 1,
1 if z
n terms of the
of the first
1,
<
if
\z\
is
and
(z) be any
limit
z
1.
series
from unity. Hence
is
therefore conver
1 in the
represents
the radius unity about the origin as
1 at all points outside of this circle. Now let /(#),
for example, two
two analytic functions whatever
different
it
C with
center,
and the
no limit except for
equal to the preceding expression. This series
gent
</>
-(-
this expression has
integral functions.
Then
the expression
equal to /(s) in the interior of C, and to

(z) in the region ex
cw
for
that expression, but
itself
a
is
The
circumference
to
C.
terior
is
<
of a quite different nature from the natural boundaries which we

have just mentioned. The function which is equal to ^() in the
interior of
C and, similarly,
C can be extended
can be extended analytically beyond
the function which
is
equal to
\{/(z)
outside of
analytically into the interior.
Analogous singularities present themselves in the case of functions

furnished
represented by definite integrals. The simplest example is
by Cauchy s
curve r and
integral
also
if
/()
a function analytic within a closed

itself, the integral
is
on that curve
inte
represents f(x) if the point x is in the interior of T. The same
function
the
for
gral is zero if the point x is outside of the curve F,
Here again the
x) is then analytic inside of the curve.
/(*)/(
curve F
is
not a natural boundary for the definite integral. Similarly,

\_(z
x)/2]dz has the real axis as a cut
2?r
the definite integral J^ ctn
2
it is equal to -f- 2 TTI or
cut
45).
iri,
according as x
is
above or below that
IV,
90]
215
90. Hermite s formula. An interesting result due to Hermite can be brought

into relation with the preceding discussion.* Let F(t, z), G (t, z) be two analytic
functions of each of the variables t and z for example, two polynomials or two
;
power
series
convergent for
the values of these two variables.
all
Then
the
definite integral
(16,
W =/!!
*,
Ja G(t,z)
G
(t.
Z}
taken over the segment of a straight line which joins the two points a and ft,
represents, as we shall see later ( 95), an analytic function of z except for the
values of z which are roots of the equation G (t, z) = 0, where t is the complex
quantity corresponding to a point on the segment aft. This equation therefore
determines a finite or an infinite number of curves for which the integral &(z)
1
AB
ceases to have a meaning. Let

be one of these curves not having any double
In order to consider a very precise case, we shall suppose that when t
describes the segment aft, one of the roots of the equation G (t, z)
describes
points.
AB, and
all the other roots of the same equation, if there are

any,
a suitably chosen closed curve surrounding the arc AB, so
that the segment aft and the arc
correspond to each other point to point.
The integral (16) has no meaning when z falls upon the arc
we wish to
calculate the difference between the values of the function
(z) at two points
the arc
remain outside
that
of
AB
AB
4>
lying on opposite sides of the arc AB, whose distances from a fixed point
the arc
are infinitesimal. Let f, f + e, f+ e be the three values of z
corresponding to the three points M,
N,
M of
AB
respectively. To these three

N,
points correspond in the plane of the
variable t, by means of the equation
G (t, z) = 0, the point

on aft, and
the two points n, n on opposite sides
of aft at infinitesimal distances from
m. Let
0,
y,
be the cor
17
responding values of t. In the neighborhood of the segment aft let us take

has no other root
a point 7 so near aft that the equation G (t, f + e) =
than t
9 + rj in the interior of the triangle afty (Fig. 35). The function
F(t, f + c)/G(t, f + e) of the variable t has but a single pole 8 + / in the interior
made above, this pole

of the triangle afty, and, according to the hypotheses

is
a simple pole.
n
I
_.
n17 )
<
Ja
Applying Cauchy
*-
G(t,
*/
f+e)
theorem,
jj
\"i
*/
we
jj.
Jfi
2Mr
,*+)
Jy
The two integrals D*, f a are of the same form as $ (z) they represent re
spectively two functions, ^(z), * 2 (2), which are analytic so long as the variable
be the curves which cor
and
is not situated upon certain curves. Let
;
AC
respond to the two segments ay and

infinitesimal distances
*
from the cut
BC
of the
AB associated
HERMITE, Sur quelques points de
Vol. XCI).
fty
plane,
with
and which are at

Let us now give
(z).
la theorie des fonctions (Crelle s Journal,
ANALYTIC EXTENSION
216
the value f
to z
the corresponding value of
t is
point n and the function F(t, f + e )/G(t, + e ) of

of the triangle afiy.
B
t
[IV,
is
*? ,
90
represented by the
analytic in the interior
We
subtracting the two formulae (17) and (18) term by term,

as follows
we can write the
result
e)
- * (f + O +
AB
as a cut, they
But since neither of the functions ^(z), * 2 (z) has the line
are analytic in the neighborhood of the point z = f, and by making e and t ap
(z) in two
proach zero we obtain at the limit the difference of the values of
shall write the
of AB,
points infinitely near each other on opposite sides
result in the abridged form
<J>
We
Hermite s formula. It is seen that it is very simply related to Cauchy s

theorem.* The demonstration indicates clearly how we must take the points
and
the point N($ + e) must be such that an observer describing the segment
this is
has the corresponding point 9 + ft on his left.

is not a natural boundary for the
be noticed that the arc
we can replace *(z) by
function $(z). In the neighborhood of the point
to the relation (18). Now the sum * x (z) + * 2 (z) is
(z)] according
[4 (z) +
a/3
AB
It is to
^>
an analytic function in the curvilinear triangle ACB and on the arc AB itself,
Therefore we can make the variable z
as well as in the neighborhood of
cross the arc AB at any one of its points except the extremities A and B
without meeting any obstacle to the analytic extension. The same thing would
if we were to make the variable z cross the arc

Example. Let us consider the integral
be true
AB in the opposite sense.
(20)
where the integral is to be taken over a segment AB of the real axis, and where
that segment AB. Let us represent z
f(t) denotes an analytic function along
on the same plane as t The function $ (z) is an analytic function of z in the
is a
neighborhood of every point not located on the segment AB itself, which
.
2 7ri/(f),
is here equal to
cut for the integral. The difference 3>(N)
3>(N )
where f is a point of the segment AB. When the variable z crosses the line AB,
the analytic extension of
is represented by
27ri/(z).
This example gives rise to an important observation. The function *(z) is
still an analytic function of z, even when f(t) is not an analytic function of t,
case the
provided that f(t) is continuous between a and /3 ( 33). But in this
is in general a
preceding reasoning no longer applies, and the segment
natural boundary for the function
4>(z)
(z)
AB
4>(z).
GOURSAT, Sur un theorems de M. Hermite (Acta mathematica, Vol.
I).
EXERCISES
IV.Exs.]
217
EXERCISES
1.
Find the
lines of discontinuity for the definite integrals

dt
^Mz
taken along the straight line which joins the points (0, 1) and (a, b) respec
tively determine the value of these integrals for a point z not located on these
;
boundaries.
2.
i,
Consider four circles with radii 1/Vi, having for centers the points + 1,
The region exterior to these four circles is composed of a finite
i.
1,
region A l containing the origin, and of an infinite region A 2 Construct, by the

method of 38, a series of rational functions which converge in these regions,
and whose value in A l is equal to 1 and in A 2 to 0. Verify the result by finding
.
the
sum
of the series obtained.
Treat the same questions, considering the two regions interior to the circle
of radius 2 with the center for origin, and exterior to the two circles of radius 1
with centers at the points + 1 and
1 respectively.
3.
[APPELL, Acta mathematica, Vol.

4.
The
I.]
definite integral
tasinz
1
cos z
-dt,
taken along the real axis, has for cuts the straight lines x = (2k + !)TT, where k
is an integer. Let f = (2 k + 1) TT + if be a point on one of these cuts.
The dif
ference in the values of the integral in two points infinitely close to that point
on each side of the cut
is
a
equal to 7r(e
e-f).
[HERMITE,
5.
The two
Crelle s Journal, Vol.
XCL]
definite integrals
J=
r+
J
oo
r+
JQ= J
dti
-e^_
2
^
oo
-^^
*
&
dt ^
taken along the real axis, have the axis of reals for a cut in the plane of the
variable z. Above the axis we have J = 2 m, J
0, and below we have J
0,
J = 2 TTI. From these results deduce the values of the definite integrals
r\
dt.
t-z
[HERMITE,
6.
Establish by
means
of cuts the
,,
+ 00
J-oo
gai
r+
formula (Chap.
-dt
[HERMITE,
e
a(<
Ex.
XCL]
15)
7T
(Consider the integral

oo
II,
+ 2)
XCL]
ANALYTIC EXTENSION
218
[IV, Exs.
which has all the straight lines y

(2 k + 1) TT f or cuts, and which remains con
stant in the strip included between two consecutive cuts. Then establish the
relations
$ (z -f 2 TH) = e2 l (z),
$ (z + 2 in) = (z) + 2 Trie 1 ,
"
3>
where
and
Tri
4>
are two points separated by the cut y
TT.)
an analytic function in the neighborhood of the origin, so that

n
Denote by F(z) = 2an z n /n the associated integral function. It is
/(z) = Sa n z
easily proved that we have
7*. Let/(z) be
(C)
taken along a closed curve
where the integral

of which /(z)
it, inside
is
is
analytic.
From
it
(7, including the origin within

follows that
f e-F(az)da = J27riJc M
Jo
(2)
where
this
f^du Jof e-G-
denotes a real and positive number.

z/u remains less than 1
If the real part of
(where
>
0)
when u
describes
the curve C, the integral
"-iL
Ida
Jo
approaches u/(u
z)
uniformly as
becomes
infinite,
and the formula
(2)
be
comes at the limit
(o u
This result
is
applicable to
all
the points within the negative pedal curve of C.
[BOREL, Lemons sur
les series
divergentes.]
8*. Let/(z) =2a n

0(z)
gence are r and p respectively. The series
zn
=S& n z n
be two power series whose radii of conver
f(z)=SaAz n
and the function (z) has no
has a radius of convergence at least equal to
other singular points than those which are obtained by multiplying the quanti
ties corresponding to the different singular points of /(z) by those corresponding
ry>,
to the singular points of
\f/
</>(z).
[HADAMARD,
Ada
mathematica, Vol. XXIII, p. 55.]
CHAPTER V
ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES
GENERAL PROPERTIES
I.
In this chapter we shall discuss analytic functions of several

we shall suppose
independent complex variables. For simplicity,
the results
to
extend
it
is
that there are two variables only, but
easy
to functions of
any number of variables whatever.
= u -f vi, z = w + ti be two independent

every other complex quantity Z whose value
can be said to be a function of
and
depends upon the values of
and z Let us represent the values of these two
the two variables
Let z
91. Definitions.
complex variables
and z by the two points with the coordinates (u, v) and

P
two
in
systems of rectangular axes situated in two planes F,
(?/, t)
and let A, A be any two portions of these two planes. We shall say
is analytic in the two regions A, A if
that a function Z =/(,
)
variables z
to every
system of two points
taken respectively in the regions
A, A corresponds a definite value of f(z,

with z and z and if each of the quotients
,
),
varying continuously
f(*
h, z
)-f(z,z
f(z,z
+ k)-f(z,z
the
approaches a definite limit when, z and z remaining fixed,
absolute values of h and k approach zero. These limits are the
and they are represented
),
partial derivatives of the function f(z,
1
by the same notation
as in the case of real variables.
Let us separate in f(z,
/(,
=X+
)
Yi
ent real variables u,
the real part and the coefficient of i,

real functions of the four independ
and Y are
v,
w,
the significance of which
t,
satisfying the four relations
is
evident.*
We
can eliminate
in six
* If 2 and 2 are analytic functions of another variable x, these relations enable us

demonstrate easily that the derivative of /(z, 2 ) with respect to x is obtained by the
usual rule which gives the derivative of a function of other functions. The formulae
to
of the differential calculus, in particular those for the

therefore, to analytic functions of complex variables.
219
change of variables, apply,
SEVERAL VARIABLES
220
[v,
91
different ways by passing to derivatives of the second

order, but
the six relations thus obtained reduce to only four
:
PX
9u8t
8v dw
SuSw
dv 2
dw 2
=
+ ^:
dvfa
0,
(1)
Up
to the present time little use has been
made
of these relations
for the study of analytic functions of two variables.

this is that they are too numerous to be convenient.
in
One reason
for
92. Associated circles of convergence. The properties of

power series
two real variables (I,
190-192, 2d ed.
185-186, 1st ed.) are
;
easily extended to the case

have complex values. Let
where the
F(z,z
(2)
)=âmn
coefficients
and the variables
zz<
be a double series with coefficients of any kind, and
We
have seen
infinite
number
let
190, 2d ed.) that there exist, in general, an

of systems of two positive numbers R, R such that
(I,
the series of absolute values
2A mn Z*Z
(3)
convergent if we have at the same time Z <R and Z <R and

