Construction Techniques - 3

Diploma Level
Environmental Science and Construction Techniques 3

Construction Techniques 3
1.0 Site Works
1.1 Site Investigation
Once a site has been selected by a developer for a new building project, the suitability of that site for
that particular project must be fully investigated
The investigation must be carried out irrespective of whether the site has been previously developed
and the buildings are still in existence or have been demolished or the site has never previously been
built upon.
There are two types of site investigation
(l) That carried out by the client and architect for the purpose of determining the feasibility of
the site for its proposed purpose
Eg. (i)
Weather the buildings could be most economically positioned having regard to
foundation
(ii)
Topography
(iii)
Services
(iv)
Adjacent building
(v)
Access
(ll) That carried out by the builder or contractor for the purpose of preparing an accurate tender
A certain amount of the information obtained in (a) will be passed to the builder or made
available for his inspection
1.1.1 Method of Site Investigation

Site visit
From the existing date
Maps
From the local authorities
By monitoring the closer building
1.1.2 What is the information to be collected?
Ground water condition
Flood detail
Earlier use of the land
Closer building behavior
Access to the site
Services available
APSS International Networks (Pvt) Limited.

Eng. T. Suthakaran
1
BScEng. PGDip. (Stru. Eng), AMIE (SL)
Diploma Level
Soil Exploration
Subsurface conditions at any given site must be adequately explored to obtain information required
in design and construction of foundations
The investigations may range in scope from a simple examination of the surface soil with a few
shallow trail pits OR
A detailed study of the soil and groundwater conditions to a considerable depth below the surface by
means of bore holes.
The extent of the work depends on the importance and foundation arrangement of the structure, the
complexity of the soil condition and the information which may be available on the behaviour of the
existing foundation on similar soil.
A detailed site investigation involving deep bore holes and laboratory testing of soils is always
necessary for heavy structures like bridges, multistory building and industrial plants.
The purpose of soil exploration
For new structures
i.
The type and depth of foundation can be selected
ii.
The bearing capacity of the selected foundation can be determined
iii.
The settlement can be predicted
iv.
The ground water level can be established
v.
The earth pressure against walls and abutments can be evaluated
vi.
Adequate provisions can be made against possible construction difficulties,
For existing structures
i.
The safety if the structure can be investigated
ii.
Further settlement can be predicted
iii.
Remedial measures can be suggested if the structure is unsafe or likely to suffer detrimental
settlement
For highways and air fields
i.
The roads and runways can be located or aligned properly
ii.
Barrow pits can be selected and properly located
iii.
Ditches, culverts and drains can be suitably located
iv.
The need and type of sub-grade treatment can be determined
Local nearby sources of the construction materials can be ascertained
What is the information we can get form the laboratory test
Compaction ratio
CBR (Calibonia Bearing Ratio)
Shear Strength
Moisture Content
Permeability
Consolidation rate
Eng. T. Suthakaran
2
Diploma Level
Method of Site Exploration
The various methods of site explorations may be grouped as follows:
Open trial pits
Borings
Geophysical investigations
Subsurface soundings
Open Trial Pits
Pits are dug at the site exposing the subsoil surface thoroughly
This method is enable a clear picture to be obtained of the stratification of the soil and the presence
of any lenses or pockets of weaker material
This method is generally suitable and cheapest for small depths (up to 3 m)
Greater depths and bellow to ground water table, this method becomes expensive since special
measures for lateral supports and ground water lowering become inevitable
Boring
The different methods of boring or drilling are as given below:
(i)
Auger boring
(ii)
Wash boring
(iii)
Percussion boring
(iv)
Rotary boring
(i)
(ii)
Auger Boring
Suitable for soft soils above the water table that have sufficient cohesion to stand unsupported in an
unlined borehole
Hand augers are used for depths up to about 6 m
Mechanically operated augers are used for greater depths and can also be used in gravel soils.
Wash Boring
In this method, water is forced under pressure through an inner tube which may be rotated or moved
up and down inside a casing pipe
The chopping and jetting action of the bit and water disintegrates the soil
The soil water slurry comes up to the ground through the annular space between the drill rod and the
casing
The slurry flowing out gives an indication of the soil type
In this method heavier particle of different soil layers remain under suspension in the casing pipe and
get mixed up
This method is unsuitable for obtaining reliable samples for classification
Whenever a sample is to be taken, washing should be stopped and a tube sampler should be attached
to the end of the drill rod or the inner tube
By driving the sampler into the soil, by hammering or jacking, samples can be taken
3
Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Percussion Boring
This method consists of breaking up the soil and rock formations by repeated blows of a chisel or bit,
suspended by a cable or rods
Water should be added to the hole during boring and the pulverized materials are bailed out at
intervals
This method is adopted for advancing a hole in all types of sub surface formations
Since the materials are highly disturbed by the impact, the method is unsuitable for careful
investigations.
(v)
Rotary boring
In this system, boring is effected by the cutting action of a rotating bit which is kept in firm contact
with the bottom of the hole
Drilling mud is continuously forced down the hollow drill rods which collect the cuttings to the
surface. The method is known as mud rotary drilling
Water is circulated down the hollow rods to facilitate cutting
Soil Samples
Soil samples are two types: disturbed and undisturbed.
(i) Disturbed
A disturbed sample is that in which the natural structure of the soil gets partly or fully modified and
destroyed by the method of sampling. Natural water component may be preserved by suitable
precautions. The sample is suitable for mechanical analysis, determination of index properties, soil
classification and for carrying out compaction tests.
(ii) Undisturbed.
An undisturbed sample is that in which the structure and properties of the material are preserved.
This may be obtained by careful protection and packing and by the use of a correctly designed
sampler. Only undisturbed samples are suitable for tests on shear strength, consolidation and
permeability. These samples can also be used for other tests as for those of the disturbed samples.
Bearing capacity of Foundations
Any foundation should be designed so as to satisfy two essential requirements:
(i)
It must have a certain specified safety against ultimate failure.
(ii)
The settlements under working loads should not exceed the allowable limits for the
superstructure in question.
Ultimate Bearing Capacity
It is defined as the minimum gross pressure at the base of the foundation at which the soil mass fails
in shear
Gross pressure is the total pressure at the base of the foundation due to the weight of the
superstructure, self-weight of the foundation and the weight of earth fill, if any.
4

