Assignment Cover Sheet: Music Industry Studies

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Name: Angela Hill

Student ID: 14003172

Groupwise Email: 14003172@uhi.ac.uk

Programme Title and Level: BSc Audio Engineering year 3
Student adviser: Andrew Wardell
Module title: Live Audio Production

Tutor: Mark Lindsay

Due date: 16/01/15

Assignment topic/title Sound Reinforcement Technologies & System Alignment Techniques

I declare that the work contained in this assignment is my own, except where acknowledgement of sources is
made.

I authorise the University to test any work submitted by me for instances of plagiarism using text comparison
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Note: The attachment of this statement on any electronically submitted assignments will be deemed to have
the same authority as a signed statement. In addition, any tangible evidence of assessment work and/or
feedback must not be copied, downloaded or streamed onto any multimedia service, platform or device.

I understand that I can obtain further information on this matter at http://www.uhi.ac.uk

Signed: Angela Hill

Date: 15/01/15

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Staff use only

Date received from

student

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Third marker

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Angela Hill
BSc Audio Engineering
UHI Perth College
2014

Sound Reinforcement Technologies &

System Alignment Techniques

Lecturer: Mark Lindsay

Live Audio Production

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Introduction

The purpose of this research is to analyse sound reinforcement technologies and system
alignment techniques currently used and demonstrate ways of resolving the various
problems that can occur in a venue. A key contributor to live sound within the music industry
is a system engineer: responsible for the complete sound experience of a live event. They
choose a suitable system optimized for the performers/listeners and provide the mixing
engineer with all the necessary tools to balance everything musically. 1 System engineers
install the PA system varying in size/design, theyre transportable and can be calibrated to
suit a specific setting with regard to acoustic properties, size/layout of the venue number of
individuals performing/attending. System engineers manage the monitor engineer/live sound
engineer who ensure performers can hear themselves and sound is managed accordingly to
give the best quality.2

1
http://www.prosoundweb.com/article/whats_in_a_title_an_audio_system_engineer
_by_any_other_name/ December 2014
2 https://www.sokanu.com/careers/audio-engineer/ December 2014
3 https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=audio+system+engineer December 2014
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What is a PA system?
PA stands for Public Address and has 3 fundamental components:
1. Sound source electrical signal representing the sound. E.g. Microphone
2. Amplifier strengthens electrical signals produced by sound source allowing
loudspeaker to project a sufficient volume we can hear.
3. Loudspeaker converts impulses generated by the amplifier to vibrations in the air
our ears recognise as sound.

3
1

A PA system serves to provide audiences with a clear and pleasant sound. Placement is
crucial to avoid feedback (caused by the proximity between microphones and loudspeakers,
causing the signal being fed through to be looped and amplified) 6 and comb-filtering
(reflections colliding with original source causing summing/cancelation of certain

4 https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=microphone&amplifier&loudspeaker
December 2014
5 http://www.hometheaterhifi.com/volume_1_1/v1n1spk.html December 2014
6 http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gadgets/audio-music/question263.htm
December 2014
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frequencies)7. Small venues backline serve as monitors for performers & a sound source for
the crowd. 8 Bigger venues backline would be miked up and put through the PA.
Most speakers used in live sound are passive - an amp is required to drive them. Active
require mains close by. To manage volume leaving the speaker an SPL meter is used
because its more accurate than your ears.
Health & Safety regulation state that there are 3 action levels the 1st is individual exposure
85dB (A). Peak is an SPL reaching a high of 200 Pascals and 2nd is individual exposure
90dB (A). An employer must make there employee aware of legislation and provide suitable
hearing protection if necessary. 9
Below are various types of SPL meters, they can be handheld, built into equipment and
displayed on venue walls.

10

7 http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/jun13/articles/qanda-0613-3.htm December
2014
8 http://www.livesystems.co.uk/band-tips.html December 2014
9 http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1989/1790/regulation/2/made December
2014
10 http://www.google.co.uk/search?q=spl+meter&espv=2&biw=1334 December
2014
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The purpose of the SPL meter is to visually represent the loudness of noise in decibels so
engineers can monitor levels, recognise fluxes in SPL & make certain changes to maintain
correct levels. It will also be of interest to people exposed to noise as they too can see if
dangerous levels are being reached causing damage to their ears.