Let C be the circle de
divergent if we have Z>R and Z >R
scribed in the plane of the variable
about the origin as center with
the radius R similarly, let C be the circle described in the plane of
is
the variable z about the point z

as center with the radius R
(Fig. 36). The double series (2) is absolutely convergent when the
variables z and z are respectively in the interior of the two circles C
1
and divergent when these variables are respectively exterior to

these two circles (I,
191, 2d ed.
185, 1st ed.). The circles C,
are said to form a system of associated circles of convergence. This
and
C",
C"
set of
two
circles plays the
same part as the
for a
circle of
convergence
power series in one variable, but in place of a single

there is an infinite number of systems of associated circles
power series in two variables. For example, the series
m+n
mini
circle
for a
V,
is
GENERAL PROPERTIES
92]
absolutely convergent
Every pair of
circles C,
if
C"
\z
\z
whose
<
radii
1,
221
and in that case
It,
only.
satisfy the relation
R + R = 1 is a system of associated circles. It may happen that we

can limit ourselves to the consideration of a single system of asso
ciated circles thus, the series 2,z m z n is convergent only if we have
at the same time z
1 and \z
1.
;
<
<
Let Cj be a circle of radius R 1

let C{ be a circle of radius R[<R
<R
variables z
and
remain within the
concentric with
concentric with
circles
C l and
C
C
similarly,
when
the
Cj respectively,
FIG. 36
the series (2) is uniformly convergent

191, 2d ed.
185,
(see I,
1st ed.) and the sum of the series is therefore a continuous function:
;
F(z, z
of the
C and C
two variables
z,
z in the interior of the
two
circles,
Differentiating the series (2) term by term with respect to the

variable z, for example, the new series obtained, 2,ma mn z m -lz n is
again
remain in the two circles C and
absolutely convergent when z and
,
respectively, and its sum is the derivative dF/dz of F(z, z ) with

respect to z. The proof is similar in all respects to the one which has
been given for real variables (I, 191, 2d ed.
185, 1st ed.). Simi
which
larly, F(z, z ) has a partial derivative dF/dz with respect to
;
represented by the double series obtained by differentiating the

series (2) term by term with respect to z
The function F(z, z ) is
is
therefore an analytic function of the
z in the pre
The same thing is evidently true of the two deriva

dF/dz, dF/dz and therefore F(z, z ) can be differentiated term
ceding region.
tives
two variables
SEVERAL VARIABLES
222
by term any number of times

analytic functions.
Let us take any point
all its partial
92
[V,
derivatives are also
of absolute value r in the interior of C,
and
r
this point as center let us describe a circle c with radius
tangent internally to the circle C. In the same way let z be any point
from
of absolute value r
and
<
taken in the circles
\z\
If
we
R and
replace z
and
the circle with the point z as center

-\- h and z -f k be any two points
respectively, so that we have
c
Finally, let z
r as radius.
and
\z
\h\<R,
z in the series (2)
\k\<R
by z
-f
h and
k,
we can
develop each term in a series proceeding according to powers of h

and k, and the multiple series thus obtained is absolutely convergent.
Arranging the series according to powers of h and

Taylor expansion
hm k n
93. Double integrals.
When we
k,
we
obtain the
undertake to extend to functions
of several complex variables the general theorems which Cauchy

deduced from the consideration of definite integrals taken between
imaginary
limits,
we encounter
difficulties
We
Poincare.*
pletely elucidated by
which have been com
shall study here only a very
O
FIG. 37
for our subse

will, however, suffice
when the
function
an
be
z
Let
analytic
f(z,
)
quent developments.
variables z, z remain within the two regions A, A respectively.
and a curve a b
in A
Let us consider a curve ab
simple particular case, which

1
lying
(Fig. 37)
and let us divide each of these curves into smaller

of points of division. Let Z Q
number
i,
a,
any
in
arcs
PoiNCARfe, Sur
les
*t_i>
by
**>
Vol. IX)
residus des integrates doubles (Acta mathematica,
V,
GENERAL PROPERTIES
93]
223
be the points of division of ab, where Z Q and Z coincide with a and ft,
zh _ l z h
z m _^ Z be the points of division
let J, z{, z 2
-,
and
of a
where z Q and
coincide with a and
ft
The sum
taken with respect to the two indices, approaches a limit, when the
m and n become infinite, in such a way that the abso
two numbers
z h _^ approach zero. Let /(, z )

s k _^ and z h
\z k
where X and Y are real functions of the four variables
iv h -\- t h i.
The general
and let us put z k = u k +- v k i, z h
u, v, iv, t
term of the sum 5 can be written in the form
lute values
=X
-f-
Yi,
+ i(v
u k _i
X \u k
v k _^)~\\w h
-w
_ l -f i(th
- ^_j)],
carry out the indicated multiplication, we have eight

partial products. Let us show, for example, that the sum of the
and
if
we
partial products,
approaches a limit. We shall suppose, as is the case in the figure,

that the curve ab is met in only one point by a parallel to the axis Ov,
and, similarly, that a parallel to the axis Ot meets the curve a b in at
t
most one point. Let v
$(w) be the equations of these
two curves, U Q and U the limits between which u varies, and W Q and
<j>(u),
W the limits between which w varies.
and
in
function
If
we
and
by
replace the variables v
becomes a continuous
if/(w) respectively,
of the variables u and w, and the sum (6) can again
it
<#>(^)
P (u, w)
As
m and
TI
become
integral ffP(u,
straight lines
infinite, this
w)dudw extended
=U
Q,
sum has
for its limit the double
over the rectangle bounded by the
= U, w = W w = W.
Q,
This double integral can also be expressed in the form

s*W
du
XV
Jw
P(u,w
SEVERAL VARIABLES
224
or again,
by introducing
line integrals, in the
du
(7)
JI(a b
*J(ab)
In this
last expression
93
form
X(u, v\ w, t)dw.
f
we suppose
point of the arc ab,
[V,
and w,
u and v are the coordinates
that
the coordinates of any point of

any
The point (u, v) being supposed fixed, the point (w, t)
the arc a b
and the line integral fXdtv is taken
is made to describe the arc a b
of
along a
The
result
is
a function of
calculate the line integral/^ (u, v)
The
u, v,
say
du along the arc
(u, v)
we then
ab.
last expression (7) obtained for the limit of the
sum
(6)
is
It suffices to break
applicable whatever may be the paths ab and a b
a
b
have
done
arcs
ab
and
we
the
up
repeatedly before) into
(as
.
arcs small
to satisfy the previous requirements, to associate

ways a portion of ab with a portion of a b and then
enough
in all possible
to
add the
results.
the sums of par

see that S has for its limit
Proceeding in this way with
all
products similar to the sum (6), we

sum of eight double integrals analogous to the integral (7).
Representing that limit byJjF(2, z )dzdz we have the equality
tial
the
JflF(z,
J
)dzdz
Xdw -
du
*) (a b
Ydt
(S)
-f
C
J
I
b
J (a
J(a b
J(ab)
du
JI(a
Ydiv
Ydw
-i
dv
du
J(ab)
J(ab)
Xdt
+i
dv
Ydt
J(a
(ab)
-f i
dv
J(a
Xdt
J (a b
*J (ah)
i du
J(ab)
dv
I
c/(ab)
Xdw,
J (a
J(ab)
which can be written in an abridged form,
CCF(z,
JJ
or,
)dzdz
= f
J(ab)
(du
+ idv) f (X + iY)(dw + idt),

J(a V)
again
= f dz f F
J(a
J(ab)
b
The formula
*
(*>
dz
to the formula for calculating

(9) is precisely similar
an ordinary double integral taken over the area of a rectangle by

means of two successive quadratures (I, 120, 2d ed.
123, 1st ed.).
;
We calculate first the integral jF(z, z )dz
along the arc a b supposing

,
V,
GENERAL PROPERTIES
94]
225
z constant; the result is a function <() of

which we integrate
next along the arc ab. As the two paths ab and a b enter in
,
exactly the same way, it is clear that we can interchange the order
of integrations.
Let
be a positive number greater than the absolute value of
F(z, z
when
~)
and
describe the arcs ab and a b
If
L and L
denote the lengths of the respective arcs, the absolute value of the
double integral is less than MLL ( 25). When one of the paths, a b
for example, forms a closed curve, the integral L
z )dz will
a V) F(^j
be zero if the function F(z, ) is analytic for all the values of z in
the interior of that curve and for the values of z on ab. The same
,
thing will then be true of the double integral.

94. Extension of Cauchy s theorems.
Let C,
be two closed curves
without double points, lying respectively in the planes of the variables

z and
and let F(z, ) be a function that is analytic when z and z
remain in the regions limited by these two curves or on the curves

Let us consider the double integral
themselves.
where
a?
is
a point inside of the boundary C and where x is a point

and let us suppose that these two bound
boundary
inside of the
C"
aries are described in the positive sense.
The
integral
F(z, z )dz
where z denotes a fixed point of the boundary C,

27riF(z, x )/(z
x). We have, then,
or,
applying Cauchy
is
equal to
theorem once more,

I
= -4;7r
F(x, x
).
This leads us to the formula
which is completely analogous to Cauchy s fundamental formula, and

from which we can derive similar conclusions. From it we deduce
SEVERAL VARIABLES
226
[v,
94
the existence of the partial derivatives of all orders of the function

m+n
m
n
F(z, z ) in the regions considered, the derivative d
F/dx dx hav
ing a value given by the expression

dm + n
C
11 )
F _~
ml
n\
A^
Ov,m;U,n
C
C
II
F(z, z )dz
(v.\ m + ^(*1
tff*\\&
n\
JU
^r
*/
/*
\n + l
J
In order to obtain Taylor

boundaries
C and
C"
s formula, let us
suppose that the
are the circumferences of circles. Let a be the
R its radius; b the center of C and R its radius.

x
x being taken respectively in the interior of these
and
points
R Hence the
circles, we have \x
a\=r<R and \x
b\= r
center of C, and
The
<
rational fraction
(*
- *)( - x )
[.__(,_
a and x
can be developed in powers of x
where the series on the right

describe the circles
the general term
is
,)][>
__(_
b,
uniformly convergent when
and
C and C
respectively, since the absolute value of

m
n
We can therefore replace
(r/R) (r /R ) /RR
by the preceding series in the relation (10) and
is
x)
x )(z
integrate term by term, which gives
\l(z
Making use
of the results obtained
in the relations (10)
and
(11),
by replacing x and x by a and
we obtain Taylor
expansion in the
form
where the combination

Note.
series
is
The
m = n=
coefficient
a mn of (x
is
excluded from the summation.
a)
equal to the double integral
j_ r
4*V
(x
b)
in the preceding
GENERAL PROPERTIES
V,95]
227
an upper bound for \F(z, z )\ along the

have, by a previous general remark,
If
C and C we
f
circles
is
M
RmR
The function
is
therefore a dominant function for
F(x x
9
(I,
192, 2d ed.;
186, 1st ed.).

95. Functions represented
,
definite integrals.
by
In order to study
certain functions, we often seek to express them as definite integrals

in which the independent variable appears as a parameter under the
integral sign. We have already given sufficient conditions under

which the usual rules of differentiation may be applied when the
We
shall
98, 100, 2d ed.;
97, 1st ed.).
(I,
reconsider the question for complex variables.
Let F(z, ) be an analytic function of the two variables z and #
variables are real
now
when
these variables remain within the two regions A and A respec

Let us take a definite path L of finite length in the region A,
tively.
and
let
us consider the definite integral
*(*) =
(13)
F(*,x)d*
J(L)
where x is any point of the region A

To prove that this function
& (x) is an analytic function of x, let us describe about the point x as
1
center a circle
C with
the function F(z,
radius R, lying entirely in the region
is
analytic,
Cauchy
whence the integral (13) can be written
*/x N
(
Let x
+ Aic
)=o2
1C*dz
=
*-U(Z)
C
\
J(C)
Since
fundamental formula gives
in the
form
F(z,* )dz
^-
be a point near x in the circle
we
have, similarly,
SEVERAL VARIABLES
228
and consequently, by repeating the calculation already made
[V,
98
33),
F(s, z )dz
Let AT be a positive number greater than the absolute value of

when the variables z and z describe the curves L and C
z
1
F(z,
L and let p denote the

respectively let 5 be the length of the curve
of
the second integral is
value
absolute
of
The
Aa;.
value
absolute
;
less
than
JL
o^P
"
R(R-p)
in
approaches zero when the point x + Ace approaches x
derivative
has
a
function
the
that
follows
It
unique
&(x)
definitely.
hence
it
which
is
given by the expression
*^) =
But we have
also
dz
2^
*J(&
,1
C F (*,* )**
(z
\*
J<p)
x)
-xV
33)
d
and the preceding relation can be again written
C 8F
()-
(14)
*.
Thus we obtain again the usual formula
for differentiation under the
integral sign.
no longer valid if the path of integration L

extends to infinity. Let us suppose, for definiteness, that Z is a
a and making an angle 6 with the
ray proceeding from a point Q
The reasoning
real axis.
We
is
shall say that the integral
=
Ja n
e there can
uniformly convergent if to every positive number
we have
that
such
number
a
to
be made
positive
correspond
is
F(z, x)dz
V,
GENERAL PROPERTIES
96]
229
is greater than N, wherever x may be in A

By
dividing the path of integration into an infinite number of recti
linear segments we prove that every uniformly convergent integral
provided that p
is
equal to the value of a uniformly convergent series whose terms
are the integrals along certain segments of the infinite ray L. All
these integrals are analytic functions of a-; therefore the same is
true of the integral

f^F(z, x)d (39).
It is seen, in the same way, that the ordinary formula for differen
tiation can be applied, provided the integral obtained,
^(dF/dx^dz,
is itself
uniformly convergent.
If the function F(z, z ) becomes
ao
+V
on the
li
ne
-^
a Q of the path
uniformly con
infinite for a limit
of integration, we shall also say that the integral

vergent in a certain region if to every positive
is
number
can be ma(le to correspond in such a
a point
way that
F(z, x)dz
|JC
b is any point of the path L lying between a and a -f- 17, the
Q
Q
inequality holding for all values of x in the region considered.
The conclusions are the same as in the case where one of the limits
where
of the integral
moved
is
and they are established
off to infinity,
in
the same way.

