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Minamatadisease
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Minamatadisease(Japanese:Hepburn:Minamataby),
sometimesreferredtoasChissoMinamatadisease(Chisso
Minamataby),isaneurologicalsyndromecausedbyseveremercury
poisoning.Symptomsincludeataxia,numbnessinthehandsandfeet,general
muscleweakness,lossofperipheralvision,anddamagetohearingand
speech.Inextremecases,insanity,paralysis,coma,anddeathfollowwithin
weeksoftheonsetofsymptoms.Acongenitalformofthediseasecanalso
affectfetusesinthewomb.
MinamatadiseasewasfirstdiscoveredinMinamatacityinKumamoto
prefecture,Japan,in1956.Itwascausedbythereleaseofmethylmercuryin
theindustrialwastewaterfromtheChissoCorporation'schemicalfactory,
whichcontinuedfrom1932to1968.Thishighlytoxicchemical
bioaccumulatedinshellfishandfishinMinamataBayandtheShiranuiSea,
which,wheneatenbythelocalpopulace,resultedinmercurypoisoning.
Whilecat,dog,pig,andhumandeathscontinuedfor36years,the
governmentandcompanydidlittletopreventthepollution.Theanimaleffects
weresevereenoughincatsthattheycametobenamedashaving"dancing
catfever".[1]
AsofMarch2001,2,265victimshadbeenofficiallyrecognisedashaving
Minamatadisease(1,784ofwhomhaddied)[2]andover10,000had
receivedfinancialcompensationfromChisso.[3]By2004,Chisso
Corporationhadpaid$86millionincompensation,andinthesameyearwas

Minamatadisease

ThecrippledhandofaMinamatadiseasevictim(W.EugeneSmith)
Classificationandexternalresources
Specialty

Toxicology,neurology

ICD10

T56.1
(http://www.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/gt51.htm#t56)

ICD9CM 985.0(http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=985.0)
MedlinePlus 001651(http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001651.htm)

orderedtocleanupitscontamination.[4]OnMarch29,2010,asettlement
wasreachedtocompensateasyetuncertifiedvictims.[5]
AsecondoutbreakofMinamatadiseaseoccurredinNiigataPrefecturein1965.TheoriginalMinamatadiseaseandNiigataMinamatadiseaseareconsideredtwo
ofthefourbigpollutiondiseasesofJapan.
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Contents
1 19081955
2 19561959
2.1 Findingthecause
2.2 Identificationofmercury
3 1959
3.1 Compensationoffishermenandpatients,1959
3.2 Wastewatertreatment
4 195969
4.1 Continuedpollution
4.2 CongenitalMinamatadisease
4.3 OutbreakofNiigataMinamatadisease
5 19691973
5.1 Officialgovernmentrecognition
5.2 Struggleforanewagreement
5.3 Uncertifiedpatients'fighttoberecognised
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6 Epidemiology
7 Democratizingeffects
8 Societyandculture
8.1 Media
8.2 Today
9 Seealso
10 References
11 Furtherreading
12 Externallinks

19081955
TheChissoCorporationfirstopenedachemicalfactoryinMinamatain1908.Initiallyproducingfertilisers,thefactoryfollowedthenationwideexpansionofJapan's
chemicalindustry,branchingoutintoproductionofacetylene,acetaldehyde,aceticacid,vinylchloride,andoctanol,amongothers.TheMinamatafactorybecame
themostadvancedinallofJapan,bothbeforeandafterWorldWarII.Thewasteproductsresultingfromthemanufactureofthesechemicalswerereleasedinto
MinamataBaythroughthefactorywastewater.Thesepollutantshadanenvironmentalimpact.Fisheriesweredamagedintermsofreducedcatches,andin
response,Chissoreachedtwoseparatecompensationagreementswiththefisherycooperativein1926and1943.[6]
TherapidexpansionoftheMinamatafactoryspurredonthelocaleconomyandasChissoprospered,sodidMinamata.Thisfact,combinedwiththelackofother
industry,meantthatChissohadgreatinfluenceinMinamata.Atonepoint,overhalfofthetaxrevenueofMinamataCityauthoritycamefromChissoandits
employees,andthecompanyanditssubsidiarieswereresponsibleforcreatingaquarterofalljobsinMinamata.[7]MinamatawasevendubbedChisso's"castle
town",inreferencetothecapitalcitiesoffeudallordswhoruledJapanduringtheEdoperiod.[8]
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TheChissoMinamatafactoryfirststartedacetaldehydeproductionin1932,producing210tonsthatyear.By1951,productionhadjumpedto6,000tonsperyear
andreachedapeakof45,245tonsin1960.[9]Throughout,theChissofactory'soutputamountedtobetweenaquarterandathirdofJapan'stotalacetaldehyde
production.Thechemicalreactionusedtoproducetheacetaldehydeusedmercurysulfateasacatalyst.StartingAugust1951,thecocatalystwaschangedfrom
manganesedioxidetoferricsulfide.[10]Asidereactionofthiscatalyticcycleledtotheproductionofasmallamountofanorganicmercurycompound,namely
methylmercury.[11]ThishighlytoxiccompoundwasreleasedintoMinamataBayfromthechangeofthecocatalystin1951until1968,whenthisproduction
methodwasdiscontinued.[12]

19561959
OnApril21,1956,afiveyearoldgirlwasexaminedattheChissoCorporation'sfactoryhospitalinMinamata,Kumamoto,atownonthewestcoastofthe
southernislandofKysh.Thephysicianswerepuzzledbyhersymptoms:difficultywalking,difficultyspeaking,andconvulsions.Twodayslater,heryoungersister
alsobegantoexhibitthesamesymptomsandshe,too,washospitalised.Thegirls'motherinformeddoctorsthatherneighbour'sdaughterwasalsoexperiencing
similarproblems.Afterahousetohouseinvestigation,eightfurtherpatientswerediscoveredandhospitalised.OnMay1,thehospitaldirectorreportedtothelocal
publichealthofficethediscoveryofan"epidemicofanunknowndiseaseofthecentralnervoussystem",markingtheofficialdiscoveryofMinamatadisease.[13]
Toinvestigatetheepidemic,thecitygovernmentandvariousmedicalpractitionersformedtheStrangeDiseaseCountermeasuresCommittee(
KibyTaisakuIinkai)attheendofMay1956.Owingtothelocalisednatureofthedisease,itwassuspectedtobecontagiousandasaprecautionpatientswere
isolatedandtheirhomesdisinfected.Althoughcontagionwaslaterdisproved,thisinitialresponsecontributedtothestigmatisationanddiscriminationexperiencedby
Minamatavictimsfromthelocalcommunity.Duringitsinvestigations,thecommitteeuncoveredsurprisinganecdotalevidenceofthestrangebehaviourofcatsand
otherwildlifeintheareassurroundingpatients'homes.Fromaround1950onward,catshadbeenseentohaveconvulsions,gomad,anddie.Localscalleditthe
"catdancingdisease"(nekoodoriby),owingtotheirerraticmovement.[1]Crowshadfallenfromthesky,seaweednolongergrewontheseabed,
andfishfloateddeadonthesurfaceofthesea.Astheextentoftheoutbreakwasunderstood,thecommitteeinvitedresearchersfromKumamotoUniversitytohelp
intheresearcheffort.[14]
TheKumamotoUniversityResearchGroupwasformedonAugust24,1956.ResearchersfromtheSchoolofMedicinebeganvisitingMinamataregularlyand
admittedpatientstotheuniversityhospitalfordetailedexaminations.Amorecompletepictureofthesymptomsexhibitedbypatientswasgraduallyuncovered.The
diseasedevelopedwithoutanypriorwarning,withpatientscomplainingofalossofsensationandnumbnessintheirhandsandfeet.Theybecameunabletograsp
smallobjectsorfastenbuttons.Theycouldnotrunorwalkwithoutstumbling,theirvoiceschangedinpitch,andmanypatientscomplainedofdifficultiesseeing,
hearing,andswallowing.Ingeneral,thesesymptomsdeterioratedandwerefollowedbysevereconvulsions,coma,andeventuallydeath.ByOctober1956,40
patientshadbeendiscovered,14ofwhomhaddied,analarmingmortalityrateof35%.[15]