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Safe Bearing Capacity
The safe bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by factor of safety.
Factor of safety
The factor of safety to be selected depends on how accurately the soil conditions are known, the type
of loading and the hazard imposed by a complete foundation failure.
For most structures, where no possibility of soil failure can be tolerated and when there is a
reasonably accurate soil and loading information available, a safety factor of 2.5 is employed.
If there is a large component of live load that is likely to develop, a safety factor of 2 may be
employed.
When the soil conditions are not well established, a factor of 3 should be used. For temporary
structures.
Where some risk of bearing failure can be tolerated a safety factor of 1.5 may be used.
Soil Contamination
Soil contamination meas, the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil
environment.
It may occure due to
Underground storage tanks,
Oil and fuel dumping
Direct discharge of industrial wastes
Application of pesticides.
There are three general approaches to clean up it
Soil can be excavated from the ground and be either treated or disposed
Soil be left in the ground and treated in place or site
Prevent the contamination
General Procedure
Keep a large plastic cover over the contaminated soil to prevent direct contract
Allow rain water from seeping into the soil and spreading the contamination
Then flash the contaminants out of soil using water, Chemical solvents or air

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
2.0 Ground Works
Site Works and Setting Out
The site having been taken over, the task of preparing for and setting out the building can be
commenced. These operations can be grouped under three heading.
i) Clearing the site
ii) Setting out the building.
iii) Establishing a datum level.
Site Clearing
Demolition of existing building
Grubbing out of bushes and trees
Removal of top soil because it is not good foundation of the building
Remove 300 mm for large trees area and very jungle area
Normally 150 mm
The top soil can be used for garden work
Setting out the site
As first task establish a base line, from which the whole of the building can be set out
Must be clearly marked, to be reestablished at any time
Site measurement can be taken by steel tape or linen tape or plastic coated tape (Steel tape is
favorable)
Set out the main line of the building
Marked each conner with stout pegs
Check for right angle and correct length
Set the profiles boards and marks following
Foundation trench position
Foundation and wall position
Required at all the trench and wall inter sections
Establishing a datum level
All the level of the building will be taken from this point
This is related to an ordinance bench mark or Temporary bench mark (TBM)
Set on site with concrete block in a suitable place
Mark from the Permanent bench mark
Sloping Sites
If the site is level construction work can be commenced
For non level area cut or fill or cutting and fill operation is needed
Cut is undisturbed soil for work but costly
Fill either deep foundation or large settlement to be accepted and not recommended for building
construction
6

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Excavation Works
(i)
(ii)
Removal of Topsoil
The work is being carried out in a redevelopment area, the first section of ground to be excavated is
the topsoil or vegetable soil
The reason for this is that the top layer of ground contains material which is decomposing along
with active plant life in the form of grass, flower, roots or shrubs, etc.
This material is easily compressible and as such n unsuitable for foundation
The topsoil layer approximately 150 mm to 300 mm deep
This layer is excavated separately from the other excavation work and the material is stockpiled in
some convenient position on the site in order to provide gardens on completion of the building
work
The soil is sold to people who have only a thin layer of topsoil on heir land and who wish to
increase its depth in order to improve the productivity of their garden
Types of Excavation
There are several types of excavation used in the building
The type and method depending on the amount of ground to be excavated
The types are
Soil strip
Reduced level excavation
Bulk excavation
Trench excavation
Hole or pit excavation
Soil Strip
It is same as top soil removal
It may be achieved by the use of certain type of machinery or plant
By a Bulldozer: - Pushing the topsoil layer to a convenient stockpile position a
short distance away
By a Scraper :- Paring off the top layer, transporting it, and depositing it at a
stockpile position some distance away on a large site
By a drag Line scraping;- The top layer, transporting it and depositing it at a
convenient stockpile or loading the material into wagons for in a
similar manner to the drag line
By a mechanical shovel:- Operating in a similar manner to the drag line scraping
By a skimmer:- A machine specifically designed for this type of work

