Dalton all matter is made of indivisible and indestructible atoms, 2) atoms of

a given element are identical in their physical and chemical properties, 3)

atoms of different elements have different physical and chemical properties,
4) atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to
form chemical compounds, 5) atoms cannot be subdivided, created or
destroyed when they are combined, separated, or rearranged in chemical
reactions.One weakness was that the atom was found to be indivisible, and
they had smaller particles.

Thomson
Atoms were made from a positively charged substance with negatively
charged electrons scattered about, like raisins in a pudding.

The model was incorrect for many reasons.

The primary reason is because there is no cloud of positive charge.
There are protons instead with a nucleus
And also neutrons
cod 6 is the best and godlike

rutherford

materi Rutherford's Theory was that atom is mostly empty space, thus explaining the lack of
deflection of most of the alpha particles, when he tested out the Gold-Foil Experiment.
Rutherford predicted that all the alpha particles would go through the gold foil, however,
when tested, some of the alpha particles reflected back, bounced off the gold foil at very large
angles.

strengths:
1) -electrons move fast through the atom.

2) -electrons are trapped within the atom by a positively charged nucleus

3) -electrons are negatively charged.
4) weaknesses:
5) -failed to discover the nucleus contains positively charged particles called protons
6) -failed to discover the nucleus also contains neutrons (a sub atomic neutral particle)

electrons move in definite orbits around the nucleus, much like planets circle the
sun. These orbits, or energy levels, are located at certain distances from the
nucleus.
weaknesss1) the path of electron around nucleus is considered to be circular of
definite radius but in reality it can be at any distance from the nucleus 2) the
model is based on spectra of atoms and newton's laws of motion which are not
applicable to microscopic particles
b) heisenberg's principle is " it is not possible to determine simultaneously the
position and the speed of a moving microscopic particle in space"
c)de broglie suggested the idea of matter waves by arguing that if radiation can
be regarded to have dual nature then a moving object thought to be a particle
should also show wave nature
4.a) orbit- the path in which the electron revolves around the nucleus is caleed
an orbit
orbital- the spatial area around the nucleus in which the probability of finding an
electron is maximum is an orbital
b) principal quantum number

What experiment did Niels Bohr do?

he performed experiments on the hydrogen spectrum

Colour blindness

This image shows a number 44 or 49, but someone who is deuteranopic may not be able to
see it.
In 1794, shortly after his arrival in Manchester, Dalton was elected a member of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, the "Lit & Phil", and a few weeks later he
communicated his first paper on "Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colours", in
which he postulated that shortage in colour perception was caused by discolouration of the
liquid medium of the eyeball. In fact, a shortage of colour perception in some people had not
even been formally described or officially noticed until Dalton wrote about his own.
Although Dalton's theory lost credence in his own lifetime, the thorough and methodical
nature of his research into his own visual problem was so broadly recognized that Daltonism
became a common term for color blindness. Examination of his preserved eyeball in 1995
demonstrated that Dalton actually had a less common kind of colour blindness,
deuteroanopia, in which medium wavelength sensitive cones are missing (rather than
functioning with a mutated form of their pigment, as in the most common type of colour
blindness, deuteroanomaly). Besides the blue and purple of the spectrum he was able to
recognize only one colour, yellow, or, as he says in his paper,
that part of the image which others call red appears to me little more than a shade or defect
of light. After that the orange, yellow and green seem one colour which descends pretty
uniformly from an intense to a rare yellow, making what I should call different shades of
yellow
This paper was followed by many others on diverse topics on rain and dew and the origin of
springs, on heat, the colour of the sky, steam, the auxiliary verbs and participles of the
English language and the reflection and refraction of light.

[edit] Atomic theory

In 1800, Dalton became a secretary of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society,
and in the following year he orally presented an important series of papers, entitled
"Experimental Essays" on the constitution of mixed gases; on the pressure of steam and other
vapours at different temperatures, both in a vacuum and in air; on evaporation; and on the
thermal expansion of gases. These four essays were published in the Memoirs of the Lit &
Phil in 1802.
The second of these essays opens with the striking remark,

There can scarcely be a doubt entertained respecting the reducibility of all elastic fluids of
whatever kind, into liquids; and we ought not to despair of affecting it in low temperatures
and by strong pressures exerted upon the unmixed gases further.
After describing experiments to ascertain the pressure of steam at various points between 0
and 100 C (32 and 212 F), Dalton concluded from observations on the vapour pressure of
six different liquids, that the variation of vapour pressure for all liquids is equivalent, for the
same variation of temperature, reckoning from vapour of any given pressure.
In the fourth essay he remarks,
I see no sufficient reason why we may not conclude that all elastic fluids under the same
pressure expand equally by heat and that for any given expansion of mercury, the
corresponding expansion of air is proportionally something less, the higher the temperature.
It seems, therefore, that general laws respecting the absolute quantity and the nature of heat
are more likely to be derived from elastic fluids than from other substances.

