Professional Documents
Culture Documents
General
Sometime after containerization came a cargo revolution in the door-to-door service of RoRo handling procedures.
The Ro-Ro traffic provided a shuttle service for containers as well as cutting delivery times
to hours rather than weeks, previously experienced with the conventional shipping.
The Ro-Ro explosion was so great that ports changed their operations and ship design
started to incorporate new concepts, to handle large vehicles.
Ferry companies increased their tonnage maximums in a comparative blink of an eye.
Ro-Ro is an efficient and cheap method of shipping merchandise.
The new ships design include the stern door / ramp, open vehicle deck spaces, drive
through capability with the bow visor.
Vehicle lifts became a feature with open and enclosed deck cargo spaces.
Units could be carrying liquid or dry cargoes, they could be refrigerated or not, as their load
required. However, the most important fact was that they could be delivered in the shortest
period of time.
The Roll-on / Roll-off concept is characterized by the transfer of cargo to and from the ship
and between the cargo spaces onboard by means of vehicles.
Short port times is a main feature, the average being from about 5 hours for small
vessels to about 24 hours for big vessels. However, port time depends very much on
factors as type of cargo, cargo handling equipment, port facilities etc.
The time factor was critical to ensure that goods reached markets in a pristine condition.
Especially relevant to fresh produce like flowers, fruits, dairy products, meats, etc. The
ships were enhanced to ensure that deadlines were achieved. Ships docking in and out
carrying such cargoes could not be delayed by the need for tugs.
Bow / stern thrusters became essential features of ship design. Thrusters units came
alongside twin Controllable Pitch propellers, while Masters were given Pilotage Exemption
Certificates.
Not only were the vessels fast, but also the procedures and concepts of ship handling had
been changed to meet the needs of the trade.
Ro-Ro vessels, carry everything that was once shipped by general cargo vessels. These
cargoes include hazardous goods, as well as heavy-lift units.
The main difference is that such items are controlled by separate legislation and generally
move with less bureaucracy.
Definations
Open deck stowage of Ro-Ro cargo either side of the E/R smoke stack
Chain locker at the ships sides either side of the fore and aft line to facilitate the
operation of separate Port and Stbd windlass operations.
Bow visor option to permit drive through capability and is not always featured.
Lift to lower cargo hold may be mechanical or hydraulic operation.
All cargo ramps are fitted with wheel tread, anti-skid, steel grips.
All cargo decks are fitted with insert star lashing points and / or star domes.
Accommodation for 12 driver/passengers.
Vehicle ramps
The design of Ro-Ro vessel ramps is influenced from the nature of the payload it is
intended to transport. Generally, the cargo flow, securing and handling equipment can
amount to about 5% of the lightweight tonnage. However, to avoid operational problems in
the future such fittings need to take into account of the types of rolling cargo which is
anticipated.
The design of the ramp should include the following:
1. Length of the ramp (overall)
2. Width of the ramp (overall)
3. Total load on ramp (anticipated maximum)
4. Maximum axle loads.
5. Hinging arrangement (top, bottom or guillotine)
6. Number of ramp sections and hinges within the structure
7. Maximum / minimum operating angles.
8. Watertight sealing / securing arrangements
9. Cleating / locking arrangements
10. Power requirements (electrical, hydraulic) with limitations
11. Operational lifting / lowering times
12. Supporting and preventer arrangements
13. Roadway landing areas.
Commercial vehicles are limited to about six types and these need to be accommodated by
respective access widths, ramp slopes, clearing heights, lane lengths, turning areas drive
through facilities.
Ramp slopes and break angles, should be reasonable to avoid the vehicle grounding while
in transit from the ship to the shore and vice versa.
Where tidal waters are present and average rise or fall is expected, floating shore links or
adjustable link spans tend to overcome excessive tidal movement, while at
the same time keeping the break angle with the ships ramp manageable.
Many stern ramp arrangements open up all the transom to provide maximum width and
height clearance. This effectively gives wide access to a variety of vehicles of differing
lengths with comparative short load / discharge times involved.
Other designs have employed stern quarter ramps (with or without bow quarter ramps).