Findingthecause
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ResearchersfromKumamotoUniversityalsobegantofocusonthecauseofthestrangedisease.Theyfoundthatthevictims,oftenmembersofthesamefamily,
wereclusteredinfishinghamletsalongtheshoreofMinamataBay.ThestaplefoodofvictimswasinvariablyfishandshellfishfromMinamataBay.Thecatsinthe
localarea,whichtendedtoeatscrapsfromthefamilytable,haddiedwithsymptomssimilartothosenowdiscoveredinhumans.Thisledtheresearcherstobelieve
thattheoutbreakwascausedbysomekindoffoodpoisoning,withcontaminatedfishandshellfishbeingtheprimesuspects.
OnNovember4,theresearchgroupannounceditsinitialfindings:"Minamatadiseaseisratherconsideredtobepoisoningbyaheavymetal,presumablyitenters
thehumanbodymainlythroughfishandshellfish."[16]

Identificationofmercury
Assoonastheinvestigationidentifiedaheavymetalasthecausalsubstance,thewastewaterfromtheChissoplantwas
immediatelysuspectedastheorigin.Thecompany'sowntestsrevealedthatitswastewatercontainedmanyheavymetalsin
concentrationssufficientlyhightobringaboutseriousenvironmentaldegradation,includinglead,mercury,manganese,arsenic,
thallium,andcopper,plusthechalcogenselenium.Identifyingwhichparticularpoisonwasresponsibleforthediseaseprovedto
beextremelydifficultandtimeconsuming.During1957and1958,manydifferenttheorieswereproposedbydifferent
researchers.Atfirst,manganesewasthoughttobethecausalsubstanceduetothehighconcentrationsfoundinfishandthe
organsofthedeceased.Thallium,selenium,andamultiplecontaminanttheorywerealsoproposed,butinMarch1958,visiting
BritishneurologistDouglasMcAlpinesuggestedthatMinamatasymptomsresembledthoseoforganicmercurypoisoning,so
thefocusoftheinvestigationcenteredonmercury.
InFebruary1959,themercurydistributioninMinamataBaywasinvestigated.Theresultsshockedtheresearchersinvolved.
Largequantitiesofmercuryweredetectedinfish,shellfish,andsludgefromthebay.Thehighestconcentrationscentredaround
theChissofactorywastewatercanalinHyakkenHarbouranddecreasedgoingouttosea,clearlyidentifyingtheplantasthe
sourceofcontamination.Pollutionwassoheavyatthemouthofthewastewatercanal,afigureof2kgofmercurypertonof
sedimentwasmeasured:alevelthatwouldbeeconomicallyviabletomine.Indeed,Chissodidlatersetupasubsidiaryto
reclaimandsellthemercuryrecoveredfromthesludge.[17]

Methylmercury,anorganic
mercurycompoundreleasedin
factorywastewaterandthe
causeofMinamatadisease

HairsamplesweretakenfromthevictimsofthediseaseandalsofromtheMinamatapopulationingeneral.Inpatients,themaximummercurylevelrecordedwas
705partspermillion(ppm),indicatingveryheavyexposureandinnonsymptomaticMinamataresidents,thelevelwas191ppm.Thiscomparedtoanaveragelevel
of4ppmforpeoplelivingoutsidetheMinamataarea.[17]
OnNovember12,1959,theMinistryofHealthandWelfare'sMinamataFoodPoisoningSubcommitteepublisheditsresults:
"Minamatadiseaseisapoisoningdiseasethataffectsmainlythecentralnervoussystemandiscausedbytheconsumptionoflargequantitiesoffishand
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shellfishlivinginMinamataBayanditssurroundings,themajorcausativeagentbeingsomesortoforganicmercurycompound."[18]

1959
DuringtheinvestigationbyresearchersatKumamotoUniversity,thecausalsubstancehadbeenidentifiedasaheavy
metalanditwaswidelypresumedthattheChissoplantwasthesourceofthecontamination.Chissowascomingunder
closerscrutinyandtodeflectcriticism,thewastewateroutputroutewaschanged.Chissoknewoftheenvironmental
damagecausedbyitswastewaterandwaswellawarethatitwastheprimesuspectintheMinamatadiseaseinvestigation.
Despitethis,fromSeptember1958,insteadofdischargingitswasteintoHyakkenHarbour(thefocusofinvestigationand
sourceoforiginalcontamination),itdischargedwastewaterdirectlyintoMinamataRiver.Theimmediateeffectwasthe
deathoffishatthemouthoftheriver,andfromthatpointon,newMinamatadiseasevictimsbegantoappearinother
fishingvillagesupanddownthecoastoftheShiranuiSea,asthepollutionspreadoveranevengreaterarea.[19]
ChissofailedtocooperatewiththeinvestigationteamfromKumamotoUniversity.Itwithheldinformationonitsindustrial
processes,leavingresearcherstospeculatewhatproductsthefactorywasproducingandbywhatmethods.[20]The
TheChissofactoryandits
Chissofactory'shospitaldirector,HajimeHosokawa,establishedalaboratoryintheresearchdivisionoftheplantto
wastewaterroutes
carryouthisownexperimentsintoMinamatadiseaseinJuly1959.Foodtowhichfactorywastewaterhadbeenadded
wasfedtohealthycats.Seventyeightdaysintotheexperiment,cat400exhibitedsymptomsofMinamatadiseaseand
pathologicalexaminationsconfirmedadiagnosisoforganicmercurypoisoning.Thecompanydidnotrevealthesesignificantresultstotheinvestigatorsandordered
Hosokawatostophisresearch.[21]
InanattempttoundermineKumamotoUniversityresearchers'organicmercurytheory,Chissoandotherpartieswithavestedinterestthatthefactoryremainopen
(includingtheMinistryofInternationalTradeandIndustryandtheJapanChemicalIndustryAssociation)fundedresearchintoalternativecausesofthedisease,
otherthanitsownwaste.[22]