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Reduced Level Excavation
The ground which lies between the topsoil and the Earths crust is known as the subsoil
It comprises particles of weathered rock of various shapes and sizes
It is usually necessary to provide a level surface from which construction may take place
This level may be lower than the top of the subsoil
So, it is required to reduce the level of the ground
The volume of subsoil to be excavated, together with the nature of the material, will determine the
type of machine and method to be used.
Bulk Excavation
In this method large volume of subsoil are required to be excavated in order to reach the formation
level
This type of excavation may be to reduce level or to provide basement areas
In addition to the plant already mentioned, a face shovel may also be used for this type of work
Trench Excavation
Normally after the formation of the level it will take place, it is frequently necessary to excavate
trenches to a lower level
The foundation of the building are constructed in to the trench
Some time trench may required out side the building for the laying of pipes and cables which carry
gas, water, electricity and other services.
If the trenches are straight and uniformly shaped, it is generally cheaper to use a machine for the
excavation
If the trenches are small and have a complicated layout, a gang of men with picks and spades can
still provide the most economical method of excavation
Hole or Pit Excavation
The design of the substructure may required holes or pits to be excavated
In the case of circular holes, hand or mechanically driven augers or drills can be used
Pits, being small shallow or rectangular holes, may be excavated mechanically or by hand.
Water in Excavation
if excavation is to be carried out to a depth below that of the level of the water table, the excavated
area will be filed with water
It is difficult to carry out further construction work in water without incurring extra expense,
especially when workmen rather than machines are involved
The ground on either side of the excavated area is less stable and more likely to collapse when
waterlogged
8
It is therefore essential that any water which enter the excavation should be removed as soon as
possible or a better alternative is to prevent the water entering in the first place.
Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Ground Water Control
Water from a particular area or merely to lower the water table to given reasonably dry working
conditions especially for excavation activities
Water affects the stability and bearing capacity of a sub-soil
The effect of the water is that of a lubricant enabling them to move when subjected to a force such
as a foundation loading or simply causing them to flow by movement of ground water.
The voids caused by excavation works encourage water to flow since the opposition to the ground
water movement provided by the soil has been removed.
In cases where the flow of water is likely an artificial opposition must be installed or the likelihood
of water movement must be restricted by geotechnical processes.
These processes can be broadly classified into one two group.
i)
Permanent exclusion of ground water.
ii)
Temporary exclusion of ground water by lowering the water table.
Permanent Exclusion of Ground Water.
a) Sheet piling : Suitable for all types of soils except boulder beds and is used to form a barrier or cut-off wall to the
flow of ground water.
The sheet piling can be of a permanent nature, being designed to act as a retaining wall or it can be
a temporary enclosure to exaction works in the form of a cofferdam
This method is unacceptable due to vibration and noise during the driving process
The capital costs can be high unless they can be apportioned over several contacts on a use and reuse basis.
b) Diaphragm walls : Suitable for all types of soils and are usually of in situ reinforced concrete installed using the
bentonite slurry method.
This form of diaphragm wall has the advantages of low installation noise and vibration, can be used
in restricted spaces and can be installed close to existing foundations.
Generally, unless the diaphragm wall forms part of the permanent structure, this method is
uneconomic.
c)
Slurry trench cut off : These are non-structural thin cast in situ un-reinforced diaphragm wall suitable for sub-soils of silts,
sands and gravels.
They can be used on sites where there is sufficient space to enclose the excavation area with a cutoff wall of this nature sited
There is sufficient earth remaining between the wall and the excavation to given the screen or
diaphragm wall support.
9
Provided adequate support is given these wall are rapidly installed and are cheaper than the
structural version.
Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
d)
Thin grouted membrane : Alternative method to the slurry trench cut-off wall when used in silt and sand sub-soils, they are
also suitable for installation in very permeable soils and made up ground where bentonite methods
are unsuitable.
Like the previous ample earth support is required for this non-structural cut off wall.
The common method of formation is to drive into the ground a series of touching universal beam or
column sections, sheet pile sections or alternatively small steel box sections to the required depth.
A grout injection pipe is fixed to the web or face of the section and this is connected, by means of a
flexible pipe, to a grout pump at ground level.
As the sections are withdrawn the void created is filled with cement grout to form the thin
membrane
e) Contiguous piling : An alternative method to the reinforced concrete diaphragm wall consisting of a series of
interlocking reinforced concrete bored piles.
The formation of the bored piles can be carried out as ensuring that the piles interlock for their
entire length.
This will require special cutting tools to form the key in the alternate piles for the interlocking
intermediate piles.
The pile diameter selected will be determined by the strength required after completion of the
excavations to one side of the wall.
Contiguous piling can be faced with a reinforced rendering or covered with a mesh reinforcement
sprayed with concrete to give a smooth finish.
This latter process is called shot-Crete or Gunite.
An alternative method is cast in front of the contiguous piling a reinforced wall terminating in a
capping beam to the piles
Temporary Exclusion of Ground Water

a) Sump Pumping : Suitable for most sub-soils and in particular gravels and coarse sands when working in open
shallow excavation.
The sump or water collection pit should be excavated below the formation level of the excavation
and preferably sited in a corner position to reduce to a minimum the soil movement due to
settlement which is a possibility with this method.
Open sump pumping is usually limited to a maximum depth of 7.50 m due to the limitations of
suction lift of most pumps.
An alternative method to the open sump pumping is the jetted sump which will achieve the same
objective and will also prevent the soil movement.
10
In this method a metal tube is jetted into the and the void created is filled with a sand media, a
disposable nose and strainer