96. Application to the
F function. The definite integral taken along the real axis

T(z)
(15)
= f
Jo
"V-ie-
ttt,
which we have studied only for

92, 1st ed.),
by
*ft(z),
is
has a
finite value,
positive.
In
fact,
real and positive values of z (I,

94, 2d ed.
provided the real part of z, which we will denote
let z
x + yi this gives \t z ~ l e~ t = t x - l e~ t
Since the integral
+oo
*-ie-eK
Jo
x is positive, it is clear that the same is true of the integral
2d ed.;
90, 91, 1st ed.). This integral is uniformly con
where
vergent in the whole region defined by the conditions
R(z)>-r),
and i\ are two arbitrary positive numbers. In fact, we can write
has a
value
finite
(15) (I,
if
91, 92,
N>
T(z)
and
/>i
Jo
~ l e-
/
t
dt
Ji
to prove that each of these integrals on the right is uniformly

Let us prove this for the second integral, for example. Let I be a
positive number greater than one. If *K(z)< N, we have
it suffices
convergent.
SEVERAL VARIABLES
230
[V,
96
positive number A can be found large enough to make the last integral
than any positive number e whenever lÂ. The function r (z), denned by
the integral (15), is therefore an analytic function in the whole region of the
the
plane lying to the right of the ?/-axis. This function T (z) satisfies again
and a
less
relation
(16)
(2
obtained by integration by parts,
(17)
(z
n)
z (z
1)
zT
(z),
and consequently the more general
(z
1)
+n-
1)
relation
(z),
is an immediate consequence of the other.

This property enables us to extend the definition of the r function to values
of z whose real part is negative. For consider the function
which
The numerator T (z + n) is an analytic function

is a positive integer.
n hence the function V (z) is a
of z defined for values of z for which
(z)
function analytic except for poles, defined for all the values of the variable
where n
<R
>
n. Now this function ^ (z) coincides with the

real part is greater than
the relation (17); hence it
analytic function T (z) to the right of the y-axis, by
in the
is identical with the analytic extension of the analytic function T (z)
= n. Since the
lines *R (z) = 0,
(z)
strip included between the two straight
number n is arbitrary, we may conclude that there exists a function which is
whose
<R
analytic except for the poles of the
z -_ 2,
order at the points z
first
0,
1,
equal to the integral (15) at all points to

n,
-,
the right of the 7/-axis. This function, which is analytic except for poles in the
but the formula (15) enables us to
finite plane, is again represented by T (z)
0, we must also
(z)
compute its numerical value only if we have H (z) 0. If
in order to obtain the numerical value of that
make use of the relation
.
and which
is
<R
>
<
(17)
function.
We
shall
values of
z.
which
give an expression for the T function
Let S(z) be the integral function
now
is
valid for
all
which has the poles of T (z) for zeros. The product S (z) T (z) must then be
an integral function. It can be shown that this integral function is equal to
49, Note, 1st ed.),
18, Ex., 2d ed.
e-G*, where C is Euler s constant* (I,
and we derive from it the result
;
<
which shows that 1/r
(z
1) is
HERMITE,
a transcendental integral function.
(Jours d Analyse, 4th ed., p. 142.
V,
GENERAL PROPERTIES
97]
231
97. Analytic extension of a function of two variables. Let u = F(z, z } be an

analytic function of the two variables z and z when these two variables remain
and
of the two planes in which we
respectively in two connected regions
represent them. It is shown, as in the case of a single variable ( 83), that the
value of this function for any pair of points z, z taken in the regions A,
is
and of all its partial derivatives for a
determined if we know the values of
b taken in the same regions. It now appears easy to

pair of points z = a, z
extend the notion of analytic extension to functions of two complex variables.
Let us consider a double series Sa mn such that there exist two positive numbers
r,
r having the following property
F(z, z
(20)
the series
= -Zamnznz n
r and divergent if we
z
convergent if we have at the same time z
r,
have at the same time z
r
The preceding series defines, then, a
z
r,
function F(z, z ) which is analytic when the variables z, z remain respectively
in the circles (7,
of radii r and r
but it does not tell us anything about the
nature of this function when we have z
r or z
r
Let us suppose for
is
<
>
<
>
C"
>
we
cause the variable z to
>
definiteness that
move over a path L from
the origin
a point Z exterior to the circle (7, and the variable z to travel over another
to a point Z exterior to the circle C
Let a and
path L from the point z
a being in the
/3 be two points taken respectively on the two paths L and L
to
interior of
C and
obtained from
it
in the interior of
/3
The
series (20)
and those which are

form a new power
differentiations enable us to
by successive
series,
S6 mn (z-a)(z -/3),
(21)
which
r x and
is
a
absolutely convergent if we have z
are two suitably chosen positive numbers.
|
r{
<
and z
r^
Let us call
ft
Cl
r^ where
the circle of
<
radius r l described about the point a as center in the plane of z, and C{ the
circle of radius r[ described in the plane of z about the point /3 as center. If z
is in the part common to the two circles C and C
and the point z in the part
x
,
common
to the
two
circles
C and
Cj, the value of the series (21) is the same as

If it is possible to choose the two numbers r l and r{
the value of the series (20).

in such a way that the circle C^ will be partly exterior to the circle C, or the
circle C{ partly exterior to the circle C , we shall have extended the definition
of the function F(z, z
to a region extending beyond the first. Continuing in

)
easy to see how the function F(z, z ) may be extended step by
It is necessary
step. But there appears here an important new consideration
to take into account the way in which the variables move with respect to each other
this
manner,
it is
their respective paths. The following is a very simple example of this, due to
z = 0, u = 1,
z + 1 for the initial values let us take z
Sauvage.* Let u = Vz
and let the paths described by the variables z, z be defined as follows 1) The
path described by the variable z is composed of the rectilinear segment from
on
the origin to the point z

the
semicircumferences
1.
first,
2)
The path described by
ONA
z is
(Fig. 38), has its center
composed of three
on the real axis to
* Premiers
principes de la theorie generals des fonctions de plusieurs variables
(Annales de la Faculte des Sciences de Marseille, Vol. XIV). This memoir is an
excellent introduction to the study of analytic functions of several variables.
SEVERAL VARIABLES
232
97
[V,
the left of the origin and a radius less than 1/2 the second, ANB, also has
1 is on its diameter
center on the real axis and is so placed that the point
;
its
AB
the third, BPC, has for its center the middle point of the segment joining
the point B to the point C (z = 1). The first and the third of these semicircum-
finally,
ferences are above the real axis, and the second is below, so that the bound
incloses the point z =
1. Let us now select the following
ary
OMANBPCO
movements
1) z
2) z
remains zero, and z describes the entire path OABC

remains equal to 1, and z describes its whole path.
If we consider the auxiliary variable t = z

z it is easily seen that the path
when that variable is represented by a point on the
described by the variable
,
FIG. 38
z plane, is precisely
1 of
point
the closed boundary
the radical
Vi +
1.
The
OABCO which surrounds the

final
value of u
On
1)
is
therefore u
critical
1.
the other hand, let us select the following procedure

e (e being a very small positive
to 1
z remains zero and z varies from
:
number)
the path OABC
e, and z describes
2) z remains equal to 1
from 1
e to 1.
3) z remains equal to 1, and z varies
When z varies from to 1 e, the auxiliary variable t describes a path 00
1 on the real axis. Wrhen z describes
very near the point
ending in a point
next the path OABC, t moves over a path O A B C congruent to the preceding
and ending in the point C (OC = e) on the real axis. Finally, when z varies
to the origin. Thus the auxiliary variable t
from 1 e to 1, t passes from
1 on its
describes the closed boundary OO A B C O which leaves the point
;
C"
exterior, provided e is taken small enough.

1.
be equal to
The
final
value of u will therefore
Very much less is known about the nature of the singularities of analytic
functions of several variables than about those of functions of a single variable.
One of the greatest difficulties of the problem lies in the fact that the pairs of
singular values are not isolated.*
*For everything regarding this matter see a memoir by Poincare

mathematica (Vol. XXVI), and P. Cousin s thesis (Ibid. Vol. XIX).
in the
Acta
V,
IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
98]
II.
233
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS.
We
have already established (I, 193,

1st
the
of implicit functions defined
existence
187,
ed.)
by
in
which
the
left-hand
side
can be developed in a power
equations
series proceeding in positive and increasing powers of the two
98. Weierstrass s theorem.
2d
ed.
variables. The arguments which were made supposing the variables

and coefficients real apply without modification when the variables
and the coefficients have any values, real or imaginary, provided we
retain the other hypotheses. We shall establish now a more general
theorem, and we shall preserve the notations previously used in that
study. The complex variables will be denoted by x and y.
Let F(XJ ?/) be an analytic function in the neighborhood of a
pair of values x = a, y = /?, and such that we have F(a,
)=0.
We shall suppose that a = ft = 0, which is always permissible. The
has the root y =
to a certain degree of mul
equation F(0, y) =
The
case
which
we
have
studied
is that in which
is
tiplicity.
y
a simple root we shall now study the general case where y =
is a
0.
If we arrange
multiple root of order n of the equation F(0, y)
;
the development of F(x, y] in the neighborhood of the point x

according to powers of y, that development will be
where the
coefficients
are zero for x
0,
while
are
An
power
series in x, of
does not vanish for x
=y=
which the
0.
Let
first
C and C
R and R described in the planes of x and y

about
the
respectively
origin as center. We shall suppose that the
function F(x, y) is analytic in the region defined by these two circles
and also on the circles themselves since A n is not zero for x = Q, we
be two circles of radii
suppose that the radius R of the circle C

so that A n does not vanish in the interior of the
may
circle.
and
Let
M be an upper bound for
a lower bound for \A n
F(x, y)
By Cauchy
is
sufficiently small
circle
C nor on
the
in the preceding region
fundamental theorem
we have
F(x,y )dy
where x and y are any two points taken in the circles C and
from this we conclude that the absolute value of the coefficient A m
of ym in the formula (22) is less than M/R m whatever may be the
value of x in the circle C.
C";
SEVERAL VARIABLES
234
We
can
now
[V,
98
write
F(x,y) =
(23)
where
^-V
A n yn
**
An y
A
Let p be the absolute value of y
we have
M
n
1and
than 1/2
this absolute value will be less
if
we have
BR n
On
BR n +
P<
(24)
the other hand, let
values of the functions
p (r)
2M
maximum value of the

A n _ l for all the values
be the
AQ Av
absolute
of x for
R. Since
which the absolute value does not exceed a number r
zero with r,
these n functions are zero for x = 0,
(r) approaches
and we can always take r so small that
<
//,
(25)
where p is a definite positive number. The numbers r and p having

been determined so as to satisfy the preceding conditions, let us re
the circle C by the circle C r described in the x-plane with the
place
as center, and similarly in the y-plane
radius r about the point x
the circle C by the concentric circle C p with the radius p/ If we give
cause the variable y to
to x a value such that x
r, and then
describe the circle
C p along
,
the entire circumference of this circle
we
manner in which the numbers r and p have been chosen,

P + Q| 1. If the variable y
1/2, and therefore
1/2, Q|
describes the circle C p in the positive sense, the angle of 1 + P -f Q
have, from the
<
<
\P\<
returns to
A n yn in
value, whereas the angle of the factor
The equation
0, in which x\^r, therefore
y)
its initial
F(x,
by 2 /ITT.
has n roots whose absolute values are less than p, and only n.
All the other roots of the equation F(x, y) = 0, if there are any,
have their absolute values greater than p. Since we can replace the
creases
number p by a number
as small as
we
wish, less than
p,
if
we
replace
IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
V,98]
at the
235
same time r by a smaller number satisfying always the con

we see that the equation F(x, y) = has n roots and only
dition (25),
n which approach zero with x.