Compensationoffishermenandpatients,1959
PollutingwastewaterhaddamagedthefisheriesaroundMinamataeversincetheopeningoftheChissofactoryin1908.TheMinamataFishingCooperativehad
managedtowinsmallpaymentsof"sympathymoney"(mimaikin)fromthecompanyin1926andagainin1943,butaftertheoutbreakofMinamata
disease,thefishingsituationwasbecomingcritical.Fishingcatcheshaddeclinedby91%between1953and1957.TheKumamotoprefecturalgovernmentissueda
partialbanonthesaleoffishcaughtintheheavilypollutedMinamataBay,butnotanalloutban,whichwouldhavelegallyobligedittocompensatethefishermen.
ThefishingcooperativeprotestedagainstChissoandangrilyforcedtheirwayintothefactoryon6Augustand12August,demandingcompensation.Acommittee
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wassetupbyMinamataMayorTodomuNakamuratomediatebetweenthetwosides,butthiscommitteewasstackedheavilyinthecompany'sfavour.On29
August,thefishingcooperativeagreedtothemediationcommittee'sproposal,stating:"Inordertoendtheanxietyofthecitizens,weswallowourtearsandaccept".
Thecompanypaidthecooperative20million(US$55,600)andsetupa15million($41,700)fundtopromotetherecoveryoffishing.
Sincethechangeofrouteofwastewateroutputin1958,pollutionhadspreadupanddowntheShiranuiSea,damagingfisheries
there,too.EmboldenedbythesuccessofthesmallMinamatacooperative,theKumamotoPrefecturalAllianceofFishing
CooperativesalsodecidedtoseekcompensationfromChisso.On17October,1,500fishermenfromthealliancedescendedon
thefactorytodemandnegotiations.Whenthisproducednoresults,thealliancememberstooktheircampaigntoTokyo,securing
anofficialvisittoMinamatabymembersoftheJapaneseDiet.Duringthevisiton2November,alliancemembersforcedtheir
wayintothefactoryandrioted,causingmanyinjuriesand10million($27,800)worthofdamage.Theviolencewascovered
widelyinthemedia,bringingthenation'sattentiontotheMinamataissueforthefirsttimesincetheoutbreakbegan.Another
mediationcommitteewassetup,andanagreementwashammeredoutandsignedon17December.25millionof"sympathy
money"waspaidtotheallianceanda65millionfishingrecoveryfundwasestablished.
In1959,thevictimsofMinamatadiseasewereinamuchweakerpositionthanthefishermen.TherecentlyformedMinamata
DiseasePatientsFamiliesMutualAidSocietywasmuchmoredividedthanthefishingcooperatives.Patients'familieswerethe
victimofdiscriminationandostracismfromthelocalcommunity.Localpeoplefeltthatthecompany(andtheircitythatdepended
uponit)wasfacingeconomicruin.Tosomepatients,thisostracismbythecommunityrepresentedagreaterfearthanthedisease
itself.AfterbeginningasitinatthefactorygatesinNovember1959,thepatientsaskedKumamotoPrefectureGovernor
Protestorsatthegatesofthe
HirosakuTeramototoincludethepatients'requestforcompensationwiththemediationthatwasongoingwiththeprefectural
Chissofactory(A.M.Smith)
fishingalliance.Chissoagreedandafterafewweeks'furthernegotiation,another"sympathymoney"agreementwassigned.
PatientswhowerecertifiedbyaMinistryofHealthandWelfarecommitteewouldbecompensated:adultpatientsreceived
100,000($278)peryearchildren30,000($83)peryear,andfamiliesofdeadpatientswouldreceiveaoneoff320,000($889)payment.

Wastewatertreatment
OnOctober21,1959,ChissowasorderedbytheMinistryofInternationalTradeandIndustrytoswitchbackitswastewaterdrainagefromtheMinamataRiverto
HyakkenHarbourandtospeeduptheinstallationofwastewatertreatmentsystemsatthefactory.ChissoinstalledaCyclatorpurificationsystemonDecember19,
1959,andopeneditwithaspecialceremony.Chisso'spresidentKiichiYoshiokadrankaglassofwatersupposedlytreatedthroughtheCyclatortodemonstrate
thatitwassafe.Infact,thewastewaterfromtheacetaldehydeplant,whichthecompanyknewstillcontainedmercuryandledtoMinamatadiseasewhenfedto
cats,wasnottreatedthroughtheCyclatoratthetime.TestimonyatalaterNiigataMinamatadiseasetrialprovedthatChissoknewtheCyclatortobecompletely
ineffective:"Thepurificationtankwasinstalledasasocialsolutionanddidnothingtoremoveorganicmercury."[23]

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ThedeceptionwassuccessfulandalmostallpartiesinvolvedinMinamatadiseaseweredupedintobelievingthatthefactory'swastewaterhadbeenmadesafefrom
December1959onward.Thiswidespreadassumptionmeantthatdoctorswerenotexpectingnewpatientstoappear,resultinginnumerousproblemsintheyears
tofollow,asthepollutioncontinued.Inmostpeople'sminds,theissueofMinamatadiseasehadbeenresolved.

195969
Theyearsbetweenthefirstsetof"sympathymoney"agreementsin1959andthestartofthefirstlegalactiontobetakenagainstChissoin1969areoftencalledthe
"tenyearsofsilence".Infact,muchactivityonthepartofthepatientsandfishermentookplaceduringthisperiod,butnothinghadasignificantimpactontheactions
ofthecompanyorthecoverageofMinamatainthenationalmedia.