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
b)
c)
Well point system :Popular method of water lowering in non-cohesive soils up to a depth of between 5.00 m to 6.00 m.
To dewater an area beyond this depth requires a multi stage installation.
The basic principle is, water jet into the ground by numbers of small diameter wells which are
connected to a header pipe which is attached to a vacuum pump
Well-point system can be installed with the header pipe should be connected to two pumps
The first for actual pumping operations and the second as a standby pump since it is essential to
keep the system fully operational to avoid collapse of the excavation should a pump failure occur.
The alternative system is the progressive line arrangement where the header pipe is placed
alongside a trench or similar excavation to one side or both sides according to the width of the
excavation.
A pump is connected to a predetermined length of header pipe and further well points are jetted in
ahead of the excavation works.
As the work including backfilling is completed the redundant well points are removed and the
header pipe is moved forwards.
Shallow-bored wells :Suitable for sandy gravels and water bearing rocks and is similar in principle to well-point pumping
But is more appropriate than the latter for installations which have to be pumped for several months
since running costs are generally less.
This method is subject to the same lift restrictions as well-point system and can be arranged as a
multistage system if the depth of lowering exceeds 5.00 m.
d) Deep bored well: Can be used as an alternative to a multi stage well-point installation where the ground water needs
to be lowered to a depth greater than 9.00 m.
The wells are formed by sinking a 300 mm to 600 mm diameter steel lining tube into the ground to
the required depth and at spacing to suit the sub-soil being dewatered.
This bore hole allows a perforated well liner to be installed with an electro submersible pump to
extract the water.
The annular space is filled with a suitable media such as sand gravel as the outer steel lining tube is
removed
e)
Horizontal ground water control:The pumping methods described above all work on a completely vertical system.
11
An alternative is the horizontal system of dewatering which consists of installing into the ground a
100 mm diameter PVC perforated suction pipe covered with a nylon filter sleeve to prevent the
infiltration of fine particles.
The pipe is installed using a special machine which excavates a narrow trench, lays the pipe and
backfills the excavation in one operation at speeds up to 180 m per hour with a maximum depth of
5.00 m.
Under average conditions a single pump can handle approximately 230 m of pipe run, for distances
in excess of the pumping length an overlap of consecutive pipe lengths of up to 4.00 m is required
Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
f) Electro osmosis: An uncommon and costly method which can be used for dewatering cohesive soils such as silts and
clays where other pumping methods would not be adequate.
This method works on the principle that soil particles carry a negative charge which attracts the
positively charged ends of the water molecules creating a balanced state: if this balance is disturbed
the water will flow.
The disturbance of this natural balance is created by the inserting into the ground two electrodes
and passing an electric charge between them.
The positive electrode can be of steel rods or sheet piling which will act as the anode and a wellpoint is installed to act as the cathode or negative electrode.
An electric current is passed between the anode and cathode it causes the positively charged water
molecules to flow to the well-point (cathode) where it is collected and pumped away to a discharge
point.
The power consumption for this method can vary from 1 kW per m 3 for large excavations up to 12
kW per m3 of soil dewatered for small excavations which will generally make this method
uneconomic on running costs alone.
Support to Excavation
Used for loose sand and gravels and soft clay and silts.
This process is know as timbering
This timbering to be placed
- Continuously
- As quickly as possible, in order to avoid the sides slumping in
There are several methods of timbering
i)
Runners
ii)
Poling Board
iii)
Sheet Piles
iv)
Horizontal Laggings
Timbering with Runners
Do a shallow excavation
Placed waling and struts with short boards behind them
12
It will temporarily block off the face

The strut to be nailed or bolted to the ends tightly in order to avoid the falling
Steel trench sheets can be used instead of timber
Drive down the runners by a heavy maul
Tight the runners by using wedge against the face of excavation
When the excavation reaches the level of the second bracing from the waling are threaded through
the struts of the top frame and then set in position

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Longer uprights are set between the waling enabling the struts to be tightened against the face
Puncheons are placed between waling to support the top frame
Lacing boards are nailed vertically between pair of struts, it will brace the two frames together, so
uneven ground movement on either sides of the excavation and as safe guard to struts
If the excavation is deeper set third frame
But usually runners are not more than 4.8 m long
Second and third settings need additional excavation.
Support by sheet piling

Suitable for soft soil sub grade, can be used for compacted gravel ground or where soil containing
cobbles or boulders
Normally can be used up to 15 m length
Driven by drop hammer or double acting hammer
The boulders to be remove before driving
Create noise and vibration
Timbering with Poling boards
Suitable method for deep cuts in restricted site conditions
Example where width is not available for several setting of runners, or where little headroom is
available for pitching and driving sheet piling
The poling boards are quite short not usually more than 1.2 m with or without sharpened ends
Pitched out side timber guide the waling
By driving the boards in short stages immediately ahead of the excavation the ground is supported
all times
A tucking board will be placed in the space occupied by them before next setting of board is placed
After completion of driving a setting of boards the trucking board is replaced
Horizontal timbering
Support the ground by horizontal laggings between solider pile
13
When excavation is taken down timber laggings are inserted horizontally between the flanges of the
piles and held against the face by wedges
Necessary to expose the ground over a depth of two or three boards to provide enough space to slip
one board between the flange
Support to stift clays compact or cohesive dry sands or weak rock strata
These materials can usually be relied upon to stand unsupported for a varying length of time
Supports are needed to prevent yielding and settlement of the adjacent ground surface and to ensure
the safety of workmen
Greatly simplifies procedure of timbering
Do the excavation up to the required depth and place the boards
Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Factors to be considered when designing trench support
Ground pressure of soils
Angle of internal friction
Effect of water table
Pressure from adjacent building
Loading caused by construction plant
What is foundation?
It is a sub structure transmitting all the loads to ground safely
Components of Foundations
Natural Foundation
Artificial Foundation
Choice of a Foundation
Ability of artificial foundation to support the weight
Ability if the natural foundation to carry the loads
Ability of the structure to sustain small movement at foundation level
Type of Foundation
Strip foundation :- For low rise building
Isolated foundation / Pad foundation :- Suitable for building having long span between the columns
and low stores building
Raft foundation :- Suitable of medium rise building
Combination of all three above
Pile foundation :- Suitable for high rise building
Trench fill foundation :- Quite small and no wider than the wall carried
14
Foundation type available in various type of soil