If the variable x remains in the interior of the circle C r or on its
yn whose absolute values are less
circumference, the n roots y v yz
than p, remain within the circle C p These roots are not in general
C but every symmetric integral
analytic functions of x in the circle r
rational function of these n roots is an analytic function of x in this cir
,
It evidently suffices to
cle.
where k
is
h y$,
prove this for the sum y\ + y\
Let us consider for this purpose the
-\
a positive integer.
double integral
/=
dy<
*J (C^
dx
F(x y
<S(CSi
where we suppose x\<r. If\y = p, the function F(x y ) cannot

vanish for any value of the variable x within or on C r and the only
in the interior of the
pole of the function under the integral sign
circle C r is the point x = x. We have, then,
,
dF(x, y
and consequently
a general theorem
By
where y v y2
48) this integral
is
equal to
=
yn are the n roots of the equation F(x, y)
with
On
the other hand, the integral / is an

p.
Cr for we can develop !/(#
circle
of
in
the
x
function
a:)
analytic
in a uniformly convergent series of powers of x, and then calculate
absolute values less than
the integral term by term. The different sums Syf being analytic
functions in the circle C r the same thing must be true of the sum
of the sum of the products taking two at a time, and so
of the
,
roots,
on,
and therefore the n
roots
y lt
?/ 2 ,
yn are also roots of an equa
tion of the nth degree

(26)
f(x,
y)=
+ ^yn ~ +
2
a^"-*
+ a-iy + * = 0,
SEVERAL VARIABLES
236
whose
circle
a v az
coefficients
Cr
vanishing for x
%-
a n are analytic functions of x in the
[V,
0.
The two functions F(x, y) and f(x, y) vanish for the same pairs
of values of the variables x, y in the interior of the circles C r and C p
.
We
now show
that the quotient F(x, y)/f(x, y) is an analytic

in
this
function
region. Let us take definite values for these vari
shall
ables such that
<
\
r,
integral
J==
,.,
<
\
and
p,
r F (x
let
us consider the double
dx
>
For a value of y of absolute value p the function /(# y ) of the

variable x cannot vanish for any value of x within or on the circle
C r The function under the integral sign has therefore the single
= x within Cr and the corresponding residue is
pole x
,
Hence we have
also
but the two analytic functions F(x, y ), f(x, ?/ ) of the variable y

have the same zeros with the same degrees of multiplicity in the
Their quotient is therefore an analytic function of
interior of C p
.
y in Cp,
circle is
and the only pole of the function

y = y hence we have
to be integrated in this
the other hand, we can replace !/(

a;) (//
y) in the inte
in
positive powers
gral by a uniformly convergent series arranged
of x and y. Integrating term by term, we see that the integral is
equal to the value of a power series proceeding according to powers of
On
x and y and convergent in the
circles
Cr
Cp.
Hence we may write
or
(27)
F(x, y)
= (y* +
flv/"
where the function H(x, y) is analytic in the circles Cr Cp.

The coefficient A n of yn in F(x, y) contains a constant term dif
a n are zero for x = 0, the develop
ferent from zero since a v 2
a constant term different from
contains
of
ment
H(x, y) necessarily
,
zero,
and the decomposition given by the expression (27) throws
V,
IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
99]
237
which approach zero

into relief the fact that the roots of F(x, y)
factor
first
the
obtained
with x are
equal to zero. The
by putting
preceding important theorem
due to Weierstrass.*
is
It generalizes,
at least as far as that is possible for a function of several variables,

the decomposition into factors of functions of a single variable.
In order to study the n roots of the equation

which
become
infinitely small with x, we are thus led to
F(x, y)
of the form
of
an
roots
the
equation
study
99. Critical points.
n
y)=y + a^- + a^f-* +
f(x,
(28)
-iy
+a =
n
a n are analytic functions

x near zero, where a v a.2
=
than
n
is
When
0.
that vanish for x
unity (the only case
greater
=
in
is
x
the
which concerns us),
general a critical point. Let
point
the
and df/dy =
two
the
us eliminate y between
equations / =
a
a
a
and
in
coefficients
the
is
a
resultant A(x)
n
polynomial
v z
therefore an analytic function in the neighborhood of the origin.
This resultant t is zero for x = 0, and, since the zeros of an analytic
for values of
function form a system of isolated points, we may suppose that we

have taken the radius r of the circle Cr so small that in the interior
has no other root than x = 0. For every

equation A (x) =
circle other than the origin, the equation
in
that
taken
point
f(xQ y) = will have n distinct roots. According to the case already
studied (I,
188, 1st ed.), the n roots of the equation
194, 2d ed.
of x in the neighborhood of the point
functions
will
be
analytic
(28)
x Hence there cannot be any other critical point than the origin
of
Cr the
ic
in the interior of the circle
Cr
0. Let
y)
yn be the n roots of the equation /(
us cause the variable x to describe a loop around the point x
0,
n
roots
of
the
the
whole
the
X
from
the
loop
along
starting
point
Let y v yz
and vary in a continuous manner.

from the point X Q with the root y v for example, and fol
low the continuous variation of that root along the whole loop, we
return to the point of departure with a final value equal to one of the
equation f(x, y}
If
we
are distinct
start
roots of the equation
f(x Q
y)
If that final value
0.
is
y^ the root
* Abhandlungen aus der Functionenlehre von K. Weierstrass (Berlin, 1860). The

use only of the properties of power
proposition can also be demonstrated by making
series and the existence theorem for implicit functions (Bulletin de la Societe
mathematique, Vol. XXXVI, 1908, pp. 209-215).
In this case /(a;, y)
t
disregard the case where the resultant is identically zero.
1, fi(x, y) being of the same
would be divisible by a factor [fi(x> y)] k where k
We
form as/(x,
y).
>
SEVERAL VARIABLES
238
99
[V,
considered
is single-valued in the neighborhood of the

origin. If
that final value is different from yv let us suppose that it is equal
to ?/2
new loop described in the same sense will lead from the
.
to one of the roots y^ y^

yn The final value cannot be
y 2 since the reverse path must lead from y2 to ?/ r That final value
must, then, be one of the roots y^ y^
yn If it is y^ we see that
root
?/ 2
the two roots yl and y2 are permuted when the variable describes
a loop around the origin. If that final value is not y 1? it is one
of the remaining (n
let
2) roots
described in the same sense will lead
?/3
roots y^
?/3 ,
i/ 2 ,
?/ 4 ,
-,
yn
It
be that root.
from the root
cannot be
for the
?/ 3 ,
?/8
new
loop
to one of the
same reason
as
since the reverse path leads from y2 to y^.

Hence that final value is either y^ or one of the remaining (n
3)
If it is y lt the three roots y^ ya yg permute
roots y4 y5
., y n
before
neither
is
it
?/ 2 ,
themselves cyclically when the variable x describes a loop around

the origin, If the final value is different from y^ we shall continue
to cause the variable to turn
around the
origin,
and
at the
end of
of operations we shall necessarily come back to a

root already obtained, which will be the root y r Suppose, for exam
the p roots obtained,
ple, that this happens after p operations
*i yp
permute themselves cyclically when the variable x
Vv
finite
number
y\->
We
describes a loop around the origin.

say that they form a cyclic
roots. If p
n, the n roots form a single cyclic system.
If p is less than n, we shall repeat the reasoning, starting with one
system of p
of the remaining n
p roots and so on. It is clear that if
tinue in this way we shall end by exhausting all the roots,
can state the following proposition

=
F(x, y) = 0, which are zero for x
:
The n
0,
form
systems in the neighborhood of the origin.

To render the statement perfectly general,
roots
we con
and we
of the equation
one or several cyclic

it is
sufficient to agree
that a cyclic system can be composed of a single root that root is

then a single-valued function in the neighborhood of the origin.
The roots of the same cyclic system can be represented by a unique
;
-,yp be the p roots of a cyclic system let

development. Let y^ y^
p
=
Each of these roots becomes an analytic function
x
us put x
of x for all values of x other than x
0; on the other hand, when
=
the
x describes a loop around x
0,
point x describes p succes
-
sive loops in the
same sense around the
origin.
Each of the
roots
then to its initial value they are single-valued

UP returns
Vv y
functions in the neighborhood of the origin. Since these roots ap
;
>
x
proach zero when x approaches zero, the origin
cannot be
IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
239
other than an ordinary point, and one of these roots

by a development of the form
(29)
or,
replacing x by
(so)
X + ^X
x l/p
H----
+a
xm
is
represented
= oâ* +
We may now say
that the development (30) represents all the roots

l/p all
same
the
of its
cyclic system, provided that we give to x
of
for
the
radical
Va;
us
let
determinations.
that,
taking
For,
suppose
p
one of
its
determinations, we have the development of the root y r

x describes a loop around the origin in the positive
If the variable
l/p
y l changes into y 2 and x
sense,
is
multiplied by
e 2ni/p
It will
be
1/p 2qni/p
l/p
by X e
yq by replacing x
in the equality (30). This unique development for the system shows
up clearly the cyclic permutation of the p roots. It would now remain
to show how we could separate the n roots of the equation F(x, y) =
into cyclic systems and calculate the coefficients a of the develop
ments (30). We have already considered the case where the point
is a double point (I,
x =y =
199, 2d ed.). We shall now treat
seen, similarly, that
we
shall obtain
another particular case.

the derivative dF/dx is not zero, the develop
If for x = y =
ment of F(XJ y) contains a term of the first degree in x, and we have
F(x,y) = Ax+Bp+...,
(31)
(ABÔ)
2
where the terms not written are divisible by one of the factors x xy,
n+l Let us consider
y for a moment as the independent variable;
y
,
has a single root approaching zero with ?/,

the equation F(x, y)
and that root is analytic in the neighborhood of the origin. The
development which we have already seen how to calculate

20, 187, 1st ed.) runs as follows
193, 2d ed.
(I,
35,
(32)
= y(a + aj +
Extracting the nth root of the
two
& = y-a +
(33)
sides,
<*>&
y =
K*
we
0)
find
+
=
has n dis
a Q -f- a^y -\the auxiliary equation u
series
tinct roots, each of which is developable in a power
according
to powers of y. Since these n roots are deducible from one of them
For
by multiplying
it
by the successive powers of

any one
e*
m /n we can take
,
for
of these roots, subject

a\y
to the condition of assigning successively to x lfn its n determinations.
>/a
in the equality (33)
SEVERAL VARIABLES
240
We
99
[V,
can therefore write the equation (33) in the form

a?
and from
this
we
= a y + V+-,
ftô)
derive, conversely, a development of y in powers
(34)
c
l
xn
This development, if we give successively to x l/n its n values,

represents the n roots which approach zero with x. These n roots
form, then, a single cyclic system.
For a study of the general case
we
refer the reader to treatises
devoted to the theory of algebraic functions.*

100. Algebraic functions. Up to the present time the implicit func
most carefully studied are the algebraic functions, defined by
tions
an equation F(x, y)
polynomial in x and
in
which the left-hand side
polynomial
0,
y.
is
is
an irreducible
said to be irreducible
when
not possible to find two other polynomials of lower degree, Ffa, y)

and F3 (x, y\ such that we have identically
it is
F(x
y)=F (x y)xFa(x
If the polynomial F(x, y)

clear that the equation
equations
F^x y) =
9
0,
y).
were equal to a product of that kind, it is

= could be replaced by two distinct
y)
F(x
F3
y)
(a>,
0.
Let, then,
(35) F(x, y)
= ^(x)ir + ^)yn ~
+ *-i(*)y + *.(*) =
4-
be the proposed equation of degree n in
where
y,
<
<^,
<f>
are
Eliminating y between the two relations F = 0,

obtain a polynomial A (x) for the resultant, which can
polynomials in x.
i)F/dy
we
0,
not be identically zero, since F(x, y} is supposed to be, irreducible.

ak which represent
Let us mark in the plane the points a l9 az
,&,
the roots of the equation A(a?)= 0, and the points ft v J3.2
-
(x)= 0. Some of the points a may

also be among the roots of
(x)= 0. For a point a different from
has n distinct and finite
the points a ft- the equation F(a,y)=
which represent the roots of
<f>
<
f ,
In the neighborhood of the point a the equation

bn
n analytic roots which approach b v b z
(35) has therefore
the
of
when x approaches a. Let a be a root
equation
roots, l v & 2
bn
respectively
* See also the noted memoir of Puiseux on algebraic functions (Journal de Mathtmatiquex, Vol. XV, 1850).
V,
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
100]
has a certain number of equal

let us suppose, for example, that it has p roots equal to b.
roots which approach b when x approaches a group themselves
A(#)=
roots
241
The p
0.
The equation F(a^ y)=
number
into a certain
and the
of cyclic systems,
roots of the
same
cyclic system are represented by a development in series arranged

a
If the value a does not
according to fractional powers of x
t
in the neigh
cause
(x) to vanish, all the roots of the equation (35)
into
a
certain
a
themselves
number of
of
the
borhood
point t group
For
one
root.
a point
of
contain
which
some
only
may
cyclic systems,
4>
which makes Q (x) zero, some of the roots of the equation (35)
become infinite in order to study these roots, we put y = 1/y and
fa
<j
we
are led to study the roots of the equation
which become zero

into a certain
for x
number
being represented by
(36)
The
= fa.
These roots group themselves again
of cyclic systems, the roots of the same system

a development in series of the form
a m (x- ft)
K*
+ fl* +1 (a -&)*+,
corresponding roots of the equation in y will be given
0)
by the
development
y=(x-Pj)
(37)
which can be arranged
in increasing
powers of (x
1/p
ft)
but there
& finite number of terms with negative exponents.