11

The range of human hearing is 20 Hz 20 kHz, if calibrating a sound system we use pink
noise played through the loudspeakers because its understood by our ears as every single
frequency across the 5 octave bands, low, low-mid, mid, upper-mid and high, it also has
identical energy per octave. 12
How do you know what frequency is problematic and requires EQ? Spectrum Analysis, a
significant tool enabling you to see graphical displays of how loud frequencies are produced.
In a venue you would measure sound at various points to monitor if the frequency has
exceeded the SPL.

11 http://prosoundweb.com January 2015

12 http://www.acousticfields.com/white-noise-definition-vs-pink-noise/ January
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Many variations in software exist to generate such graphical displays of the perceived
loudness signals. The Smaart analyser Dual-channel, FFT-based software platform audio
engineers use to view frequency content of signals or measure response of electrical &
electro-acoustic systems. 13
Smaart has a waterfall plot allowing you to easily spot spikes in the frequency spectrum
making it easier to carry out necessary EQ. Once you assess the spectrum you modify the
processor, adjust parameters and re-analyse until flat. 14

13 http://www.rationalacoustics.com/smaart/about-smaart/ January 2015

14 http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/index.html January 2015
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A special microphone is required to measure data for the spectrum analyser which has a
linear gain reaction across all frequencies. Hardware such as Field Fox handheld RF and
Microwave analyser can be used. 16 Typically a combination of hardware and software is
required Powerful laptop, measuring microphone, pro soundcard and software.

15 http://smaart.en.softonic.com January 2015

16 http://www.keysight.com/en/pc-1742042/fieldfox-handheld-rf-and-microwaveanalyzers?nid=-33903.0&cc=GB&lc=eng January 2015
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Room EQ wizard audio measurement software.

17

17 http://www.hometheatershack.com/forums/spl-meters-mics-calibration-soundcards/10001-rew-cabling-connection-basics.html January 2015

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The crossover is an intelligent processor, automatically splitting the signals into different
frequency bands. Below is a simple crossover division of frequencies:
DB
F

Mid

Bas
s

Hig
h

If space is too big at the crossover therell be an obvious drop in volume, if its too small
volume will jump. The crossovers design is advanced, if tampered with inferior sound might
be produced due to speaker designs requiring specific signal feeds. Venues catering for
large scale events use line array speakers which is a vertical speaker stack of drive units.

19

Theyre suspended from the ceiling usually hoisted in position, stacks can be 3-15 units high
and wider audience areas can be covered. Example below:

18 https://www.hometheatershack.com January 2015

19 http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/jun12/articles/choosing-pa-systems.htm
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Phase alignment cannot be completely removed, its simply moved to a place that wont
affect the listening experience of the audience. Its achieved by placing 2 point source
speakers/arrays pointing exact same direction so eventually the sources travel equal
distances covering identical zones and sinusoids of matching frequencies cross creating
phase interference.21

20
http://www.prosoundweb.com/article/around_the_corner_setting_up_multiple_line
_arrays_for_wide_venues/studyhall January 2015
21 http://msp.ucsd.edu/techniques/v0.11/book-html/node7.html January 2015
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Systune 1.3 software 22 lets you view interaction of phase and points where interference will
occur.

23

Some engineers like to use lasers checkpoint because their lights sinusoids are of identical
phase, meaning laser crest line up same for troughs.24

www.hometheatresound.com
Speaker placement must spread further apart & change angles to minimise phase
interference.

22 http://systune.afmg.eu/index.php/st-software-en.html January 2015

23 http://afmg.eu January 2015
24
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/ocr_gateway/home_energy/lig
ht_and_lasersrev4.shtml January 2015
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25

Time alignment distortion is remedied by adding delay to the crossover. Crossovers

calculate this themselves providing you give them the distance they can determine the
results accurately.

25 http://www.slideshare.net/cscottthomas/ch-17-linear-superposition-andinterference-online January 2015

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Using spectrum analysis you measure distant speakers individually by placing the SPL
microphone 2m in front to produce a solitary frequency in order to balance the gain. Phase
must be inverted at the output and time delay is augmented till the spectrum analyser
displays a reduction in gain. This is the point where phase is inverted again and time
alignment of speakers is achieved. 27

26 http://www.indiana.edu/~emusic/etext/acoustics/chapter1_speed.shtml
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27 http://sound.westhost.com/ptd.htm#s1 January 2015
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29

28 http://engineeronadisk.com
29 http://Galaxyzooforum.org January 2015
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30 http://audioholics.com January 2015

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