Sand, gravel :- Pad foundation, Strip foundation and combined footing
Made up ground :- Draft foundation / Cellular foundation
Deep clay / Uncontrolled fill :- Pile foundation
Functions of Foundation
Safe load distribution
Resistance to settlement including differential
Resistance to shear
Consideration of seasonal movement

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
The factors to be considered when designing foundation for low rise building
Ground bearing capacity
Bending and Shear
Acidity or Alkalinity of soil
Ground Movement
Change of soil particle level or location
What are the factors
- Subsidence due to mining underground
- Overloading of the natural foundation
- Lowering of the ground water table
- Increase in the water table level
- Freezing of moisture
- Settlement
Precaution measure for the safety
Adequate supply of timber or other suitable materials
Timbering should be carried out under supervisions of competent person
Material used should be adequate strength
See Resource Management note
15

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
3.0 Supper Structure
Framed Building
The purpose of any framed building is to transfers of the loads of structures plus any imposed loads
through the members of the frame to suitable foundation
Framed buildings are practically suitable for
- Medium and high rise structures
- Industrialized low rise building
Frames can be considered under three headings
Plane frames
- Fabricated in a flat plane
- Usually called trusses or girders according to their elevation and shapes
- Designed as a series of connected rigid triangle
- Mainly used in roof construction and long span beam of light loading
Space frame
- Similar conception to a plan frame
- Design to span in two direction
- A series of linked Pyramid frames forming a light weight roof
Skeleton Frames
- Series of rectangular frames placed at right angles to one an other
- The loads are transmitted from member to member until they are transferred through the
foundation to the sub soil
- It can be construct as follows
i)
Concrete skeleton frames
ii)
Steel skeleton frames
iii)
Timber skeleton frame
Factors to be considered when selecting the material for frame structure
16
Site condition
Economics
Availability of labours
Time factors
Statutory regulation
Capital costs
Personal preferences
Functions of Skeleton frame members

Main beam
Span between the columns and transfer the live and imposed loads placed upon them to the columns
Secondary beam
Span between the main beams
Transfer their loading to the main beams
Reduce the span of the floors or roof being supported by the frame
Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Tie beam
Beams spanning between columns at right angle to the direction to main beams
Same functions as main beams
Internal beams
Edge beams
Same as tie beams but spanning between external columns
Columns
Vertical members
Carry loads transferred by the beams to the foundation
Foundation
The base, to which the columns are connected
Transfer the loadings to a suitable load bearing subsoil
Floors
May or may not be an integral part of the frame
Provide the platform on which equipment can be placed and on which people can circulate
Transmitting these live loads to the supporting beams
Roof
Similar to floors
Main function is to provide a weather resistant covering to the upper most floor
Claddings/External Envelope to framed Structures
Claddings are a form of masking or infilling a structural frame
17
Provides the resistance to the elements entry of day light, natural ventilation, fire resistance, thermal
insulation and sound insulation
It can be consider under the following headings
i)
Sheet claddings
ii)
Brick claddings
iii)
Infill panels
iv)
Curtain walling
v)
Concrete claddings
All forms of cladding must fulfils the following functions
i)
Be self supporting between the framing members
ii)
Provide the necessary resistance to rain penetration
iii)
Be capable of resisting both positive and negative wind pressures
iv)
Provide the required degree of thermal resistance
v)
Provide the necessary resistance to wind penetration
vi)
Provide the required degree of sound insulation to suit the building type
vii)
Give required degree of fire resistance
viii) Provide sufficient opening for natural day light and ventilation
ix)
Be constructed to a suitable size
Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
1)
Sheet Cladding (Fig VI.8, VI.9)

The sheets are fixed in a similar manner such as sheets roof covering
The support purlins are replaced in walls by a similar member called a sheeting rail which is fixed
by cleats to the vertical structural frame members
The wall cladding are usually positioned by fixing in trough of the profile as opposed to the crest
when fixing roof covering
It will ensure that the wall cladding rail is pulled tightly up to the sheeting rail or lining tray
Plastic protective caps for the heads of fixings are available
A full range of fittings and trims are usually obtainable for most materials and profiles to
accommodate opening, returns, top edge and bottom edge closing
Common materials used for sheet claddings are
i)
Fiber Cement
- Non Combustible materials
- Suitable for exposed weather
- Susceptible to impact damage
ii)
Coated Steel Sheets
- Its covered with various forms of coatings to give weather protection
- A layer of asbestos felt in both sides to increase the fire resistance
- A layer of bitumen impregnated felt to act as a barrier to the passage of moisture
iii)
Aluminium alloy sheets
18
2.
Durability is depend up on the alloy used

Durability can be increased by painting
Brick Claddings (Fig lll.29, lll.30)

These are non load bearing walls, full fill the function of cladding
Brick claddings are constructed in the same manner as ordinary solid traditional methods
It should be supported at each structural floor level and tied to the structure at the vertical edges
A compression joint should be formed between the top edge of the panel and the underside of the
framing member at each floor level
It must have an acceptable and durable finish
It can be achieved by using facing bricks with a neat pointed joint or by attaching to the face of
panel of common bricks a stone or similar cladding