To study the values of y for the infinite values of x, we put x = 1/x
and we are led to study the roots of an equation of the same form in
will
be at
first
the neighborhood of the origin. To sum up, in the neighborhood of

a the n roots of the equation (35) are represented by
any point x
a certain number of series arranged according to increasing powers
lfp
a or of (a;
containing perhaps a finite number of terms
a)
with negative exponents, and this statement applies also to infinite
cc by \/x.
values of x by replacing x
It is to be observed that the fractional powers or the negative ex
of x
ponents present themselves only for the exceptional points.
The
only singular points of the roots of the equation are therefore the
critical points around which some of these roots permute themselves
and the poles where some of these roots become infinite

may be at the same time a pole and a critical
These two kinds of singular points are often called algebraic
cyclically,
moreover, a point
point.
singular points.
SEVERAL VARIABLES
242
[V,
100
We
have so far studied the roots of the proposed equation only in

the neighborhood of a fixed point. Suppose now that we join two
x
b, for which the equation (35) has n distinct and
a-j
points x
by a path AB not passing through any singular point of

the root
the equation. Let yl be a root of the equation F(a, y) =
=
=
x
is represented in the neigh
to
for
reduces
which
a,
y
y f(x),
l
finite roots,
borhood of the point a by a power-series development P(x

a).
We can propose to ourselves the problem of finding its analytic ex
tension by causing the variable to describe the path AB. This is a
particular case of the general problem, and we know in advance that
we shall arrive at the point B with a final value which will be a
We
shall surely arrive at

of operations in fact, the
radii of the circles of convergence of the series representing the
different roots of the equation F(x, y)
0, having their centers at
root of the equation F(b, y)=Q

the point b at the end of a finite
86).
number
0, since this
AB, have a lower limit* 8
it is clear that we
and
critical points
contain
not
does
any
path
could always take the radii of the different circles which we use for
different points of the path
>
the analytic extension at least equal to 8.

Among all the paths joining the points A and B we can always
find one leading from the root y^ to any given one of the roots of
the equation
made
tion z
F (b, y) =
as the final value.
The proof
of this can be
depend on the following proposition If an analytic func

of the variable x has only p distinct values for each value of x,
to
and if it has in
the whole plane (including the point at infinity) only

p determinations of z are roots of an
algebraic singular points, the
x.
equation of degree p whose coefficients are rational functions of
when the variable x
zp be the p determinations of z
Let j, 2
;
describes a closed curve, these

into each other.
values z v
2,
The symmetric function u k
zp can only change
= z\ + z\
-fr
-+-
2*,
a positive integer, is therefore single-valued. Moreover,

that function can have only polar singularities, for in the neigh
a the developments
borhood of any point in the finite plane x
where k
is
zp have only a finite number of terms with negative

same thing is therefore true of the development of u k
The
exponents.
cannot con
Also, the function u k being single-valued, its development
tain fractional powers. The point a is therefore a pole or an ordinary
the point at infinity. The function u k
point for u tt and similarly for
of
2j,
2,
To prove
to that of
this rigorously
84.
it
suffices to
make
use of a form of reasoning analogous
V,
is
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
101]
243
therefore a rational function of x, whatever may be the integer

consequently the same thing is true of the simple symmetric
which proves the theorem stated.

S*,-, S ,-*,
Having shown this, let us now suppose that in going from the
point a to any other point x of the plane by all possible paths we
functions, such as
can obtain as
final values
only
of the roots of the equation
F(x,y)=0,
These
when
(p<n)
p roots can evidently only be permuted among themselves

the variable x describes a closed boundary, and they possess
z p of the analytic
the properties of the p branches 1? 2
conclude from this that
function z which we have just studied.
would be roots of an equation of degree p,
, yp
0,
ylt ?/ 2
y)
all
We
^\(#>
with rational
coefficients.
The equation F(x,
then, all the roots of the equation F^(x, y)
0,
=
y)
would have,
whatever x
may
be,
and the polynomial F(x, y) would not be irreducible, contrary to

hypothesis. If we place no restriction upon the path followed by
the variable x, the n roots of the equation (35) must then be regarded
as the distinct branches of a single analytic function, as we have
already remarked in the case of some simple examples (6).
Let us suppose that from each of the critical points we make an

plane in such a way that these cuts do not cross
infinite cut in the
each other.
If the path followed
by x
is
required not to cross any
of these cuts, the n roots are single-valued functions in the whole

plane, for two paths having the same extremities will be transform
able one into the other
by a continuous deformation without passing
over any critical point
85).
In order to follow the variation of a
root along any path, we need only know the law of the permutation
of these roots when the variable describes a loop around each of the
critical points.
The study of algebraic functions is made relatively easy by the fact

we can determine a priori by algebraic computation the singular points of
Note.
that
is no longer true in general of implicit functions that are

not algebraic, which may have transcendental singular points. As an example,
the implicit function y (x), defined by the equation &
1 = 0, has no algebraic
x
these functions. This
critical point,
101
is
but
it
has the transcendental singular point x
Abelian integrals.
Every
attached
gral, it is
to
1.
I=fR (x, y) dx, where R (x, y)
is an algebraic func
y,
an Abelian integral
is
called
the
0,
by
equation F(x, y)
that curve. To complete the determination of that inte
a rational function of x and
tion defined
integral
and where y
necessary to assign a lower limit XQ and the corresponding
SEVERAL VARIABLES
244
value yQ chosen
shall
now
the roots of the equation
among
101
[V,
F (X
= 0. We
y)
Q,
some of the most important general properties of such

When we go from the point XQ to any point x by all the
state
integrals.
possible paths, all the values of the integral / are included in one
of the formulae
/
(38)
where Iv /2
= Ik + m
,
^l
+m
o>
+m
<
r,
(k
= 1, 2,
.,
n)
7B are the values of the integral which correspond

and
r are arbitrary integers,
-,
v ra 2
to certain definite paths,
w r are periods. These periods are of two kinds one kind

2
Wj,
results from loops described about the poles of the function R (x, y)
these are the polar periods. The others come from closed paths
;
o>
surrounding several
cyclic periods.
critical points, called cycles-, these are called
The number
of the distinct cyclic periods depends
it
only on the algebraic relation considered, F(x, y)= 0;
to 2 j9, where p denotes the deficiency of the curve ( 82).
is
equal
the
On
other hand, there may be any number of polar periods. From the
of Abelian integrals
point of view of the singularities three classes
are distinguished. Those which remain finite in the neighborhood
of every value of x are called the first kind; if their absolute value
becomes
infinite
infinite,
number
it
can only happen through the addition of an

The integrals of the second kind are
of periods.
those which have a single pole, and the integrals of the third kind
have two logarithmic singular points. Every Abelian integral is a
sum of integrals of the three kinds, and the number of distinct
integrals of the first kind is equal to the deficiency.
The study of these integrals is made very easy by the aid of plane
surfaces composed of several sheets, called Riemann surfaces.
shall only give,
shall not have occasion to consider them here.
We
We
on account of its thoroughly elementary character, the demonstra

tion of a fundamental theorem, discovered by Abel.
-
In order to state the results more
102. Abel s theorem.
easily, let us
0,
consider the plane curve C represented by the equation F(x, y)
C
curve
of
another
the
let
be
and
plane algebraic
equation
&(x, y)
,
These two curves have
points in common, (x v y^ (aJ 2 y2 ),
the
of
to
the
number
degrees
the
product
being equal
(xjr, y N\
be a rational function, and let us
of the two curves. Let
.
R(x, y}
consider the following

(39)
sum
N
/(xf
f=5l
y f)
R(x,y)dx,
V,
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
102]
245
where
R(x,y)dx
/(a
denotes the Abelian integral taken from the fixed point X Q to a point x.
along a path which leads y from the initial value y Q to the final value y
the initial value y Q of y being the same for all these integrals. It is
t,
clear that the sum / is determined except for a period, since this is
the case with each of the integrals. Suppose, now, that some of the
are variable.
ak) of the polynomial
coefficients, a v a 2
y~)
,
<(#,
When
these coefficients vary continuously, the points x { themselves

vary continuously, and if none of these points pass through a point
sum / itself varies
of discontinuity of the integral
(x, y) dx, the
fR
continuously, provided that we follow the continuous variation of

each of the integrals contained in it along the entire path described
by the corresponding upper

of the parameters a 1? a a
,
limit.
,
The sum
is
therefore a function
ak whose analytic form we shall now

,
investigate.
Let us denote in general by 8 V the total differential of any func

ak
V with respect to the variables a v &2
tion
SF =
^H +
---
the expression (39)
From
the two relations
+ ^K.
oa
k
foj
By
we have
F(x i} y ) =
f
0,
$(se f
we
)=
derive
and consequently &e = ^(x i} y -)8$ where ^f(x ,y^)

function of x if y a v a 2
and where fy is put
-, a k
We have, then,
{= ^
f
{,
is
a rational
for
<^(x it
).
The
coefficient of Ba l on the right is a rational symmetric function

of the coordinates of the ^V points (x it yf) common to the two curves
The theory of elimination proves that this function is a
C, C
.
two polynomials F(x, y)

of a lt a a
ak
function
rational
and
a
consequently
y),
of
8&
of
the
coefficients
the
same
is
true
8%,
Evidently
thing
2
rational function of the coefficients of the
and
<&(x,
SEVERAL VARIABLES
246
and /
by the integration of a
will be obtained
7T
where
7T
TT^
+ 7T SS +
3a i
total differential
+ 7T,Sa,,
are rational functions of a lt a2
7rk
102
[V,
ak
Now
the integration cannot introduce any other transcendentals than

logarithms. The sum I is therefore equal to a rational function of
a k plus a sum of logarithms of rational
the coefficients a v a
-
functions of the same coefficients, each of these logarithms being

multiplied by a constant factor. This is the statement of Abel s
theorem in
most general form.
its
sum of
also say that the
In geometric language we can
the values of
any Abelian
integral, taken
points of intersection of the given

from a common origin to the
curve with a variable curve of degree m,
0, is equal to a
y)
a sum of a finite
rational function of the coefficients of
y), plus
<(#,
<(#,
number of logarithms of rational functions of
the
same
coefficients,
each logarithm being multiplied by a constant factor.