Such ramps still required to meet the design criteria of the Classification Society but must
also satisfy design features to meet specific vehicle traffic like Car Carriers
Ramps are manufactured in steel with anti-skid bars on the working surface. They are
usually operated by twin hydraulic cylinder actions or winch arrangement. Watertight
integrity is achieved with hydraulic pressure cleating in conjunction with a hard rubber seal,
with the hinge arrangement being positioned above the waterline as shown in the fig.
Ventilation system
For Ro-Pax vessels carrying more than 36 passengers must be provided with a powered
ventilation system (fans) sufficient to give 10 air changes per hour in spaces designated to
carry vehicles (with fuel in their tanks for their own propulsion).
If the vessels carry less than 36 passengers than the venting system need only provide 6
air changes per hour.
Ventilation ducting serving such spaces should be constructed of steel and completely
separated from other ventilation systems aboard the vessel. It must be capable of being
controlled from outside the vehicle spaces and operable at all times when vehicles are
occupying the specific areas.
Where special category spaces are employed the administration may require an additional
number of air changes when vehicles are being loaded or discharged.
Ventilation systems must be fitted with rapid means of shut down, in the event of fire
occurring. They must also have a means of monitoring any loss or reduction in the venting
capacity with such data being indicated on the navigating bridge.
Drainage systems
The hazards of slack water on large vehicle decks results in subsequent loss of stability.
The fixed pressure water spraying system, installed for fire prevention, if operated, could
cause an accumulation of water on vehicle deck or decks. To ensure adequate stability at
all times a suitable drainage system must be installed to effect rapid discharge of slack
water.
Scuppers should be fitted to ensure discharge directly overboard. Special category
spaces situated above the bulkhead deck, and in all Ro-Pax vessels which have positive
means of closing scuppers by valve action, must keep such valves open while the vessel is
at sea in accord with the loadline convention.
In case of special category spaces, the administration may require additional bilge
pumping and drainage facilities over and above the specifications of SOLAS, reg II-1/21
securing the vehicle or by releasing the air pressure on the compressed air suspension
system.
14. Wheels of vehicles stowed on decks should be chocked and the hand brakes to be
applied.
15. Cargoes stowed on wheel based units should be adequately secured to stowage
platforms or, where provided with suitable means, toits sides. Any movable external
components attached to a wheel based unit, such as derricks, arms should be
adequately locked or secured in position.
16. Suitable lashings against the incline should be secured and the unit left in an opposing
gear.
17. Vehicles should be lashed using the correct securing points provided on the vehicle and
deck.
18. All lashings applied whether of a hook type or other variety should be secured in such
a manner that in the event of them becoming slack, they are prevented from becoming
detached and should also permit tesioning during the voyage when they become slack.
19. All vehicle / cargo units should be secured prior to the vessel leaving the berth and such
securings should be at the masters discretion to be most effective.
20. While enroute these lashings should be regularly inspected to ensure they remain
effective during the time at sea.
21. Personnel engaged on vehicle deck inspections should take extreme caution against
injury from swaying vehicles.
22. If necessary the master may alter the ships course while such inspections are ongoing
to reduce the motion on the vehicle deck.
23. Lashings should only be released once the ship is secured at the berth and personnel
so engaged should take care when clearing securings which may be under tension.
Note: Lashings are considered most effective at between 30deg and 60deg to the deck line.
Alternatively, additional lashings may be required.
If pedestrian access must be via the ramp, provide safe means of access e.g. raised walkway
Lashing teams
o Wear protective clothing
o Work in teams or in sight of each other
o Stand where visible to loading vehicles
o Use whistle stop and clear, standardised hand signals
o Trained and competent in lashing procedures
Safe systems of work for Sto-Ro - especially regarding safe use of large lift trucks
Lighting
Is there insufficient lighting in passageways and at flooring transitions, ramps
or stairs?
Does the lighting throw distracting shadows or produce excessive glare?
Outdoor areas
Is there a build up of moss or other vegetation on pathways?
Are there any surface transitions not easily noticed (any ridge that is as high
as a footwear
sole or higher)?
Are there potholes in footpaths or walkways?
Housekeeping
Is there a build up of polish on floors?
Is there an excessive residue of detergent?
Do workers have to walk on floors wet from washing?
Are wet floor signs not available or not used correctly?