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
3.
4.
Concrete Cladding (Fig V.1, V.2, V.3)

These are usually made of pre-cast concrete with a textured face in a storey height or under sill
panel format
Story height panels are design to span vertically from beam to beam
Normally used for tall buildings
Under sill panels span horizontally from column to column
Normally used where high wall/window ratio is required
Combination of both formats are also possible
It should be constructed by dense concrete mix with reinforcement
Reinforcement will provide necessary tensile resistance
Lifting lugs position or holes should be incorporated in the design
When designing or selecting a panel the following must be take into account
- Column or beam spacing
- Lifting capacity of plant available
- Jointing method
- Exposure condition
- Any special planning requirement as to finish or texture
A long term adequate joint must be provided with possibility of structural and thermal movements
Stone facing to be done where ever required
Infill Panels (Fig V.4, V.5, V.6)
19
5.
Infill panels are light weight structures

Give good internal natural day lighting
It can be arranged to expose some or all of the structural members creating various optional
impression
Timber, steel, aluminium and plastic can be used
Single or double glazing techniques is possible
When it is coated by dirt its visual appearance is less acceptable so need routine cleaning or
maintenance
Curtain Walling
It is a form of external light weight cladding attached to a framed structure forming a complete
envelope or sheath around the structural frame
Non loading bearing claddings
Supported only their own dead weight
Wind load will be transferred to the structural frame through connectors usually positioned at floor
level
It is a series of vertical mullions spanning from floor to floor interconnected by horizontal transoms
Opening into which can be fixed panels of glass or infill panels
It is a dry construction method, minimum load to structural frame
Give good architectural feature
Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Details of reinforced concrete cast in-situ walls (Fig lll.3, Fig lll.7 Fig lll.9)
Functions of walls support, strength, stability, weather exclusion, insulation, fire resistance,
durability and aesthetics
Type of walls
Reinforced concrete walls
Location of reinforcement from bending moment and shear force diagram
Construction joint
Cover to reinforcement by considering the fire resistance and durability
For normal building 25 mm 30 mm
Water retaining structures 40 mm 50 mm
Sea site building 30 mm 40 mm

Form work
Mean as a mould or box into which wet concrete can be fulfill and compacted
The formwork must fulfill the following requirements
- It should be strong enough to support the load of wet concrete
- In must not be able to deflect under load
- It must be accurately set out to required shape
- It must have grout tight joints
20
Form sizes should be designed so that they are the maximum size which can easily be
handled by hand or by a mechanical lifting device
Material must be formwork units should be such that they can easily be assembled and
dismantled without any members being trapped
Form work materials

Soft wood boards
Plywood
Clipboard
Steel frame
Mould oils and Emulsions
Blow holes, these are small holes being less than 15 mm in diameter caused by air being trapped
between the formwork and the concrete face
Uneven colour, this is caused by irregular absorption of water from the wet concrete by the formwork
material
Mould oil can be applied to the inside surface of the formwork to alleviate these defects
To obtain smooth patterned or textured surfaces the inside of a form can be lined with various
materials such as oil tempered hardboard, mould rubber, mould PVC and glass fiber and reinforce
polyester

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Types of formwork
Foundation formwork
Column formwork
Beam formwork
Slab formwork
Wall formwork
Foundation formwork (Fig lll.10)
Foundation may be any types
If the subsoil is firm and hard it may be possible to excavate the trench or pit for the foundation to the
size and depth required and cast the concrete against the excavated faces
If this is not practicable formwork is needed
Sides and end Panels will be required
Firmly strutted against the excavated face
Ties will be required across the top of the form as a top restraints and these can be utilized to form
the kicker for a reinforced concrete columns
Columns Formwork (Fig lll.11 Fig lll.13)
21
It may be form or box consists of a vertical mould

The column box should be located against 75 mm high plinth or kicker which has been cost
monolithic with base or floor
Ti should be tight grout flow
Check and tie time to time
Beam Formwork (Fig lll.14)

It consist three sides box
Which is supported by cross member called head trees which are propped to the under side of the
soffit board
Soffit board thickness is greater than the side boards
Soffit board is inside of the beam side boards
Slab Formwork (Fig lll.16)
Formwork of floor or roof slab called as shuttering
Normally consist of panels that can be easily handle
It can be framed or joisted
Can be supported by the beam forming with any intermediate propping
Level adjustment propping can be used

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Wall Formwork
There are two different way of formworks
Traditional formwork (Fig Vll.1, Fig Vll.2)

- The framed panels tied together over their backs with horizontal members called waling
- It will be formed above the 75 mm height concrete kickers
- Prevent the loss of grout
- Use pre-cast concrete spacer blocks to get the cover
- Timber or steel can be used
Climbing formwork (Fig Vll.3)

same forms are used as in a repetitive fashion
Maximum usage of forms
Need minimum number of forms
It is possible to use this method for casting wall against an excavated or sheet piled back face
using formwork to one side only by replacing
22
Methods of Compacting concrete

Hand tamping
Vibrating Poker in concrete
Hand tamping
Suitable for small concrete work and for testing (Slump, cube casting)
Size should be less than the spacing of reinforcement
Edge is rounded shape
Vibrating poker in concrete
Pokers are often used inefficient in site
From the observation of number of site about 70 % of the operating time being made as waste
To get maximum use of poker and to give good compaction to concrete consider the following facts
- Make sure you can see the concrete surface
- Put it in quickly, leave it in the concrete for about 10 seconds and with draw it slowly
- Put the poker back in not more than about 500 mm away from its last position
- Avoid touching the formwork face or reinforcement with the poker
- Avoid using the poker to make the concrete to flow
- Avoid sticking the poker into the top of the heap
- Make sure that the poker extends about 100 mm into any previous layer
- Put the whole length of the poker head into the concrete
- Avoid leaving the poker running when it is not in the concrete
- Avoid sharp bends in flexible drives
- Clean it after used.