Continuedpollution
Despitethealmostuniversalassumptiontothecontrary,thewastewatertreatmentfacilitiesinstalledinDecember1959hadnoeffectontheleveloforganicmercury
beingreleasedintotheShiranuiSea.Thepollutionandthediseaseitcausedcontinuedtospread.TheKumamotoandKagoshimaprefecturalgovernments
conductedajointsurveyinlate1960andearly1961intothelevelofmercuryinthehairofpeoplelivingaroundtheShiranuiSea.Theresultsconfirmedthatorganic
mercuryhadspreadallaroundtheinlandseaandthatpeoplewerestillbeingpoisonedbycontaminatedfish.Hundredsofpeoplewerediscoveredtohavelevels
greaterthan50ppmofmercuryintheirhair,thelevelatwhichpeoplearelikelytoexperiencenervedamage.Thehighestresultrecordedwasthatofawomanfrom
Goshonouraislandwhohad920ppminhersample.
Theprefecturalgovernmentsdidnotpublishtheresultsanddidnothinginresponsetothesesurveys.Theparticipantswhohaddonatedhairsampleswerenot
informedoftheirresult,evenwhentheyrequestedit.Afollowupstudytenyearslaterdiscoveredthatmanyhaddiedfrom"unknowncauses".[24]

CongenitalMinamatadisease
LocaldoctorsandmedicalofficialshadnoticedforalongtimeanabnormallyhighfrequencyofcerebralpalsyandotherinfantiledisordersintheMinamataarea.In
1961,anumberofmedicalprofessionalsincludingMasazumiHarada(latertoreceiveanhonourfromtheUnitedNationsforhisbodyofworkonMinamata
disease)setaboutreexaminingchildrendiagnosedwithcerebralpalsy.ThesymptomsofthechildrencloselymirroredthoseofadultMinamatadiseasepatients,
butmanyoftheirmothersdidnotexhibitsymptoms.Thefactthatthesechildrenhadbeenbornaftertheinitialoutbreakandhadneverbeenfedcontaminatedfish
alsoledtheirmotherstobelievetheywerenotvictims.Atthetimethemedicalestablishmentbelievedtheplacentawouldprotectthefoetusfromtoxinsinthe
bloodstream,whichisindeedthecasewithmostchemicals.Whatwasnotknownatthetimewasthatexactlytheoppositeisthecasewithmethylmercury:the
placentaremovesitfromthemother'sbloodstreamandconcentratesthechemicalinthefoetus.

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Afterseveralyearsofstudyandtheautopsiesoftwochildren,thedoctorsannouncedthatthesechildrenweresufferingfromanasyetunrecognisedcongenitalform
ofMinamatadisease.Thecertificationcommitteeconvenedon29November1962andagreedthatthetwodeadchildrenandthe16childrenstillaliveshouldbe
certifiedaspatients,andthereforeliablefor"sympathy"paymentsfromChisso,inlinewiththe1959agreement.[25]

OutbreakofNiigataMinamatadisease
Minamatadiseasebrokeoutagainin1965,thistimealongthebanksoftheAganoRiverinNiigataPrefecture.Thepollutingfactory(ownedbyShowaDenko)
employedachemicalprocessusingamercurycatalystverysimilartothatusedbyChissoinMinamata.AsinMinamata,fromtheautumnof1964tothespringof
1965,catslivingalongthebanksoftheAganoRiverhadbeenseentogomadanddie.Beforelong,patientsappearedwithidenticalsymptomstopatientslivingon
theShiranuiSea,andtheoutbreakwasmadepublicon12June1965.ResearchersfromtheKumamotoUniversityResearchGroupandHajimeHosokawa(who
hadretiredfromChissoin1962)usedtheirexperiencefromMinamataandappliedittotheNiigataoutbreak.InSeptember1966,areportwasissuedproving
ShowaDenko'spollutiontobethecauseofthissecondMinamatadisease.
UnlikethepatientsinMinamata,thevictimsofShowaDenko'spollutionlivedaconsiderabledistancefromthefactoryandhadnoparticularlinktothecompany.
Asaresult,thelocalcommunitywasmuchmoresupportiveofpatients'groupsandalawsuitwasfiledagainstthecompanyinMarch1968,onlythreeyearsafter
discovery.
TheeventsinNiigatacatalysedachangeinresponsetotheoriginalMinamataincident.ThescientificresearchcarriedoutinNiigataforcedareexaminationofthat
doneinMinamataandthedecisionofNiigatapatientstosuethepollutingcompanyallowedthesameresponsetobeconsideredinMinamata.MasazumiHarada
hassaidthat,"Itmaysoundstrange,butifthissecondMinamatadiseasehadnotbrokenout,themedicalandsocialprogressachievedbynowinKumamoto...
wouldhavebeenimpossible."[26]
Aroundthistime,twootherpollutionrelateddiseaseswerealsograbbingheadlinesinJapan.VictimsofYokkaichiasthmaandItaiitaidiseasewereforming
citizens'groupsandfiledlawsuitsagainstthepollutingcompaniesinSeptember1967andMarch1968,respectively.Asagroup,thesediseasescametobeknown
asthefourbigpollutiondiseasesofJapan.[27]
Slowlybutsurely,themoodinMinamataandJapanasawholewasshifting.Minamatapatientsfoundthepublicgraduallybecomingmorereceptiveand
sympatheticasthedecadeworeon.Thisculminatedin1968withtheestablishmentinMinamataoftheCitizens'CouncilforMinamataDiseaseCountermeasures,
whichwastobecomethechiefcitizens'supportgrouptotheMinamatapatients.Afoundingmemberofthecitizens'councilwasMichikoIshimure,alocal
housewifeandpoetwholaterthatyearpublishedPureLand,PoisonedSea:OurMinamatadisease(KugaiJdo:Waga
Minamataby)abookofpoeticessaysthatreceivednationalacclaim.

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Officialgovernmentrecognition
Finallyon26September196812yearsafterthediscoveryofthedisease(andfourmonthsafterChissohadstoppedproductionofacetaldehydeusingits
mercurycatalyst)thegovernmentissuedanofficialconclusionastothecauseofMinamatadisease:
"Minamatadiseaseisadiseaseofthecentralnervoussystem,apoisoningcausedbylongtermconsumption,inlargeamounts,offishandshellfishfrom
MinamataBay.Thecausativeagentismethylmercury.MethylmercuryproducedintheacetaldehydeaceticacidfacilityofShinNihonChisso'sMinamata
factorywasdischargedinfactorywastewater...Minamatadiseasepatientslastappearedin1960,andtheoutbreakhasended.Thisispresumedtobe
becauseconsumptionoffishandshellfishfromMinamataBaywasbannedinthefallof1957,andthefactthatthefactoryhadwastetreatmentfacilitiesin
placefromJanuary1960."
Theconclusioncontainedmanyfactualerrors:eatingfishandshellfishfromotherareasoftheShiranuiSea,notjustMinamataBay,couldcausethediseaseeating
smallamounts,aswellaslargeamountsofcontaminatedfishoveralongtimealsoproducedsymptomstheoutbreakhadnot,infact,endedin1960norhad
mercuryremovingwastewaterfacilitiesbeeninstalledinJanuary1960.Nevertheless,thegovernmentannouncementbroughtafeelingofrelieftoagreatmany
victimsandtheirfamilies.ManyfeltvindicatedintheirlongstruggletoforceChissotoacceptresponsibilityforcausingthediseaseandexpressedthanksthattheir
plighthadbeenrecognisedbytheirsocialsuperiors.Thestrugglenowfocusedontowhatextentthevictimsshouldbecompensated.[28]