Do you need to provide information/training/advice to contractors regarding
cleaning
procedures?
Is any paper, rubbish, dirt, spills etc. left on the floor?
Are aisles poorly marked and cluttered?
Are any anti-slip paint, coating profiles or tapes worn smooth or damaged?
Are there any trip hazards due to equipment and other movable objects left
lying on the
ground?
Do spills (wet or dry) occur regularly during work processes?
Tasks
Do workers have to walk or work on greasy, oily or wet floors that are not
adequately slip
resistant?
Do loads that are carried or pushed interfere with forward vision?
Are the loads to be carried excessive, or likely to upset a persons balance?
Do heavy trolleys have to be pushed up ramps?
Are workers hurried due to time constraints?
Footwear
Do the workers safety shoes lack grip?
Are the tread patterns on safety footwear too worn?
Are the tread patterns clogged with dirt?
Badly stowed ropes, cables, container lashing gear and other equipment
Use of aluminium chequerplate surfaces on walkways and access steps when wet
Maintain floors, steps and walkways in good condition. On ships beware of oil
spillages, spilt bulk cargo and trip hazards across walkways. Where a vessel is a
frequent visitor, work with the Master to make sure trip hazards are painted a
conspicuous colour
Select suitable footwear for the task. Try out different types of footwear to see
which provides most slip-resistance for the environments employees will be
working in. Remember that oil resistant has nothing to do with slip resistance.
Good housekeeping - encourage a see it, sort it culture to keep work areas tidy.
Provide storage bins for lifting gear. Report and follow up where a work area has
been left untidy by employees from other companies. Have procedures for
dealing with ice and snow.
Try to avoid the need to carry large or heavy objects over slippery surfaces these can obscure a persons view and prevent them catching their fall if they do
slip. Where it cant be avoided, plan the lift.
Car carrier
The multi-deck configuration of the car carrier is in itself a striking constructional feature,
the decks being interlinked by a fixed internal ramp system and elevator to lower holds.
Rates of movement of car units vary directly with design but 100 car equivalent units
(CEUs) per 8 hour shift would not be unusual, the vessel turning round from empty, in a 48
hour period.
Some decks are set at different heights to allow different head vehicles to be carried,
particularly relevant where high-sided trucks may become an optional cargo.
Other features of same deck might also include higher and heavier structure to cater for the
heavy-weight wheeled load. Some designs incorporate hoistable car decks offering
alternative head room, as an added feature, providing additional flexibility to maximize
cargo load.
A vehicle cargo mix tends to offer more options to shippers as well as being
convenient in permitting direct dealing with a single carrier, the
Speed of cargo operations being a direct influence for shippers and on the ships running
costs. Loading and discharge are generally by a minimum of two vehicle ramps, one about
the mid-ships area while a side loading, quarter ramp, has become a popular feature of
many car carriers and/or PCCs and PCTCs.
Fixed deck loading is usually about 2 tonne/m2 throughout, though this may vary where
hoistable decks are engaged. Decks are fitted with forced ventilation fan systems to clear
exhaust fumes during loading and discharge periods
.
As stated previously, the main disadvantage of these ships is in their construction,
producing very high sided vessels which are subjected to massive wind effect when in open
sea conditions.
As such, they experience considerable leeway which can generate increased fuel
burn over a passage. Some efforts in design features, like the rounding of the bow are and
bevelled bowlines, has been incorporated in some of the latest builds in an effort to
increase fuel efficiency.
The ships tend to be fitted with high ballast capacity because of the designated trade
not lending to full return cargoes per voyage, although some mutual exchange cargoes that
are suitable for the desugn decks like palletized cargo/fork lift or tractor loading can
sometimes be arranged
.
Note : Car carriers do not conform to conventional Ro-Ro regulations.
junctions
pedestrian crossings
vehicle crossings
blind corners
steep gradients, and
roadworks.