The second statement appears at first sight the more striking,
but in applications we must always keep in mind the analytic state
ment in the evaluation of the continuous variation of the sum /
which corresponds to a continuous variation of the parameters

ak
The theorem has a precise meaning only if we take
a v az
X N on
into account the paths described by the N points x v x 2
-
the plane of the variable

of the
is
identically zero,
al
a\
ak
x.
The statement becomes

integral
of
a remarkable simplicity
when
the
were not
kind. In fact, if ir v ?r2

would be possible to find a system of values
a k for which I would become infinite. Let (x\ y ^),
first
irk
it
C with the
y ir) be the points of intersection of the curve
the
of
a
curve C which correspond to the values a\
k
parameters.
>
X
(
N>
The
integral
<iTf|f)
R(x,y)dx
would become
the upper limit approaches one of the

first kind.
impossible if the integral is of the
when
infinite
which
points fa,
2/-),
Therefore
we have
/ remains constant
81
;
is
0,
Abel
a k vary continuously,
when a lt a^,
theorem can then be stated as follows
and,
s
C and a
variable curve
the
sum
Given a fixed curve

of degree m,
the first kind attached to
of the increments of an Abelian integral of
the curve C along the continuous curves described by the points of
is equal to zero.
intersection of C with
C"
V,
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
103]
247
We
suppose that the degree of the curve C remains con

stant and equal to m. If for certain particular values of the coeffi
a k that degree were lowered, some of the points of
cients a v a z
Note.
C with C should be regarded as thrown off to

be necessary to take account of this in the
would
infinity, and
We mention also the almost evident fact
theorem.
of
the
application
intersections of
it
that
is
if
some of the points of intersection of C with C are
unnecessary to include the corresponding integrals in the

103. Application to
hyperelliptic
integrals.
The
fixed, it
sum
/.
applications of
Abel s theorem to Analysis and to Geometry are extremely numer

ous and important. We shall calculate S/ explicitly in the case of
hyperelliptic integrals.
Let us consider the algebraic relations

(40)
^ = fl(z) =
where the polynomial R(x)
is
prime to
its
derivative.
We
shall
suppose that A Q may be zero, but that A Q and A l may not be zero at
2.
the same time, so that R (x) is of degree 2p -f- 1 or of degree 2p
Let Q(x) be any polynomial of degree q. We shall take for the

initial value X Q a value of x which does not make R (x) vanish, and
for
yQ a root of the equation
2
?/
=R
(a? ).
We
shall put
where the integral is taken along a path going from X Q to a, and

where y denotes the final value of the radical V/2(se) when we start
from X Q with the value yQ In order to study the system of points
.
C represented by the equation (40) with

C we may evidently replace in the equation
of intersection of the curve
another algebraic curve

of the latter curve an even power of
,
such as y2r by [^(#)] r and

These substitutions having been
y,
an odd power y 2r+l by y[_R(x)J".

made, the equation obtained will now contain y only to the first
form
degree, and we may suppose the equation of the curve C of the
(41)
where f(x) and

are two polynomials prime to each other, of
(a;)
of which we
degrees X and
respectively, some of the coefficients
<
JJL
shall suppose to be variable.

tion of the two curves C and
(42)
The
t(x)=R (x)
abscissas of the points of intersec

are roots of the equation
tf (x)
-/
(x)
= 0,
SEVERAL VARIABLES
248
103
[V,
For special systems of values of the variable coefficients

two polynomials f(x) and (x) the degree of the equation may
turn out to be less than N some of the points of intersection are
then thrown off to infinity, but the corresponding integrals must
be included in the sum which we are about to study. To each root
of degree N.
in the
<
X; of
the equation (42) corresponds a completely determined value

Let us now consider the sum
by
/(aJ<)/^ (#,)
&=
of y given
We
have
..
for the final value of the radical at the point x

On the other hand,
is, to /(#/)/< (^Y)-
ytj that
=
\, X
we
must be equal to
from the equation
derive
(*..)
&r,
fl(*,.)
4>(x,)
8<fc
2/(*,.) 8/.
0,
and therefore
a,
or,
making use of the equation
(42),
;/
(43)
Let us calculate, for example, the
coefficient of Ba k in S/,
where a
k
the coefficient, supposed variable, of x in the polynomial/(x).
and it is multiplied by x\ in 8f{
term 8a k does not appear in
S<^,
desired coefficient of 8ak
is
TT(X)
= Q (as)
<#>
(sc)
x*.
is
therefore equal to
^ oV^fe)
where
fc
The
The
The preceding sum must be extended
roots of the equation ^ (x) =
to
a rational and symmetric

all the
function of the coeffi
a
rational
therefore
function of these roots, and
The calculation of
and
cients of the two
<(#)
;
it is
polynomials f(x)
sum can be facilitated by noticing that STT (,)///(,) is equal to

the sum of the residues of the rational function ir(x)/\l/(x) relative
X N By a general theo
to the N poles in the finite plane x v sc a
at
residue
to
the
rem that sum is also equal
this
to obtain the
sign changed ( 52). It will be possible, then,
division.
a
coefficient of 8r/ A by
simple
with
its
V,
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
103]
249
if the integral
prove that this coefficient is zero
1 the
have
We
kind.
by supposition q ^p
v(x, y) is of the
have
we
and
is
p -f k,
q
degree of ir(x)
It is easy to
first
jji
k^fJL
+ k+p
1.
Let us find the degree of \j/(x). If there is no cancellation between

the terms of highest degree in R (x) $\x) and in f\x), we have
2\^N,
2p
+1+2
/*
=s
N,
whence
and, a fortiori,
*
If there
were a cancellation between these two terms, we should have
k
but since the term a k x* + has no term with which to cancel out, we
k ^ N, from which the same inequality as before
should have X
results.
we always have
It follows that
with respect to the

IT
(x) /ij/ (x)
the
for
development will begin
point at infinity is therefore zero,
2
will be seen similarly
It
of
or
with a term in 1/x
higher degree.
The
residue of the rational function
being one of the variable coefficients

the polynomial Q (x) is of degree
This result is completely in accord with
that the coefficient of Bb h in
87, b h
of the polynomial
(x),
p 1 or of lower degree.
zero
is
<f>
the general theorem.

Let us take, for example,
+1
where
a 1?
<f>
(x)
*
ap are p
+1
if
2p
+1
and
4- Op-i^"
let
us put
H----
variable coefficients.
if=R(x\
cut each other in
= 1,
al x
+a
Q9
The two curves
y=f(x)
variable points,
and the sum of the values
1
of the integral v (x, y}, taken from an initial point to these 2p
of the
function
an
is
of
algebraic-logarithmic
intersection,
points
Now we can dispose of these p 1 coeffi
a
a
coefficients
,
-,
x,
that
p+1
4- 1
given points.
of the points of intersection are any

way
curve y*=R(x), and the coordi
the
of
previously assigned points
nates of the p remaining points will be algebraic functions of the
cients in such a
coordinates of the
SEVERAL VARIABLES
250
The sum
of the
+1
[V,
103
integrals
common initial point to p -f- 1 arbitrary points, is

therefore equal to the sum of p integrals whose limits are algebraic
functions of the coordinates
taken from a
20,
0*1,
plus certain algebraic-logarithmic expressions. It is clear that by

successive reductions the proposition can be extended to the sum
of
m integrals, where m
any integer greater than p.
is
In particular,
sum of any number of integrals of the first kind can be reduced

the sum of only p integrals. This property, which applies to the
the
to
most general Abelian integrals of the

addition theorem for these integrals.
In the case of
Abel s theorem leads pre

formula for the function p(u). Let us consider a cubic in
the normal form

a
y
let
M\(x^
2/ : ),
2 (x 2 , ?/ 2 ),
J&
By
dx
V4x 3 -
g2 x
- g8
= 4a5* -
M (x
-M"
cubic with a straight line D.

r<w
kind, constitutes the
elliptic integrals of the first kind,
cisely to the addition
and
first
8,
ys )
gra aj
grg ,
the general theorem the
V4x8 -
sum
r*****
dx
<****>
J*
be the points of intersection of that
x- g8 J*
dx
V4z8 - g 2x - g B
are carried off to infinity

equal to a period, for the three points
v Jf2
3
when the straight line D goes off itself to infinity. Now if we employ the
parametric representation x =p(u), y
p (u) for the cubic, the parameter u is
is
precisely equal to the integral
dx
and the preceding formula says that the sum of the arguments M lv 2 w3 which
correspond to the three points
v 3f2 3f3 is equal to a period. We have seen
above how that relation is equivalent to the addition formula for the function
p(u)(80).
104. Extension of Lagrange s formula. The general theorem on the implicit
functions defined by a simultaneous system of equations (I,
194, 2d ed.
188, 1st ed.) extends also to complex variables, provided that we retain
;
Let us consider, for example, the two
the other hypotheses of the theorem.
simultaneous equations
(44)
P(x,y)
x-a- af(x, y) =
0,
Q(x,y)
y-b- 00
(x,
y)
0,
where x and y are complex variables, and where /(x, y) and (x, y) are ana
lytic functions of these two variables in the neighborhood of the system of
V,
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
104]
251
For a = 0, /3 - these equations (44) have the system of

determinant D(P, Q)/-D(x, y) reduces to unity.
6, and the
the system of equations (44) has one and
Therefore, by the general theorem,
and 6 respectively when a and /3 approach
a
roots
of
one
approaching
system
only
and these roots are analytic functions of a and /3. Laplace was the first
x-a,y = b.
= a, y =
values
solutions x
zero,
of equations.
Lagrange s formula ( 51) to this system
Let us suppose for definiteness that with the points a and 6 as centers we
in the planes of the variables x and y respectively,
describe two circles C and
with radii r and r so small that the two functions /(x, y) and (x, y) shall be
remain within or on the boundaries of
analytic when the variables x and y
be the maximum values of |/(x, y) and
and
Let
these two circles C,
to extend
C"
C".
We
of |0(x, y)|, respectively, in this region.
shall suppose further that the
a and satisfy the conditions M a\ r, M

now give to x any value within or on the boundary of the circle C
is satisfied by a single value of y in the interior of the
the equation Q (x, y) =
2 TT when y describes
for the angle of y - b circle
(x, y) increases by
constants
<
\p\<r
Let us
p<j>
C",
in the positive sense ( 49). That root is an analytic function

that root y v the
in the circle C. If we replace y in
of
x
(x, y) by
yl
t (x)
has one and only one root in the inte
a
af(x, yj
resulting equation x
rior of C, for the reason given a moment ago.
and let r; be the corresponding value of y, rj
\f/ ().
be that
Let x
the circle
C"
- -
root,
formula is to develop in powers of

object of the generalized Lagrange
is
which
function
analytic in the region just defined.
and every
F(, 17)
For this purpose let us consider the double integral
The
45
<
a.
F(x, y)dy
>
Since x is a point on the circumference of C, P(x, ?/) cannot vanish for any
a
for the angle of x
value of y within
af(x, y) returns necessarily to
x being a fixed point of C. The only pole
its initial value when y describes
of the function under the integral sign, considered as a function of the single
= 0,
variable ?y, is, then, the point y-y v given by the root of the equation Q (x, y)
which corresponds to the value of x on the boundary C, and we have, after a
- -
C",
C",
first
integration,
F(x, y)dy
)Q(*,y)
F(a
=2i7r
T>,V
The right-hand side, if we suppose y l replaced by the analytic function ^ (x)

defined above, has in turn a single pole of the first order in the interior of C,
and the corresponding
to which corresponds the value y t = 77,
the point x =
,
residue
is
easily
shown
to
be
=f
The double
integral I has therefore for its value
SEVERAL VARIABLES
252
On
we can
the other hand,
develop
(x
which gives us I
(y
wn
W /3M where
/3<)
(x
am
n
fi
fm
n
(f>
c
J(
(C")
This integral has already been calculated

t
uniformly convergent series
~J o
equal
104
in a
~ -Â
b
af)
=SJ"
1/PQ
[V,
7T
94),
and we have found that
d m + n [F(a, b) f m (a, b)
it is
(a, 6)]
<f>
da m db n
mini
we obtain the desired

Equating the two values of
51
evident analogy with the formula (50) of
7",
result,
which presents an
da m dbn
We
could also obtain a second result analogous to (51), of
F(x, y)
*(x,
51,
by putting
but the coefficients in this case are not so simple as in the case of one variable.
EXERCISES
1. Every algebraic curve C n of degree n and of deficiency p can be carried
over by a birational transformation into a curve of degree p + 2.
(Proceed as in 82, cutting the given curve by a net of curves Cn _ 2 passing
,
3 points of
1)/2
through n (n
double points, and put
Cn among which
,
are the (n
l)(n
2)/2
+ X0 2 (x, y) + /*0 8 (x, y) = 0.)

Deduce from the preceding exercise that the coordinates of a point
the equation of the net being 0j(x, y)

2.
of a
curve of deficiency 2 can be expressed as rational functions of a parameter t

and of the square root of a polynomial R (t) of the fifth or of the sixth degree,
prime to its derivative.