Struggleforanewagreement
Inlightofthegovernmentannouncement,thepatientsoftheMutualAidSocietydecidedtoaskforanewcompensationagreementwithChissoandsubmittedthe
demandon6October.Thecompanyrepliedthatitwasunabletojudgewhatwouldbefaircompensationandaskedthenationalgovernmenttosetupabinding
arbitrationcommitteetodecide.Thisproposalsplitthemembersofthepatients'society,manyofwhomwereextremelywaryofentrustingtheirfatetoathirdparty,
astheyhaddonein1959withunfortunateresults.Atameetingon5April1969,theopposingviewswithinthesocietycouldnotbereconciledandtheorganisation
splitintothearbitrationgroup(whowerewillingtoacceptbindingarbitration)andthelitigationgroup(whodecidedtosuethecompany).Thatsummer,Chissosent
giftstothefamilieswhooptedforarbitrationratherthanlitigation.
AnarbitrationcommitteewasdulysetupbytheMinistryofHealthandWelfareon25April,butittookalmostayeartodrawupadraftcompensationplan.A
newspaperleakinMarch1970revealedthatthecommitteewouldaskChissotopayonly2million($5,600)fordeadpatientsand140,000to200,000($390
to$560)peryeartosurvivingpatients.Thearbitrationgroupweredismayedbythesumsonoffer.Theypetitionedthecommittee,togetherwithpatientsand
supportersofthelitigationgroup,forafairerdeal.Thearbitrationcommitteeannouncedtheircompensationplanon25MayinadisorderlysessionattheMinistry
ofHealthandWelfareinTokyo.Thirteenprotesterswerearrested.Insteadofacceptingtheagreementastheyhadpromised,thearbitrationgroupaskedfor
increases.Thecommitteewasforcedtoreviseitsplanandthepatientswaitedinsidetheministrybuildingfortwodayswhiletheydidso.Thefinalagreementwas
signedon27May.Paymentsfordeathsrangedfrom1.7millionto4million($4,700to$11,100),onetimepaymentsfrom1millionto4.2million($2,760to

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$11,660)andannualpaymentsbetween170,000and380,000($470to$1,100)forsurvivingpatients.Onthedayof
thesigning,theMinamataCitizens'CouncilheldaprotestoutsidetheMinamatafactorygates.OneoftheChissotrade
unionsheldaneighthourstrikeinprotestatthepoortreatmentofthearbitrationgroupbytheirowncompany.[29]
Thelitigationgroup,representing41certifiedpatients(17alreadydeceased)in28families,submittedtheirsuitagainst
ChissointheKumamotoDistrictCourton14June1969.Theleaderofthegroup,EizWatanabe(aformerleaderof
theMutualAidSociety),declared,"Today,andfromthisdayforth,wearefightingagainstthepowerofthestate."Those
whodecidedtosuethecompanycameunderfiercepressuretodroptheirlawsuits.Onewomanwasvisitedpersonally
byaChissoexecutiveandharassedbyherneighbours.Shewasignored,herfamily'sfishingboatusedwithout
permission,theirfishingnetswerecut,andhumanfaeceswerethrownatherinthestreet.[30]

Minamatapatientsandfamily
membersholdphotographsoftheir
deadduringademonstration(W.E.
Smith)

Thelitigationgroupandtheirlawyerswerehelpedsubstantiallybyaninformalnationalnetworkofcitizens'groupsthat
hadsprunguparoundthecountryin1969.TheAssociationstoIndict[ThoseResponsiblefor]MinamataDisease(
MinamatabyoKokuhatsuSuruKai)wereinstrumentalinraisingawarenessandfundsforthe
lawsuit.TheKumamotobranch,inparticular,wasespeciallyhelpfultothecase.InSeptember1969,theysetupaTrialResearchGroup,whichincludedlaw
professors,medicalresearchers(includingMasazumiHarada),sociologistsandeventhehousewifeandpoetMichikoIshimuretoprovideusefulmaterialtothe

lawyerstoimprovetheirlegalarguments.Infact,theirreport,CorporateResponsibilityforMinamataDisease:Chisso'sIllegalActs,[31]publishedinAugust
1970,formedthebasisoftheultimatelysuccessfullawsuit.[29]
Thetriallastedalmostfouryears.ThelitigationgrouplawyerssoughttoproveChisso'scorporatenegligence.Threemainlegalpointshadtobeovercometowin
thecase.First,thelawyershadtoshowthatmethylmercurycausedMinamatadiseaseandthatthecompany'sfactorywasthesourceofpollution.Theextensive
researchbyKumamotoUniversityandthegovernmentconclusionmeantthatthispointwasprovedquiteeasily.Second,couldandshouldthecompanyhave
anticipatedtheeffectofitswastewaterandshouldithavetakenstepstopreventthetragedy(i.e.,wasthecompanynegligentinitsdutyofcare)?Third,wasthe
"sympathymoney"agreementof1959,whichforbadethepatientsfromclaiminganyfurthercompensation,alegallybindingcontract?
Thetrialheardfrompatientsandtheirfamilies,butthemostimportanttestimonycamefromChissoexecutivesandemployees.Themostdramatictestimonycame
fromHajimeHosokawa,whospokeon4July1970fromhishospitalbedwherehewasdyingofcancer.Heexplainedhisexperimentswithcats,includingthe
infamous"cat400",whichdevelopedMinamatadiseaseafterbeingfedfactorywastewater.Healsospokeofhisoppositiontothe1958changeinwastewater
outputroutefromHyakkenHarbourtoMinamataRiver.Histestimonywasbackedupbyacolleaguewhoalsotoldhowcompanyofficialshadorderedthemto
halttheircatexperimentsintheautumnof1959.HajimeHosokawadiedthreemonthsaftergivinghistestimony.FormerfactorymanagerEiichiNishidaadmitted
thatthecompanyputprofitsaheadofsafety,resultingindangerousworkingconditionsandalackofcarewithmercury.FormerChissoPresidentKiichiYoshioka
admittedthatthecompanypromotedatheoryofdumpedWorldWarIIexplosives,thoughitknewittobeunfounded.
Theverdicthandeddownon20March1973representedacompletevictoryforthepatientsofthelitigationgroup:
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"Thedefendant'sfactorywasaleadingchemicalplantwiththemostadvancedtechnologyand...shouldhaveassuredthesafetyofitswastewater.The
defendantcouldhavepreventedtheoccurrenceofMinamatadiseaseoratleasthavekeptitataminimum.Wecannotfindthatthedefendanttookanyofthe
precautionarymeasurescalledforinthissituationwhatsoever.Thepresumptionthatthedefendanthadbeennegligentfrombeginningtoendindischarging
wastewaterfromitsacetaldehydeplantisamplysupported.Thedefendantcannotescapeliabilityfornegligence."
The"sympathymoney"agreementwasfoundtobeinvalidandChissowasorderedtomakeonetimepaymentsof18million($66,000)foreachdeceasedpatient
andfrom16millionto18million($59,000to$66,000)foreachsurvivingpatient.Thetotalcompensationof937million($3.4million)wasthelargestsumever
awardedbyaJapanesecourt.[32]