Pedestrian and mobile plant interaction
The safest way to protect pedestrians is to:
eliminate the requirement for people and plant to operate at the same level (e.g.
design the
hazard out by building raised loading docks in new facilities)
provide separate footpaths or walkways and eliminate pedestrian traffic where
vehicles
and mobile plant operate
install pedestrian barriers (e.g. inward opening gates) at building entrances and
exits to
prevent pedestrians walking in front of vehicles
make traffic routes wide enough for safety where separating pedestrians and
mobile plant
is not possible
mark traffic routes (e.g. paint directional lines on the floor or ground)
provide separate access ways for vehicles and pedestrians into buildings or
enclosures,
and
provide vision panels in pedestrian doors entering vehicle areas.
Workplaces where pedestrians have to cross vehicle routes should have:
clearly visible ground markings and signs
clear pedestrian and vehicle visibility
adequate lighting, and
established and communicated right-of-way rules.
Parking areas
Onsite parking, if provided, should enable separation between work and private vehicles.
Private vehicles should be parked away from busy work areas where possible.
Walkways leading to and from parking areas should be:
safely surfaced
clearly marked
adequately lit
unobstructed
signposted, and
separated from vehicle routes.
Workers and customers, who bring private vehicles to workplaces, should be provided with,
and comply with:
specified safe routes
clear safety signs at parking areas
clear speed limit signs, and
information and instruction on safe driving on workplace routes.
Hazards
However, there are things that make ro-ro ships dangerous to work on. Ro-ro ships have
been criticized for a number of reasons, mainly because of one single reason safety of
the ship.
Safety being the primary concern of ship owner, operator, and seafarer, lately ro-ro ship has
become less famous to work on. We bring you eight reasons that make ro-ro ship is a bit
dangerous to work on as compared to other ships.
1. The Problem of Stability
If a vessel maintains its stability at sea then it is safer to sail. However, the problem with the
RO-RO ship is its design, which includes cargo in upper decks and accommodation at even
higher levels.
Even a minor shift of cargo in the ro-ro vessel can become a major threat to the stability of
the ship. Similarly, hull failure leading to flooding can result in capsize of the vessel in no
time. The effects of wind and bad weather on high accommodation can also disturb the
ships stability.
2. Low Freeboard
In Ro-Ro ships which carry only cargo, the general arrangement of cargo access door is
close to the water line. In the event of listing, the door can get submerged leading to high
chances for ingress of water inside the ship which will lead to capsize.
3. Cargo Access Door
As discussed above the effect of listing of the ship leads to ingress of water if the cargo
doors are open or damaged. One weak point of ro-ro vessel is that sometimes the cargo
door itself is used as a ramp which makes the ship more vulnerable to damages.
4. Lack of Bulkheads
The subdivision of ro-ro ship from inside lacks from the transverse bulkheads, leading to
lower water tight integrity when water ingress or flooding takes place. Lack of bulkhead also
leads to spreading of fire more quickly as no subdivision is present to contain the fire.
5. Location of Life Saving Appliances (LSA)
When a ship is to be abandoned, life raft and lifeboats are used to leave the ship as soon
as possible. The location of lifeboat and life rafts on ro-ro ships is usually very high, which
makes it even difficult to lower them at sea especially when the ship is listing.
6. Weather condition
Another reason which acts externally on the Ro-Ro vessel is the rough weather, which may
result in reduction in the stability and cause heavy rolling of the ship. Heavy rolling has lead
to capsizing of ships in the past.
7. Cargo stowage
Cargo stowage is very important operation on Ro-Ro vessel for any loose cargo (trailer,
cars etc.) can give rise to a chain reaction leading to heavy shift in cargo position. The
trucks and trawlers loaded on board also carry cargo inside them and any shift of that cargo
can also lead to listing of the ship.
8. Cargo Loading
It is very difficult to have a sequential loading of cargo as cargo arrives on terminals at
different intervals and due to lack of time on port. This further leads to uneven cargo
distribution, something for which nothing can be done about. Lack of proper cargo
distribution has been the reason for several ship accidents in the past.
Control measures
Workplace design
Changing the workplace design can eliminate many hazards that can cause
slips, trips and
falls. Design and build workplaces with safety and comfort in mind. When new
facilities are
to be built, or existing facilities upgraded, it is an opportunity to avoid many
common hazards
by identifying potential slips, trips and falls hazards. In consultation with
workers, analyse the
tasks to be done by workers and the circumstances in which they will be done.
Plan and
discuss the movement paths of people and materials with architects and
workers.