(The reader may begin by showing that the curve corresponds point by point
to a curve of the fourth degree having a double point.)
be the development in power series of an alge
x2 +
3*. Let y = a x +
2
v
braic function, a root of an equation F(x, y) = 0, where F(x, y) is a polynomial

is a
0, y
with integral coefficients and where the point with coordinates x
simple point of the curve represented by F(x, y)

are fractions, and it suffices to change x to A x,
= 0.
All the coefficients
a v a2
K being a suitably chosen integer,
in order that all these coefficients

(It will
to
make
one, all
become
[EISENSTEIN.]
integers.
be noticed that a transformation of the form x
the coefficient of y on the left-hand side of the

the other coefficients being integers.)
= k*x ,y = ky
new
suffices
relation equal to
INDEX
names numbers
roman type are paragraph numbers.]
[Titles in italic are proper
bers in
Abel: 19, ftn.; 170, 76

82 244, 101
180, 78
in italic are
page numbers
num
and
Birational transformations: 192, %Z\
193,
252, ex. 1
Abelian integrals
Blumenthal
:
132, ftn.
Borel: ISO, ftn.; 1S2, ftn.; 218, ex. 3
Bouquet : see Briot and Bouquet.
see Integrals
244, 102
Addition formulae : ^7,12; for elliptic
functions : 166, 74 250, 103
Abel
theorem
Branch point see Critical points

Branches of a function 15, 6 29, 13
195,
Briot and Bouquet 126, ex. 27
:
Adjoint curves: 191, 82

Affixe
4, ftn.
Algebraic equations
Algebraic functions
see
see
Algebraic singular points
Equations
Functions
:
ex.11
Burman
Burman
see Singular
126, ex. 26
s series
126, ex. 26
points
Analytic extension : 196, 83 199, 84 ;

functions of two variables 231, 97
Analytic functions: 7, 3 11, 4; ana
84 J
lytic extension: 196, 83; 199,
;
Cauchy
9, 3
42, 9
elements of 198, 83 ;
of : 199, 84 ; series of
:
of
88, 40
see also
new
:
227, 95
definition
Cauchy
zeros
of
Anchor ring
84,
Appell
Associated
220, 92
:
singularities of
114, 53
;
127, 57
215, 90
233, 98
222, 93
series
1S9, 63
225, 94
216, 90; theorem for

double integrals : 222, 93 225, 94
75, 33
78, 34
Cauchy-Taylor
series
79, 35
Change of variables, in integrals
of
convergence
45, 19
Class of an integral function

Clebsch
Bicircular quartics
:
57,
193, ex.
tion of a
40, 18
253
1S2, 58
186, ftn.
Complex quantity
Complex variable
Bertrand: 58, ex.22

:
ex.13
218.
ex. 7
Binomial formula
Circular transformation
Associated integral functions
62, 26
202,.
convergence : 18, 8
84; 209, 87; 212, 88; associated
220, 92;
circles of convergence:
84 and ftn.
singular points on : 202,
circles
71, ftn.; 74, 32;
theorem: 66, 28;
54, ex. 3
217, ex. 3
38
funda
33;
Circle of
:
ftn.;
81, 35
75,
integral:
60, 25
34; 82,
225, 94; 227, 95; Lagrange s for

mula : 250, 104 ; Taylor s formula :
226, 94
10, 3
9, ftn.;
mental formula: 76, 33; 227, 95;

fundamental theorem 233, 98 ; in
tegral theorems: 75, 33; method,
Mittag-Leffler s theorem: 139, 63;
theo
Cauchy
218, 91; analytic extension

231, 97 ; Cauchy s theorems
222, 92
232, 97
Cauchy-Laurent
rems, Functions, Integral functions,

Single-valued analytic functions
Analytic functions of several varia
bles:
74, 32; 78,
200, ftn.
77, 33;
86, 39
7,
106, 51
derivative of
71, ftn.;
9,
3, 1
6,
analytic func
function of a
6, 2.
INDEX
254
Conf ormal maps see Maps
Conformal representation 42, 19
:
20
48, 20
52, 23
45,
tion and Transformations

Conformal transformations
series
7,
Continuous functions
see
Convergence, circle of
of
Functions
uniform
Convergence,
grals
Cousin
99
f tn.
232,
29, 13
32, 14
237,
118, 53
;
Curves, adjoint: 191, 82; bicircular
conjugate iso
thermal systems : 54, 24 ; deficiency
of : 172, 77 191, 82 252, exs. 1 and
2 #44, 101 ; of deficiency one : 172,
193, ex.;
quartics:
double points 184, 80, 191, 82 ;

loxodromic : 53, ex. 1 ; parametric
representation of curves of defi
77
ciency one
ex.
187, 81
191, 82
193,
parametric representation of
plane cubics
180, 78
184, 80
187,
points of inflection : 186, 80 ;

quartics: 187, 81; unicursal : 191,
82
see also Abel s theorem and
81
Rhumb
Cuts
power
series
19,
56,
Dominant
81,
series
157 69
21, 9
Double integrals 222, 93 ; Cauchy s
theorems 222, 93 225, 94
Double points 184, 80 191, 82
Double series 21, 9 ; circles of con
:
:
220, 92; Taylor s for
222, 92 226, 94
periodic functions : 145, 65
vergence
:
Doubly
149, 67
see also Elliptic functions
252, ex. 3
Eisenstein
Elements
of analytic functions
198,
83
:
145, 65
150, 68 ;
addition formulae : 166, 74 ; alge
braic relation between elliptic func
Elliptic functions
same periods: 153,

application to cubics : 180, 78
184, 80; application to curves of
tions with the
68
deficiency one
application to
even and odd
lines
for
208, 87
Cycles : 244, 101
:
ex. 7
227, 94
mula
Curves
see
of
15, 6
logarithmic
infinite
Critical points
Cubics
of
129, 57 ; of inte
22, 10
229$$ ; of series : 7, 2 88, 39
:
227, 95
Dominant function
35
convergence
products
33
8; of series of analytic functions:

88, 39
see Circle of
114,
Derivative, of analytic functions: 9,

3 42, 19
77, 33 ; of integrals : 77,
;
6,
56, ex. 7
54, 24
power
law of the mean
functions
Note see also Integrals

De Moivre : 6, 1
De Moivre s formula 6, 1
formations
of
229, 96
45;
96,
r function
46
100,
64, 27; periods of: 112, 53;
Trans
see
Conjugate imaginaries 4, 1
Conjugate isothermal systems
Connected region 11, 4
Continuity,
FresnePs
100, 47
see also Projec
evaluation of:
95;
227,
187, 81
191, 82 ;
quartics : 187, 81 ;
154, 68 ; expansions
;
154, 69; general expression for:
244, 101
Cyclic system of roots : 238, 99
163, 73; Hermite s formula: 165,

73 168, 75 195, ex. 9 ; integration
of : 168, 75 ; invariants of : 158, 70
D Alembert: 104, Note

D Alembert s theorem:
150, 68 ;
p (u) : 154, 69 ; p (u) defined by in
variants : 182, 79 ; periods of : 152,
Cyclic periods
172, 77
Darboux
Darboux
104, Note
68
64,27
formula, law of the
mean
see Curves, deficiency of
Definite integrals : 60, 25

97, 46 ; differentiation of
72, 31
77, 33
182, 79
172, 77
order of
184, 79
poles of
150,
68; 154, 68; relation between p(u)
and p
64, 27
Deficiency
(u)
158, 70
residues of
151, 68; ff(u) : 162, 72; 0(u) : 170,

76 ; f (u) : 159, 71 ; zeros of : 152,
68 154, 68 159, 70
;
INDEX
the
Elliptic integrals, of
kind:
first
120, 56 174, 78 250, 103 ; the in

verse function : 174, 78 ; periods of :
120, 56
;
Elliptic transformation
255
of integral
variable:
Equations: 233, 98; algebraic: 240,

100 cyclic system of roots of 238,
99; 241, 100; D Alembert s theo
:
ex.
126, ex. 27
55,
54, 24
tions : 108,
;
also
see
109,
10, 3 ;
Laplace s
theory of equa
:
Note
49
s:
Implicit
Lagrange s formula, and

s theorem
functions,
Weierstrass
Essentially singular point : 91, 42 ; at

infinity: 110, 52; isolated: 91, 42;
Laurent
see also
doubly periodic : 145,

65; 149, 67; elementary transcen
dental
Euler: 27, 12; 58, exs. 20 and 22;

124, ex. 14 143, ftn.; 280,
96, 45
;
96
see Elliptic
elliptic
even and
odd
153,
Notes; exponential: 28, 11; Gamma:

100, 47 229, 96; holomorphic : 11,
;
233, 98;
implicit:
ftn.;
integral:
and Integral
see Integral functions
transcendental functions
of the elliptic integral
verse sine
nometric
;
inverse,
172, 77 ; in
inverse trigo
:
114, 54 ;
14 ; irrational
30,
logarithms
ftn.
90,
phic
ftn.;
monogenic
13,
meromormonodromic 17,
28, 13
;
:
multiform
9, ftn.;
multiple-valued: 17, 7;
p(w) : 154, 69 ; periods of : 145, 65
184, 79 ; primary
172, 77
152, 68
17, ftn.;
Euler
constant: 230, 96; formula:
58, ex.
22; 96, 45; 124, ex. 14;
formulae
27, 12
:
see
Definite integrals
Even functions
158, Notes
in
<T(M):
Functions,
and
primary,
Infinite
products
Expansions in series
of ctn x
of elliptic functions
:
143,
154, 69 ;
of periodic functions: 145, 65; of

roots of an equation : 238, 99 ; see
Exponential function
:
86, 39
152, 72; single-valued: see

Single-valued functions and Singlevalued analytic functions ; Q (u) :
ff(u):
76;
170,
f (u)
trigonometric:
159, 71
see also
Fundamental formula
:
68, 26
26,
12;
Expansions
of the integral
72, 31
theorem
of
algebra:
analytic:
57, ex. 15
Analytic func
see
and Analytic functions
eral variables;
90, 41
branches of
of sev
analytic except for

136, 61 ;
101, 48
15, 6
100, 47
9,
Gauss 125, ex. 21

Gauss s sums 125, ex. 21
General linear transformation:
96
Functions, algebraic: 288, 98; 240,
integrals
series of analytic
Gamma function
poles
227, 95
170, 76
100;
definite
represented by
Fundamental
104, Note
23, 11
Fredholm 213, ftn.

Fuchs 57, ex. 15
Fuchsian transformation
tions
regular in a neighborhood 89, 40 ;

regular at a point : 88, 40 ; regular
at the point at infinity
109, 52 ;
calculus
also Series
Fourier
(Weierstrass s) 127, 57 ; primitive :

15; rational: 12, 5; 88, 15;
rational, of sin z and cos z : 35, 16 ;
33,
infinite
products:
194, exs. 2 and 3; of cosz: 194,
ex. 3; of r (z) : 280, 96; of
./#, 72 ; of sin x : -/4#, 64 see also
Expansions
Evaluation of definite integrals
64
18, 8
functions
s series
complex
27, 94
rem: 104, Note; Kepler
of a
2; continuous:
6, 2;
defined by differential equations :
208, 86 ; dominant : 56, ex. 7
81,
35
57, ex. 15
182, 58
6,
29, 13
class
44,
ex. 2
Geographic maps
Gourier
see
Maps
126, ex. 28
Goursat: 208, ftn.; 216, ftn.

s theorem : 69, 29 and fin.
Goursat
IXDEX
256
Eadamard:
206, ftn.; 212, 88; 218,
ex. 8
Hermite: 106, 51
168, 75;
109, ex.; 165, 73
195, ex. 9; #15, 90 and

217, exs. 4, 5, 6
216, ftn.;
ftn.;
830, ftn.
Hermite
formula
tic integrals:
215, 90
165,73
for ellip
168, 75
ex. 9
11, ftn.
Hyperbolic transformations: 57, ex.

15
Hyperelliptic integrals : 116, 55

103; periods of: 116, 55
Imaginaries, conjugate
Imaginary quantity
247,
inverse, and Lagrange s formula

Independent periods, Jacobi s theo
56
250, 103 ; of elliptic
174, 78
functions: 168, 75; fundamental
formula of the integral calculus :
;
72, 31
Hermite
hyperelliptic : 116, 55; 247, 103;

law of the mean (Weierstrass, Dar-
boux): 64,27; line: 61,25; 62, 26;

74, 32
224, 93 ; of rational func
;
functions : 158, 70 ; 172, 77 ;

182, 79
Inverse functions: see Functions, in
elliptic
:
45, 19
57, exs. 13 and 14
see also
Irrational functions : 13, 6
108, 49
number, of singular points
Infinite
formula
215, 90; Hermite s formula for el

liptic : 165, 73
168, 75 155, ex. 9 ;
Inversion
:
120,
verse, implicit
147, 66
of a quotient
double
elliptic
229, 96 ; see also Cauchy s theorems

Invariants (integrals) : 57, ex. 15 ; of
4, 1
3, 1
Index
227, 95
Double integrals ;
see
tions: 33, 15; 113, 53; of series:

86, 39 ; uniform convergence of :
Implicit functions, Weierstrass s theo

rem : 233, 98 see also Functions,
33
77,
Holomorphic functions
rem
integrals; differentia
tion of
63, 26
155,
see Definite
Functions
Mittag-Leffler s
theorem; of zeros: 26, 11 93, 42
128, 57 see also Weierstrass s theo
Irreducible polynomial : 240, 100

Isolated singular points : 89, 40 182,
rem
Isothermal curves
60;
134,
see
also
Infinite products
22, 10
129, 57
59
essentially singular
Jacobi
Expansions
Jacobi
theorem
Jensen
104, 50
Infinite series
see Series
Point at infinity
Inflection, point of : 186, 80
Integral functions : 21, 8
127, 57
Infinity
218,
ex.
class of
;
:
182, 58; with an infinite number of

zeros: 127, 57; periodic: 147, 05;
transcendental:
21,
92, 42;
ftn.;
280, 96
Integral transcendental functions
ftn.; 92, 42; 136, 61
230, 96
136, 61
21,
Integrals, Abelian : 155,82; #45,101;