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Fire resistance (fig IV.6 IV.13)
Fire will damage the properties and human life within short period of time
So the building it self can contain the fire until the arrival of fire fighting appliance
It means during a fire the temperature of structural members or element does not increase to a figure
at which their strength would be adversely affected
At the same time it should also be considered as long as possible to prevent the spread of fire to
other building in the vicinity
It will help to escape people from danger and to commenced fire fighting easily.
Roofs
Flat Roofs
There are two forms of construction for flat roofs
- Warm deck
- Cold deck
23
Warm Deck Roof

The insulation is placed above the roof deck but below the weather proofing
No insulation below the deck and no ventilation is required
External wall insulation needs to be extended up to the underside of the roof insulation to prevent
cold bridging
Cold Deck Roof
The insulation is placed between the flat roof joists at ceiling level
When the insulation is placed at ceiling level there is possibility to form condensation so to prevent
it allow minimum of 50 mm gap for ventilation above insulation
A vapour barrier should be placed on the warm side of the insulation
The roof to be ventilated by continuous gap running the full length of the eaves on two opposite
sides
The external wall insulation need to be extended up to the underside of the roof insulation to
prevent cold bridging
Cold deck flat roof
Roof covering
Roof deck
Ventilated air space
Thermal insulation
Vapour control layer
Ceiling lining
Warm deck flat roof
Roof covering
Overlay
Rigid insulation
Vapour control layer
Structural roof deck

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Concrete flat roof covering
Roof slab will be constructed as normal concrete reinforced concrete slab
For small span timber roof is suitable, for a large span concrete flat roof can be used
Roofs are design to support the self weight of the roof together with loading from rain and snow
resist wind pressure and provide support for access for maintenance
The concrete roof is supported on external walls with intermediate supports from internal loading
bearing walls or beams as necessary
The top of the flat roof will be sloped 5 to 10 to ensure the rain water flow
Normally it will be done by a cement and sand screed with one way, two way or four way falls to
rain water outlets
Use of Bitumen felts covering
To prevent drying out of screed concrete in the top of the roof the bitumen felt covering is applied
24
Felt roofs consist of two or three layers of sheet felt materials that form a dense, void less and
impermeable barrier
Waterproofing agent such as tar or asphaltic bitumen that prevents ingress of moisture.
There are several ways of doing this
a.
Pour and roll: hot bitumen is poured in front of the felt as it is unrolled, and thus acts as the
adhesive and seals the laps.
b.
Torching: in this method specially designed felt is heated with a gas torch and no separate
bonding bitumen is needed. Best suited to repair work, small areas, or where access to the roof
is difficult. The contractor must take precautions against fire. Torching is not suitable over or
adjacent to flammable materials.
c.
Cold applied: here, a cold adhesive is spread onto the roof surface and the felts unrolled
into position. Laps are also sealed with the cold adhesive. Thus no bitumen boiler or gas torches
are required, enhancing safety.
d.
Self-adhesive: the undersides of these membranes include a high-tack adhesive and release
paper. Once positioned, the release paper is peeled off, and the membrane stuck down to the
substrate. They are not suitable for laying over uneven surfaces or in cold conditions. They
require rolling, or a soft broom applied over the whole area to assist full adhesion.
Surface Protection
All felt roofs need some protection. If the only access onto the roof is for inspection, use either:
stone chippings (12+mm) : these should be bonded to the waterproofing in a gritting compound, not
bitumen.
mineral finish: small slate flakes are bonded to the felt during manufacture. Various colours are
available.
reflective paints: although effective when first applied, these soon wear and discolour and need repainting every 3 to 4 years.
Bituminized roofing felt, unless carefully maintained, has a shorter life than other types of roof
covering and therefore, strict regulations control its use.
Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
General
When constructing of flat roofs consider the following
Materials used must be suitable for use in flat roofs
Roofs need to achieve an external fire rating
Vapour barriers should be used
Flat roofs should be anchored to walls to prevent uplift
Flat roofs should be laid to falls
Flat roofs require regular maintenance
Pre-cast, Pre stressed concrete section used as structural members for floor and flat roofs in skeletal
framed building
Panel
Plank
25
Trough
Hollow beam
Solid beam
I beam
L beam
T beam
Note:1. Common forms of roof trusses and rafters Fig V.1, Fig ll.44 & Fig ll.45
2. Typical jointing techniques Fig V.2, Fig V.3, Figll.46, Fig ll.47, Fig lV.5 & Fig lV.6)
For Steel :- Welding, Bolted gusset plates to steel angle members
Timber :- Bolt or toothed timber connectors, nailed, glued plywood gusset plates

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
External Work
Estate Roads and Pavement Construction
Pavement is a general term for any paved surface
It is specifically applied to the whole construction of a road
It can be classified as
(i)
Flexible Pavements
(ii)
Flexible Pavements
Flexible Pavements (Fig Vll.2 a)
Sub base is laid directly onto the foundation
The formation level is known as sub grade
It is consist of well compacted granular material such as a quarry overburden or crushed rocks
26
The thickness of sub base can be determined by using