Uncertifiedpatients'fighttoberecognised
WhilethestrugglesofthearbitrationandlitigationgroupsagainstChissowerecontinuing,anewgroupofMinamatadiseasesufferersemerged.Toqualifyfor
compensationunderthe1959agreement,patientshadtobeofficiallyrecognisedbyvariousadhoccertificationcommitteesaccordingtotheirsymptoms.
However,inanefforttolimittheliabilityandfinancialburdenonthecompany,thesecommitteeswerestickingtoarigidinterpretationofMinamatadisease.They
requiredthatpatientsmustexhibitallsymptomsofHunterRussellsyndromethestandarddiagnosisoforganicmercurypoisoningatthetimewhichoriginated
fromanindustrialaccidentintheUnitedKingdomin1940.ThecommitteecertifiedonlypatientsexhibitingexplicitsymptomsoftheBritishsyndrome,ratherthan
basingtheirdiagnosisonthediseaseinJapan.Thisresultedinmanyapplicantsbeingrejectedbythecommittee,leavingthemconfusedandfrustrated.[33]

Epidemiology
AsofMarch2001,2,265victimshavebeenofficiallycertified(1,784ofwhomhavedied)[2]andover10,000peoplehavereceivedfinancialcompensationfrom
Chisso,[3]althoughtheyarenotrecognisedasofficialvictims.TheissueofquantifyingtheimpactofMinamatadiseaseiscomplicated,asafullepidemiologicalstudy
hasneverbeenconductedandpatientswererecognisedonlyiftheyvoluntarilyappliedtoacertificationcounciltoseekfinancialcompensation.[34]Manyvictimsof
Minamatadiseasefaceddiscriminationandostracismfromthelocalcommunityiftheycameoutintotheopenabouttheirsymptoms.Somepeoplefearedthe
diseasetobecontagious,andmanylocalpeoplewerefiercelyloyaltoChisso,dependingonthecompanyfortheirlivelihoods.Inthisatmosphere,suffererswere
reluctanttocomeforwardandseekcertification.Despitethesefactors,over17,000peoplehaveappliedtothecouncilforcertification.Also,inrecognisingan
applicantasaMinamatadiseasesufferer,thecertificationcouncilqualifiedthatpatienttoreceivefinancialcompensationfromChisso.Forthatreason,thecouncil
hasalwaysbeenunderimmensepressuretorejectclaimantsandminimisethefinancialburdenplacedonChisso.Ratherthanbeingacouncilofmedicalrecognition,
thedecisionsofthecouncilwerealwaysaffectedbytheeconomicandpoliticalfactorssurroundingMinamataandtheChissocorporation.Furthermore,
compensationofthevictimsledtocontinuedstrifeinthecommunity,includingunfoundedaccusationsthatsomeofthepeoplewhosoughtcompensationdidnot
actuallysufferfromthedisease.[35]Moreproperly,theimpactshouldbecalledacriminal'poisoning',notaclinical'disease'.Theseformsofobfuscationare
commonlyexperiencedby'environmentalvictims'inmanycountries.[36]
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Democratizingeffects
AccordingtoTimothyS.George,theenvironmentalproteststhatsurroundedthediseaseappearedtoaidinthedemocratizationofJapan.[37]Whenthefirstcases
werereportedandsubsequentlysuppressed,therightsofthevictimswerenotrecognised,andtheyweregivennocompensation.Instead,theafflictedwere
ostracisedfromtheircommunityduetoignoranceaboutthedisease,aspeoplewereafraidthatitwascontagious.
ThepeopledirectlyimpactedbythepollutionofMinamataBaywerenotoriginallyallowedtoparticipateinactionsthatwouldaffecttheirfuture.Diseasevictims,
fishingfamilies,andcompanyemployeeswereexcludedfromthedebate.ProgressoccurredwhenMinamatavictimswerefinallyallowedtocometoameetingto
discusstheissue.Asaresult,postwarJapantookasmallsteptowarddemocracy.
Throughtheevolutionofpublicsentiments,thevictimsandenvironmentalprotesterswereabletoacquirestandingandproceedmoreeffectivelyintheircause.The
involvementofthepressalsoaidedtheprocessofdemocratizationbecauseitcausedmorepeopletobecomeawareofthefactsofMinamatadiseaseandthe
pollutionthatcausedit.
AlthoughtheenvironmentalprotestsdidresultinJapanbecomingmoredemocratized,itdidnotcompletelyridJapanofthesystemthatfirstsuppressedthe
fishermenandvictimsofMinamatadisease.

Societyandculture
ToshikoAkiyoshi,touchedbytheplightofthefishingvillage,wroteajazzsuite,"Minamata"thatwastobethecentralpieceoftheToshikoAkiyoshiLewTabackin
BigBand's1976albumonRCA,Insights.Thepiecewasconstructedinthreeparts,tomusicallyreflectthetragedy"PeacefulVillage","Prosperity&
Consequence",and"Epilogue".AkiyoshiusedJapanesevocaliststosingtheJapaneselyricsofatonepoemthatwerepartofthecomposition.Thealbumwon
manyawardsinjazzcircles,includingDownbeat'sbestalbumaward,largelyonthestrengthofthispiece,whichbroughtsomefurtherattentiononthetragedy.[38]
Insights(ToshikoAkiyoshiLewTabackinBigBand)
Thesong"KeponeFactory"onDeadKennedys'InGodWeTrust,Inc.makesreferencetothedisasterinitschorus.
Thesong"TheDiseaseoftheDancingCats"bythebandBushon"TheScienceofThings"albumisinreferencetothedisaster.