Abelian, of the first, second, and
rem
244, 101
Abel
theo
244, 102; Cauchy s

75, 33;
change of variables in 62, 26 ; along
:
a closed curve
66,
28
formula
147, 66
104, 50
Kepler-. 109, ex.; 126,
154, 69
26
e,x.
Kepler equation: 109, ex.; l#,ex.27

Klein : 59, ex. 23
s
Lagrange
Lagrange
ex. 26
147, 66
106, 51
126, ex. 26
251,
104
third kind
125, ex. 18
170, 76 180, 78
:
Jensen
see
associated
54, 24
194, exs. 2 and 3 ; uniform conver

gence of, 22, 10 129, 37 see also
;
91, 42
definite
formula
extension of
106,
:
51
126,
250, 104
Laplace: 10, 3; 54, 24; 55, Note;

125, ex. 19 #51, 104
106, 51
;
Laplace
Note
Laurent
43
equation
75, 33
126, ex. 23
10, 3
81, 37
;
54, 24
91, 42
146, 65
55,
94,
INDEX
Laurent
s series:
75,33; 81, 37; 146,
257
Neighborhood
65
at infinity
Law
of the
mean
for integrals
78
Odd
functions
Order, of
Jacobi
form
polynomials : 108, ex. ;

form: 125, ex. 18; Laplace s
125, ex. 19
Limit point : 90, 41
general
44, ex. 2
singular
aries,
88, 40
88, 40
critical points
.?5#,
67
32,
14
113, 53
(1
z)
38, 17
;
244, 101
a/so Projection
Mercator
s projection
90, ftn.
and
Mittag-Leffler : 127, 57
61
139, 63
integrals: 120, 56; of functions:

145, 65; of hyperelliptic integrals:
116, 55; independent: 147, 66;

parallelogram of: 150, 67; polar:
112, 53
jU9, 55 244, 101 ; primi
;
tween periods and invariants: 172,

77 ; of sin x 143, Note 1
52, ex. 1
doubly
Periodic integral functions : 147, 65

Periods : of ctn x : 144, Note 3 ; cyclic :
244, 101 ; of definite integrals: 112,
Meromorphic functions
see also Elliptic
tive pair of: 149, ftn.; relation be
f tn.
200,
1 58,
57, ex. 15
145, 65
145, 65
149, 67
functions
f tn.
53; 114, Note; of elliptic functions:

152, 68 172, 77 184, 79; of elliptic
ex. 1
Maclaurin: 83, ex.

Maps, conf ormal : 42,19; 45, 20 48,
20 52, 23 ; geographic : 52, 23 see
81,
(w)
85, 38
Periodic functions
;
Logarithms: 28,13-, 113,53; natural

or Napierian: 28, 13; series for
Loops : 112, 53 115, 54

Loxodromic curves: 53,
between p (u) and p
70
Parallelogram of periods : 150, 67

Parametric representation : see Curves
Logarithmic
lation
Parabolic transformation
and Cuts
: 81, 36
150, 67
Liouville s theorem : 81, 36
150, 68
of zeros
function, p(u): 154, 68; 182, 79;

defined by invariants : 182, 79 ; re
Painleve
Natural bound
see
Liouville
Mtray
89, 40
Ordinary point
Log
Line integrals: 61, 25; 62, 26; 74,

32 224, 93
Linear transformation: 59, ex. 23;
Lines,
154, 68
functions
elliptic
of poles
s
s
:
88, 40 ; of the point
109, 52
64, 27
Legendre: 106, ex.; 125, ex. 18; 180,
Legendre
ftn.; ^54,
Picard: 21, ftn.; 95, 42

Poincare: 208, ftn.;
127, ftn.
#,
Mittag-Leffler s theorem : 127, 57

.Z3S, 63 ; Cauchy s method
134, 61
1
139, 63
ftn.;
&,
ftn.
Point, critical or branch
see Critical
points; double: 184, 80; 191, 82;
Monodromic functions
at infinity: 109, 52; of inflection:

; limit :
90, 41 ; ordinary :
17, ftn.
Monogenic functions 9, ftn.

Morera : 78, 34
Morera s theorem 78, 34
Multiform functions: 17, ftn.
186, 80
88, 40; symmetric: 58, ex. 17; see

also Neighborhood, Singular points,
Multiple-valued functions
and Zeros
Polar periods : see Periods, polar
Poles : 88, 40
90, 41
133, 59 ; of
elliptic functions : 150, 68
154,
17, 7
Napier 28, 13
Napierian logarithms 28, 13
Natural boundary : 201, 84 208, 87
:
68
211, 88
Natural logarithms
28, 13
infinite
137, 62
of
number
at infinity
of
135, 61 ;
110, 52 ; order
:
89, 40
Polynomials, irreducible
240, 100
INDEX
258
Power
series : 18, 8
196, 83 ; con
tinuity of : 7, 2
56, ex. 7 ; deriva
tive of : 19, 8 ; dominating : 21, 9 ;
;
representing an analytic function :

20, 8 see also Analytic extension,
;
and Series
Circle of convergence,
Primary functions, Weierstrass
s: 127,
57
Primitive functions
S3, 15
Principal
of
value,
arc
dominant: 21, 9; 157, 69;

see Double series
integra
tion of 86, 39 ; Laurent s 75, 33
double
81, 37
146, 65
sin z
31,
ftn.
for
Log
(1
stereographic
Puiseux
see Infinite
Mercator
Projection,
products
ex.
52,
53, ex. 2
240, ftn.
vergent:
afeo
m,
94; uniformly con

2; *0, 39; 88, 39; see
7,
Lagrange
formula,
Leffler s theorem,
Mittag-
and Power
series
Several variables, functions of: 218,

91
see also Analytic functions of
several variables
Sigma function, a (u) : 162, 72

Single-valued analytic functions: 127,
57; with an infinite number of
Quartics: 187, 81
133, 59
:
12, 5
Rational functions
33, 15
3, I
bicircular : 193, ex.
Rational fraction
and cos z
of sin z
Region, connected : 11, 4

Regular functions: see
orem: 134,00; (Cauchy s method)

139, 63; with an infinite number
of zeros, Weierstrass s theorem:
:
primary functions: 127,
128, 57;
integrals
35, 16
the
singular points, Mittag-Leffler
Quantity, imaginary or complex
Products, infinite
of
z}
38, 17; of polynomials (Painleve") :

86, 38; for tan z, etc.: 194, ex. 4;
Taylor s: 20, 8; 75, 33; 78, 35;
206, ftn.;
Primitive pair of periods 149, ftn.

Principal part : 89, 40 91, 42 110,
52 133, 59 135, 61
;
ctn x: 143, 64; differentiation of:

88, 39;
57
Single-valued functions
57
17, 7
127,
Functions,
Singular lines: see Cuts and Natural

boundaries
Representation, conformal : see Conformal representation ; parametric :
Singular points: 13, 5; 75, 33; 88,

40; 204, 85; 232, 97; algebraic:
241, 100 ; on circle of convergence :
regular
see
Curves
Residues: 75, 33; 94, 43; 101, 48;

110, 52 112, 53 ; of elliptic func
;
sum
tions: 151, 68;

total
Rhumb
of: 111, 52;
111, 52
lines
Riemann
10,
Riemann
50,
ftn.;
42; essentially, at infinity
number
infinite
of
:
110, 52;
134, 60 139,
63; isolated: 89, 40; 132, 59; log

arithmic : 244, 101 ; -.order of : 89,
53, ex. 1
244, 101
Riemann surfaces
202, 84 and ftn.; essentially: 91,
22; 74, 32;
40
transcendental
243, Note
theorem
see
theorem, and Poles
244, 101
50, 22
Singularities of analytical expressions:
Roots of equations
see
D Alembert s theorem,
Equations,
and Zeros
213, 89
see also
Cuts
Stereographic projection
StieUjes
53, ex. 2
109 ex.
Sauvage : 231, 97
Symmetric points:
Schroder
Systems, conjugate isothermal
also Critical points, Mittag-Leffler s
214, 89
Series, of analytic functions
86, 39 ;
s: 126,
AppelPs: 84, 38; Burman

ex. 26; the Cauchy-Laurent
81,
35; the Cauchy-Taylor : 75,35; for
:
54, 24
214, 89
Tannery
Taylor
20, 8
58, ex. 17
ftn.; 220,
94
75, 33
78, 35
206,
INDEX
Taylor s formula, series : 20, 8 75,
33; 78, 35; 206, ftn.; for double
series : #tf, 94
Theta function, 0(u) 170, 76
;
Total residue: 111, 52

Transcendental functions
see
Transformations, birational: 192, 82;

;
circular
45, 19
ex.
Fuchsian: 57, ex. 15; general
15;
lin
ear: 44, ex. 2; hyperbolic: 57, ex.

15; inversion: 45, 19; 57, exs. 13 and
14 ; linear : 59, ex. 23 ; parabolic : 57,
ex. 15 see also Projection
;
26, 12 ; in
verse : 80, 14 ; inverse sine : 114,
54; period of ctn x: 144, Note 3;
period of sin x
cipal value of
143, Note 1 ; prin

31, ftn. ; rational
functions of sin z and cos z

see also
Expansion
see
Conver
Uniformly convergent series and prod

ucts see Convergence, uniform
Variables, complex: 6, 2; infinite

values of: 109, 52; several: see
Analytic functions of several vari

ables
35, 16
Weierstrass: 64, 27; 88, ftn.; 92, 42;

121, 56 127, 57 and ftn.; 139, 63
;
149, 67
212, 88
154, 69 156, 69 ; 200, ftn.

233, 98 237, ftn.
;
s formula
64, 27
121,
primary functions
127, 57 ;
theorem 92, 42 127, 57 23S, 62
Weierstrass
56
139, 63
233, 98
Zeros, of analytic functions : 88, 40

234, 98
47, 100 ; of elliptic func
tions
152, 68
154, 68 ; infinite
of: 26, 11; 93, 42;
,
order of: 88, 40; see also
number
57;
D
Unicursal curves: 191, 82
57, ex.
13; conformal: 42, 19; 45, 20; 48,
20; 52, 23; elliptic: 57,
Trigonometric functions
convergence
gence, uniform
Uniform functions: 17, ftn.
Func
tions
Uniform
Transcendental integral functions : see

Integral transcendental functions
252, ex.
259
Alembert
Zeta function,
theorem
(u)
159, 71
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FORM NO DD
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A Course in Mathemathical Analysis Vol. II. Goursat, Edouard. 1916

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A Course in Mathemathical Analysis Vol. II. Goursat, Edouard. 1916

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A COURSE

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS, THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS

EARLE RAYMOND HEDRICK

GINN AND COMPANY

EARLE RAYMOND HEDRICK AND OTTO DUNKEL

GINN AND COMPANY

SECOND FRENCH EDITION

part of this volume has undergone only slight changes,

while the rather important modifications that have been

appear only in the last chapters.

equations of the second order

summary manner such

broad subjects, I have concluded to defer them to a third volume,

will contain also a sketch of the recent theory of integral

of the last chapter has enabled

which the most important

to partial differential equations of the

the present volume

first half of the second

decision to publish the translation in two parts

due to the evi

dent adaptation of these two portions to the introductory courses in

After the cordial reception given to the translation of Goursat s

in doing so will be obvious to those

have observed the radical changes made in the second (French)

was not altered so radi

English translation of that volume may be

difficulty in this connection.

Our thanks are due

has kindly given

and has approved of the

has also seen

responsibility for the

latter rests, however, with the translators.

ELEMENTS OF THE THEORY

GENERAL PRINCIPLES. ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

Continuous functions of a complex variable

Functions analytic throughout a region

Certain irrational functions

Single-valued and multiple-valued functions

SERIES WITH COMPLEX

The exponential function

14. Inverse functions

product in power series

Decomposition of a rational function of sin

Geometric interpretation of the derivative

24. Isothermal curves

15. Application to the integral calculus

THE GENERAL THEORY OF ANALYTIC FUNC

DEFINITE INTEGRALS TAKEN BETWEEN IMAGINARY LIMITS

and general principles

formulae of Weierstrass and Darboux

taken along a closed curve

31. Generalization of the formulae of the integral calculus

The fundamental formula

of the preceding results

39. Series of analytic functions

41. Functions analytic except for poles

42. Essentially singular points

APPLICATIONS OF THE GENERAL THEOREMS

45. Evaluation of elementary definite integrals

Various definite integrals

48. Application to functions analytic except for poles

IV. PERIODS OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS

three sides of the triangle Om m"