The cumulative number of standard axles to be carried and
CBR (California Bearing Ratio)
Sequence of layer from bottom to top
Sub grade
Sub base
Bearing course
Wearing surface
sub base may be consist of any material which remains stable in water
It is a relatively cheap flexible payment
Rigid Pavements (Fig Vlll.2 b)

It is form of road using a concrete slab laid over a base layer
The preparation of the sub grade is as described above for above for flexible pavements
Concrete slab laid over the sub grade as sub base
Thickness is depend upon the nature and type of sub grade, intensity of traffic
Reinforcement is provided to the slab accordingly
Before the concrete is laid the base layer should be covered with a slip membrane of Polythene
sheet to prevent the grout loss from the concrete slab
Cover of reinforcement depend on the thickness of concrete slab
(but
normal range 40 < c < 80)
Drainage
It is directing the water to suitable collection point and conveying the collected water to suitable out
fall
The surface water is encouraged to flow the paved area by cross falls which was designed with
sufficient gradient
Normal cross fall is 1 : 40
The run of water is directed towards the edges of the road where it is in turn conveyed by gutters or
drainage channels
Normal fall of the channel is 1 : 200
Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Type of bridges
It is facilitate the safe crossing of Pedestrians and Vehicles over natural and man made obstacles
such as rivers, valleys, roads, canals and railways
Types of bridges
- Clapper
- Masonry arch
- Concrete beam
- Suspension
- Steel beam
Retaining walls
27
The basic function of a retaining wall is to retain soil at a slope which greater than it would
naturally assume
It is usually vertical or near vertical
Natural slope taken up by any soil is called its angle of repose
The wall are designed to offer the necessary resistance by using their own mass to resist the thrust
It must be designed to ensure that
- Overturning does not occur
- Sliding does not occur
- The soil on which the wall rests is not overloaded
- The materials used in construction are not overstressed
Factors to be considered
- Nature and type of soil
- Height of water table
- Sub soil water movement
- Type of wall
- Material used in the construction of the wall
Earth Pressure
Active soil pressure
Passive soil pressure
Types of Walls
Mass retaining walls
Some time called as gravity wall
Relying upon their own mass together with the friction on the underside of the base
Generally economic up to a height of 1.8 m
It can be constructed by bricks bedded in a 1 : 3 cement mortar or of mass concrete
Need some light fabric reinforcement to control surface cracking
Natural stone is suitable for small walls up to 1.0 m height
Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
Cantilever Retaining walls
Reinforced concrete and work on the principles of leverage
It can formed with a large heel so that the mass of earth above can be added to the mass of the wall
for design OR
A large toe must be used
Main reinforcement are in the tension face and minimum of reinforcement (0.15 % of the cross
section area of concrete) other area.
It is economical height range of 1.2 m to 6.0 m
Sheet Piling
28
Relying the depth of penetration in the soil

Can anchored to ground
For method see support to excavation
Pre cast concrete retaining walls

Pre cast from high grade concrete with cantilever principle
Can be erected on a foundation as a permanent retaining wall
A reduction in time by eliminating curing period and eliminating the need of costly form work
Both side reinforcement
Lifting holes are provided

Eng. T. Suthakaran
Diploma Level
4.0 Internal Finishes
Function of Floor finishes
Non slip
Impact resistant
Hygienic
Durable
Acoustic consideration
Improved thermal insulation
29
Function of Ceiling Finishes

Absorption / reflection of light and sound
Resistance for flames
Aesthetics
Type of Finishes
Wet Finishes External wall
Dry Finishes Internal wall
Function of external wall
Exclusion of wind / rain / snow
Solar reflection
thermal Insulation
Impact resistance
Aesthetics
Material used for wet Finishes
Screeds
Renders
Plasters boards
Materials used for dry finishes
Plaster board
Wall board
Tiles
Plastic
Plastic laminated sheets

Eng. T. Suthakaran
30

Construction Techniques - 3

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Construction Techniques - 3

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Diploma Level

Environmental Science and Construction Techniques 3

1.1.1 Method of Site Investigation

APSS International Networks (Pvt) Limited.

BScEng. PGDip. (Stru. Eng), AMIE (SL)

BScEng. PGDip. (Stru. Eng), AMIE (SL)

APSS International Networks (Pvt) Limited.

APSS International Networks (Pvt) Limited.

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Temporary Exclusion of Ground Water

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It will temporarily block off the face

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Support by sheet piling

Foundation type available in various type of soil

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Functions of Skeleton frame members

Sheet Cladding (Fig VI.8, VI.9)

Durability is depend up on the alloy used

Brick Claddings (Fig lll.29, lll.30)

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Concrete Cladding (Fig V.1, V.2, V.3)

Infill panels are light weight structures

For normal building 25 mm 30 mm

Water retaining structures 40 mm 50 mm

Sea site building 30 mm 40 mm

Form work materials

APSS International Networks (Pvt) Limited.

It may be form or box consists of a vertical mould

Beam Formwork (Fig lll.14)

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Traditional formwork (Fig Vll.1, Fig Vll.2)

Climbing formwork (Fig Vll.3)

Methods of Compacting concrete

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Warm Deck Roof

Warm deck flat roof

Vapour control layer

Structural roof deck

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The thickness of sub base can be determined by using

Rigid Pavements (Fig Vlll.2 b)

Relying the depth of penetration in the soil

Pre cast concrete retaining walls

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Function of Ceiling Finishes

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