Media
PhotographicdocumentationofMinamatastartedintheearly1960s.Onephotographerwhoarrivedin1960wasShiseiKuwabara,straightfromuniversityand
photoschool,whohadhisphotographspublishedinWeeklyAsahiasearlyasMay1960.ThefirstexhibitionofhisphotographsofMinamatawasheldintheFuji
PhotoSaloninTokyoin1962,andthefirstofhisbooklengthanthologies,MinamataDisease,waspublishedinJapanin1965.HehasreturnedtoMinamata
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manytimessince.[39]
However,adramaticphotographicessaybyW.EugeneSmithbroughtworldattentiontoMinamatadisease.HisJapanesewifeandhelivedinMinamatafrom
1971to1973.Themostfamousandstrikingphotooftheessay,TomokoUemurainHerBath(1972)showsRyokoUemura,holdingherseverelydeformed
daughter,Tomoko,inaJapanesebathchamber.Tomokowaspoisonedbymethylmercurywhilestillinthewomb.Thephotowasverywidelypublished.Itwas
posedbySmithwiththecooperationofRyokoandTomokotodramaticallyillustratetheconsequencesofthedisease.Ithassubsequentlybeenwithdrawnfrom
circulationattherequestofTomoko'sfamily,sodoesnotappearinrecentanthologiesofSmith'sworks.[40]Smithandhiswifewereextremelydedicatedtothe
causeofthevictimsofMinamatadisease,closelydocumentingtheirstruggleforrecognitionandrighttocompensation.Smithwashimselfattackedandseriously
injuredbyChissoemployeesinanincidentinGoi,Ichiharacity,nearTokyoonJanuary7,1972,inanattempttostopthephotographerfromfurtherrevealingthe
issuetotheworld.[41]The54yearoldSmithsurvivedtheattack,buthissightinoneeyedeterioratedandhishealthneverfullyrecoveredbeforehisdeathin1978.
JapanesephotographerTakeshiIshikawa,whoassistedSmithinMinamata,hassinceexhibitedhisownphotographsdocumentingthedisease.Hisphotographs
covertheyears1971tothepresent,withMinamatavictimsashissubjects.[42]
TheprominentJapanesedocumentaryfilmmakerNoriakiTsuchimotomadeaseriesoffilms,startingwithMinamata:TheVictimsandTheirWorld(1971)and
includingTheShiranuiSea(1975),documentingtheincidentandsidingwiththevictimsintheirstruggleagainstChissoandthegovernment.

Today
MinamatadiseaseremainsanimportantissueincontemporaryJapanesesociety.LawsuitsagainstChissoandtheprefecturalandnationalgovernmentsarestill
continuingandmanyregardthegovernmentresponsestodateasinadequate.[43]Thecompany's"historicaloverview"initscurrentwebsitemakesnomentionof
theirroleinthemasscontaminationofMinamataandthedreadfulaftermath.[44]Their2004AnnualReporthoweverreportsanequivalentofaboutUS$50million
(5,820millionyen)in"MinamataDiseaseCompensationLiabilities".From2000to2003,thecompanyalsoreportedtotalcompensationliabilitiesofoverUS$170
million.Their2000accountsalsoshowthattheJapaneseandKumamotoprefecturalgovernmentswaivedanenormousUS$560millioninrelatedliabilities.Their
FY2004andFY2005reportsrefertoMinamatadiseaseas"madhatter'sdisease",atermcoinedfromthemercurypoisoningexperiencedbyhatmakersofthelast
fewcenturies(cfMadHatter).[45]
AmemorialservicewasheldattheMinamataDiseaseMunicipalMuseumon1May2006tomark50yearssincetheofficialdiscoveryofthedisease.Despitebad
weather,theservicewasattendedbyover600people,includingChissochairmanShunkichiGotoandEnvironmentMinisterYurikoKoike.[46]
OnMonday,March29,2010,agroupof2,123uncertifiedvictimsreachedasettlementwiththegovernmentofJapan,theKumamotoPrefecturalgovernment,and
ChissoCorporationtoreceiveindividuallumpsumpaymentsof2.1millionyenandmonthlymedicalallowances.[5][47]
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Mostcongenitalpatientsarenowintheirfortiesandfiftiesandtheirhealthisdeteriorating.Theirparents,whoareoften
theironlysourceofcare,areintotheirseventiesoreightiesoralreadydeceased.Oftenthesepatientsfindthemselvestied
totheirownhomesandthecareoftheirfamily,effectivelyisolatedfromthelocalcommunity.Somewelfarefacilitiesfor
patientsdoexist.OnenotableexampleisHotHouse(HottoHausu),avocationaltrainingcentrefor
congenitalpatientsaswellasotherdisabledpeopleintheMinamataarea.HotHousemembersarealsoinvolvedin
raisingawarenessofMinamatadisease,oftenattendingconferencesandseminarsaswellasmakingregularvisitsto
elementaryschoolsthroughoutKumamotoPrefecture.[48]

Seealso
Heavymetalpoisoning
MinamataConventiononMercury
OntarioMinamatadisease
Mercuryinfish

References

MemorialattheMinamataDisease
MunicipalMuseum

1.StephenJ.Withrow,DavidM.Vail,WithrowandMacEwen'sSmallAnimalClinicalOncology,Elsevier:2007,ISBN
0721605583,p.734.
2.OfficialgovernmentfigureasofMarch2001.See"MinamataDisease:TheHistoryandMeasures,ch2"(http://www.env.go.jp/en/chemi/hs/minamata2002/ch2.html)
3.See"MinamataDiseaseArchives"(http://www.nimd.go.jp/archives/english/index.html),Frequentlyaskedquestions,Question6
4.JaneHightower(2008).DiagnosisMercury:Money,PoliticsandPoison,IslandPress,p.77.
5."AgreementreachedtosettleMinamatasuit"(http://www.asahi.com/english/TKY201003300438.html),AsahiShimbunnews,31March2010,retrieved1April2010
6.Harada,p15
7.George,pp3536
8.George,p26
9.ReportoftheSocialScientificStudyGrouponMinamataDisease,IntheHopeofAvoidingRepetitionofaTragedyofMinamataDisease
(http://www.nimd.go.jp/syakai/webversion/SSSGMDreport.html),NationalInstituteforMinamataDisease,p.13.
10.Etoetal.(2010)
11.Forfurtherinformationonthechemistryofthereactionthatleadtotheproductionofmethylmercurysee"InformationonMercury"
(http://www.hgtech.com/Information/Minamata_Japan.html)byMercuryTechnologyServices,retrievedaroundthe24October2006
12.Gilhooly,Rob,"Mercuryrising:NiigatastrugglestoburyitsMinamataghosts(http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/06/13/national/history/mercuryrisingniigata
strugglesburyminamataghosts/#.VXzeII0w85t)",JapanTimes,13June2015
13.Harada,p10
14.Nicol,C.W.,"Minamata:asagaofsufferingandhope(http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/fe20121007cw.html)",JapanTimes,7October2012,p.10
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minamata_disease