Design should consider:
cords, leads, cables and power boards
lighting
floor surfaces, and
work functions.
Some design controls to eliminate hazards include:
providing power, telephone, computer and other equipment services from
ducts in the
floor or from the ceiling, eliminating the need for cords on the floor
ensuring adequate lighting for work areas, floors, stairs and passageways
installing floor surfaces suitable for the work area, such as high friction tiles
with deep
profiles for draining wet areas, and
ensuring there is adequate storage space to keep materials out of work and
traffic areas.
Flooring
The following tips will help improve floor surfaces and minimise the risk from
slips, trips and
falls:
Consider the slip resistance of the floor surface (see Appendix 2 for information
about
floor surfaces and coverings).
When the flooring itself is identified as a hazard, and installing new flooring is
not
reasonably practicable, there are a number of floor treatments that are
designed to be used
on existing flooring. This is a less expensive option than installing new flooring.
However, this would be false economy if the treated floor is not sufficiently
improved.
Use treatments that substantially increase the surface roughness of the
flooring. Be sure a
floor treatment doesnt introduce a new hazard.
Minimise changes in the floor level. If levels must change, install ramps rather
than steps.
Avoid sudden changes in floor surface texture, where possible. If such changes
do occur,
ensure good lighting and visual cues are in place.
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When footwear in the workplace cannot be controlled (e.g. where the public
have access),
an effective strategy must be put in place (e.g. installing softer flooring, such as
thicker
vinyl, cork or carpet). Increasing the roughness of surfaces can increase the slip
resistance
of floors. For example, concrete finished with a steel trowel is much smoother
and
therefore more slippery than concrete finished with a wooden float, or with a
broom.
Products that increase the surface friction will need to be maintained in
accordance with
the manufacturers specifications.
Stair design
Key points to consider are:
Ensure the proportions of the stair treads are the same throughout a flight of
stairs.
Apply non-slip edges (nosings) to improve safety on stairs and help give visual
definition
to the edge of the stairs. Metal nosings applied to carpeted stairs should have
ample taper
to blend smoothly with the carpet to prevent heels catching in the back edge of
the nosing.
Provide clear visual cues for the start and finish of the stairs, ample lighting
above the
stairs, and a tread pattern that does not reduce the visual definition of the edge
of each
individual step.
Provide handrails.
For further information, refer to the Building Code of Australia and AS 1657 Fixed
platforms,
walkways, stairways and ladders - Design, construction and installation.
Ramp design
Install ramps instead of stairs, if there is space to make the change in level,
without too great a
slope. The following should be taken into consideration when installing ramps:
Lighting
Ensure both internal and external stairways and walkways are well lit. Lighting
levels should
accommodate changes in conditions, such as transitions from closed to open
areas. For further
information, refer to the AS1680 series on interior and workplace lighting.
Drainage
Weather
Wet weather increases the risk from slips, trips and falls. To prevent this from
occurring:
have absorbent flooring materials set into the floor at entrances to stop
rainwater, snow
and mud being walked indoors
provide leak proof receptacles at entrances to buildings for leaving wet
umbrellas, and
provide leak proof plastic bags at entrances if wet umbrellas have to be
carried.
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Spills
If spills occur in the workplace:
ensure workplace policies and procedures for cleaning up spills clearly identify
who is
responsible for isolating and cleaning up the spill without delay
ensure all staff is appropriately trained and instructed in the spills clean-up
procedures
ensure easy access to equipment and materials for cleaning up spills - use
absorbent
materials that do not leave a residue
transport and carry substances in appropriate containers to avoid spills - use
lids or covers
where necessary, and
use alternative containers if poor packaging causes spills.
External environments
External environments may also cause slips, trips and falls. Consider the
following:
uneven path sections are a common hazard, where the edge of one section is
above or
below the surface of an adjacent section and can be difficult to see
uneven or sloping ground surfaces can be avoided or levelled
lay path sections on a stable base material, which will prevent them from
tilting over time,
and
housekeeping is needed where there are constant changes to workplace
conditions, such as
building sites.
Vegetation
Vegetation, such as moss on external paths, can be slippery, particularly in wet
and shaded
areas. Use commercial products to effectively remove these contaminants. Tree
roots, leaf
litter and wet grass can present slips, trips and falls hazards. Good maintenance
can reduce
these risks.