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15.Harada,pp2324
16.Harada,pp2627
17.Harada,p50
18.Harada,p52
19.Harada,pp3839
20.Ui,Chapter4sectionIV
21.George,pp6061
22.See"TheStockholmAppeal"(http://www.soshisha.org/english/soshisha_e/stockholm_appeal.htm)bySoshishaTheSupportingCenterforMinamataDisease,
retrieved08January2011
23.Harada,p56
24.George,pp144145
25.Harada,pp6877
26.Harada,p90
27.George,pp174175
28.George,pp187190
29.George,pp191202(ArbitrationGroup)
30.George,p205
31.CorporateResponsibilityforMinamataDisease:Chisso'sIllegalActs(MinamatabyniTaiSuruKigyno
Sekinin:ChissonoFuhKi)
32.George,pp241249
33.Harada,pp156157andGeorge,p208
34.See"Mercurypoisoningofthousandsconfirmed"(http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,574782,00.html)byJonathanWatts,TheGuardian,16
October2001,retrieved24October2006.
35.See"TenThingstoKnowaboutMinamataDisease"(http://soshisha.org/english/10tishiki_e/10chishiki_e.htm)bySoshishaTheSupportingCenterforMinamata
Disease
36.Williams,C.(1998)EnvironmentalVictims:NewRisksnewInjustice.LondonEarthscan.
37.George,TimothyS.(2001).Minamata:PollutionandtheStruggleforDemocracyinPostwarJapan.HarvardUniversityAsiaCenter.ISBN0674007859.
38.RecordReviewmagazinevol2no3August1978ScottYanowDownbeat(http://www.downbeat.com/default.asp?sect=stories&subsect=story_detail&sid=704)
linernotesforToshikoAkiyoshi/LewTabackinBigBandLP,Insights1976RCAVICTORAFL12678STEREO
39."ShiseiKuwabara'Minamata':TheStartingpointoftheworkofthephotojournalist,ShiseiKuwabara(http://www.kmopa.com/minamata/minamata.htm)",KMoPA.
(InJapanese,despitetheEnglishtitle.)Accessed4January2012.
40.Readthethoughtsofaphotographymagazineeditorsurroundingthecontroversyofthephotograph'swithdrawal:"TomokoUemura,R.I.P."
(http://www.digitaljournalist.org/issue0007/hughes.htm)byJimHughes,TheDigitalJournalist,retrieved24October2006.
41.Smith,pp9495
42.Hirano,Keiji,"LifewithMinamatadiseaseinphotos(http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20121115f1.html)",JapanTimes,15November2012,p.3
43."Minamata'slatestchapter"(http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgibin/ed20061003a1.html),JapanTimeseditorial,3October2006,retrieved29October2006(free
registrationrequired)
44.ChissoCorporation."HistoricalOverview".ChissoCorporationofficialsite.Chisso.Retrieved8May2013.
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45.FY2004(http://www.chisso.co.jp/english/investors/other/80th_e.pdf)andFY2005(http://www.chisso.co.jp/english/investors/other/81th_e.pdf)financialresults.URL
retrieved20080307.
46."MemorialservicemarksMinamatatragedy's50thyear"(http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgibin/nn20060502a1.html),JapanTimes,2May2006,retrieved29October
2006(freeregistrationrequired)
47.Hirano,Keiji,KyodoNews,"MercurypactfallsshortonMinamata(http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20120301f1.html?
utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+japantimes+(The+Japan+Times%3A+All+Stories))",JapanTimes,1March2012,p.3.
48."AdvancedwelfareshouldarisefromMinamata"(http://www.asahi.com/english/Heraldasahi/TKY200605100178.html)byTakekoKato,AsahiShimbun,10May
2006,retrieved29October2006

Furtherreading
"MinamataDisease:TheHistoryandMeasures"(http://www.env.go.jp/en/chemi/hs/minamata2002/),TheMinistryoftheEnvironment,(2002),retrieved17
January2007
"MinamataDiseaseArchives"(http://www.nimd.go.jp/archives/english/index.html)bytheNationalInstituteforMinamataDisease,retrieved29October
2006
Harada,Masazumi.(1972).MinamataDisease.KumamotoNichinichiShinbunCentre&InformationCenter/IwanamiShotenPublishers.ISBN487755
1719C3036
George,S.Timothy.(2001).Minamata:PollutionandtheStruggleforDemocracyinPostwarJapan.HarvardUniversityPress.ISBN067400785
9
Ui,Jun.(1992).IndustrialPollutioninJapan(http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu35ie/uu35ie00.htm).UnitedNationsUniversityPress.
ISBN9280805487.Chapter4,sectionIV
Smith,W.E.andSmith,A.M.(1975).Minamata.Chatto&Windus,Ltd.(London),ISBN0701121319
Eto,K.,Marumoto,M.andTakeya,M.(2010)"Thepathologyofmethylmercurypoisoning(Minamatadisease)"
(http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.14401789.2010.01119.x/pdf),retrieved7December2013
Oiwa,Keibo.(2001).RowingtheEternalSea:TheStoryofaMinamataFisherman.Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers.ISBN0742500217
Steingraber,Sandra.(2001).HavingFaith:AnEcologistJourneytoMotherhood.PerseusPublishing.ISBN0425189996
ApproachestoWaterPollutionControl,MinamataCity,KumamotoPrefecture(http://www.icett.or.jp/lpca_jp.nsf)
Allchin,Douglas.ThePoisoningofMinamata(http://www.umn.edu/ships/ethics/minamata.htm)
Saito,Hisashi.(2009).NiigataMinamataDisease:MethylMercuryPoisoninginNiigata,Japan.NiigataNippo.
Walker,Brett.(2010)"ToxicArchipelago:AHistoryofIndustrialDiseaseinJapan(http://www.amazon.com/ToxicArchipelagoIndustrialWeyerhaeuser
Environmental/dp/0295989548)."UniversityofWashingtonPress.ISBN0295989548

Externallinks
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ATSDRToxFAQs:Mercury(http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts46.html)Frequentlyaskedquestionsabout
WikimediaCommonshas
Mercury
mediarelatedtoMinamata
disease.
NationalInstituteforMinamataDisease(http://www.nimd.go.jp/english/index.html)
MinamataDisease:TheHistoryandMeasures(http://www.env.go.jp/en/chemi/hs/minamata2002/index.html)
Wikiquotehasquotations
TheMinistryoftheEnvironment'ssummaryofMinamatadisease
relatedto:Minamata
Soshisha(http://www.soshisha.org/english/index_e.htm)TheSupportingCenterforMinamataDiseaseandthe
disease
MinamataDiseaseMuseum
AileenArchive(http://aileenarchive.or.jp/aileenarchive_en/index.html)CopyrightholderofW.EugeneSmith'sMinamataphotos
PhotographbyW.EugeneSmith(http://www.mastersofphotography.com/S/smith/smith_minamata.html)TomokoUemurainHerBath,1972
Minamatadisease(http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu35ie/uu35ie0c.htm#chapter%20%20%204%20minamata%20disease)Chapterfrom
IndustrialPollutioninJapanbyDrJunUi
ToxicArchipelago:IndustrialPollutioninJapanAtalkbyBrettWalker,September16,2010(http://ias.umn.edu/2010/09/16/toxicarchipelagobrett
walker/)
MinamataTimeline(http://www.minamatacity.jp/eng/history.htm)byMinamataCityCouncil.
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minamata_disease&oldid=698150070"
Categories: Minamatadisease 1956healthdisasters 1956inJapan 1956intheenvironment EnvironmentaldisastersinJapan HealthdisastersinJapan
Industrialaccidentsandincidents Masspoisoning Mercurypoisoning PoliticalscandalsinJapan Wastedisposalincidents WaterpollutioninJapan
Corporatecrime
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