Training staff
All workers should have a good understanding of slips, trips and falls hazards in
their
workplace. This understanding should be developed through induction and
ongoing training
sessions. Training should also be discussed as a part of the consultation
arrangements in the
workplace. Training workers is essential to ensure control measures are
maintained and used.
All workers play a part in maintaining good housekeeping and cleanliness.
Workers must be
trained to report any hazards to their supervisor and/or the person responsible
for workplace
health and safety.
The training topics should include:
How to recognise slips, trips and falls hazards, and the part workers can play in
minimising them.
What action to take in the case of spills, covering procedures to clean up spills,
and
immediate action to take to warn others.
The importance of regular floor surface cleaning, maintaining housekeeping
and
procedures for preventing slips, trips and falls hazards. Cleaning staff should be
trained on
the methods required and control procedures, such as restricting access and
using
appropriate signage during cleaning to warn of slippery floors.
Information on the correct use of cleaning products, which can be found on the
product
label, or from manufacturers' recommendations.
The importance of cleaning footwear regularly to remove material trapped
between the
treads.
Signage
Signage should be used to:
alert people to surfaces that are wet following recent cleaning or spills, and
indicate procedures, such as specific footwear required for certain locations,
especially for
visitors to the workplace.
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Footwear
Wear the most appropriate footwear for the job and work environment. Refer to
the workplace
policy on footwear. Risk assessments should include the use of footwear as a
control measure,
where necessary.
General purpose work footwear should have the following characteristics:
slip resistant sole material
good tread pattern
rounded heel edge with good area of contact (avoid raised heels with small
contact area)
cushioned sole, and
close, but comfortable fit.
Manual tasks
Manual tasks are more than just lifting or carrying an object. They also include:
lifting
lowering
pushing
pulling
carrying
moving, and
holding or restraining any object, animal or person.
Manual tasks can include a wide range of activities, such as pulling a lever,
restraining an
animal, or holding and operating a power tool.
Research has identified five direct risk factors related to manual tasks that can
cause or
contribute to musculoskeletal disorders. These are:
forceful exertions
working postures awkward and static
repetition
duration, and
vibration.
These risk factors outlined in the Manual Tasks Code of Practice 2000 directly stress
the
body and cause injury. One of these risk factors must be identified in the task in
order for a
risk of injury to exist. However, the more risk factors identified the greater the
risk.
Forceful exertions put high levels of stress on muscles and body tissues. This
includes force
exerted by the body or force impacting on the body. Examples include lifting a
very heavy or
awkward load from the ground (e.g. lifting a person or a 40 kilogram cement
bag), or force to
the lower limbs resulting from jumping out of a vehicle.
Working postures
Awkward postures are postures where joints are at or near the extreme of their
movement,
(e.g. your head bent to the side so your ear is by your shoulder). Exposure to
awkward
postures can cause damage to the muscles and other tissues when they occur
in combination
with forceful exertion, another awkward posture (e.g. back bent and twisted),
repetitive
action, or if held for a prolonged period.
Static or fixed postures such as prolonged sitting or standing can sometimes be
more
fatiguing than tasks that require moderate movement. Your body has to work
hard to hold the
posture (leading to quicker muscle fatigue), putting greater stress on other
tissue and giving
your body less flexibility to deal with unexpected changes. Awkward postures
are often
caused by poorly designed work area(s), tools, equipment or work practices.
Repetition and duration involves making the same type of movement over and over
(e.g.
frequent lifting or working on a production line) or holding a position for a long
time. There
are even greater risks when repetition is combined with awkward postures,
forceful exertions,
fast movement, and/or cold conditions.
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The work cycle is the time taken to perform the task once without interruption.
Tasks
involving short cycle times of less than 30 seconds and performed for more than
one hour are
considered to be a risk, because the same muscles and other soft tissues are
being used
continuously.
Duration is the amount of time a person is exposed to a risk factor (e.g. vibration,
awkward
postures) without a break. Long periods of activity increase the strain and wear
and tear on
the body. Duration may be considered a significant risk factor when a task is
performed
continuously for one hour or longer.
Vibration