[edit] Gas laws

Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac

Jacques Alexandre Csar Charles, 1820

He thus enunciated Gay-Lussac's law or J.A.C. Charles's law, published in 1802 by Joseph
Louis Gay-Lussac. In the two or three years following the reading of these essays, Dalton
published several papers on similar topics, that on the absorption of gases by water and other
liquids (1803), containing his law of partial pressures now known as Dalton's law.
The most important of all Dalton's investigations are those concerned with the atomic theory
in chemistry, with which his name is inseparably associated. It has been proposed that this
theory was suggested to him either by researches on ethylene (olefiant gas) and methane
(carburetted hydrogen) or by analysis of nitrous oxide (protoxide of azote) and nitrogen
dioxide (deutoxide of azote), both views resting on the authority of Thomas Thomson.
However, a study of Dalton's own laboratory notebooks, discovered in the rooms of the Lit &
Phil,[3] concluded that so far from Dalton being led by his search for an explanation of the law
of multiple proportions to the idea that chemical combination consists in the interaction of
atoms of definite and characteristic weight, the idea of atoms arose in his mind as a purely
physical concept, forced upon him by study of the physical properties of the atmosphere and
other gases. The first published indications of this idea are to be found at the end of his paper
on the absorption of gases already mentioned, which was read on 21 October 1803, though
not published until 1805. Here he says:
Why does not water admit its bulk of every kind of gas alike? This question I have duly
considered, and though I am not able to satisfy myself completely I am nearly persuaded that
the circumstance depends on the weight and number of the ultimate particles of the several
gases.

[edit] Atomic weights

Dalton proceeded to print his first published table of relative atomic weights. Six elements
appear in this table, namely hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, and phosphorus, with
the atom of hydrogen conventionally assumed to weigh 1. Dalton provided no indication in
this first paper how he had arrived at these numbers. However, in his laboratory notebook
under the date 6 September 1803[4] there appears a list in which he sets out the relative
weights of the atoms of a number of elements, derived from analysis of water, ammonia,
carbon dioxide, etc. by chemists of the time.
It appears, then, that confronted with the problem of calculating the relative diameter of the
atoms of which, he was convinced, all gases were made, he used the results of chemical
analysis. Assisted by the assumption that combination always takes place in the simplest
possible way, he thus arrived at the idea that chemical combination takes place between
particles of different weights, and it was this which differentiated his theory from the historic
speculations of the Greeks, such as Democritus and Lucretius.[citation needed]
The extension of this idea to substances in general necessarily led him to the law of multiple
proportions, and the comparison with experiment brilliantly confirmed his deduction.[5] It
may be noted that in a paper on the proportion of the gases or elastic fluids constituting the
atmosphere, read by him in November 1802, the law of multiple proportions appears to be
anticipated in the words: "The elements of oxygen may combine with a certain portion of
nitrous gas or with twice that portion, but with no intermediate quantity", but there is reason
to suspect that this sentence may have been added some time after the reading of the paper,
which was not published until 1805.

Compounds were listed as binary, ternary, quaternary, etc. (molecules composed of two,
three, four, etc. atoms) in the New System of Chemical Philosophy depending on the number
of atoms a compound had in its simplest, empirical form.
He hypothesized the structure of compounds can be represented in whole number ratios. So,
one atom of element X combining with one atom of element Y is a binary compound.
Furthermore, one atom of element X combining with two elements of Y or vice versa, is a
ternary compound. Many of the first compounds listed in the New System of Chemical
Philosophy correspond to modern views, although many others do not.

Various atoms and molecules as depicted in John Dalton's A New System of Chemical
Philosophy (1808).
Dalton used his own symbols to visually represent the atomic structure of compounds. These
have made it in New System of Chemical Philosophy where Dalton listed a number of
elements, and common compounds.

[edit] Five main points of Dalton's atomic theory

1. The atoms of a given element are different from those of any other element; the atoms
of different elements can be distinguished from one another by their respective
relative atomic weights.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical.
3. Atoms of one element can combine with atoms of other elements to form chemical
compounds; a given compound always has the same relative numbers of types of
atoms.

4. Atoms cannot be created, divided into smaller particles, nor destroyed in the chemical
process; a chemical reaction simply changes the way atoms are grouped together.
5. Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms.
Dalton proposed an additional "rule of greatest simplicity" that created controversy, since it
could not be independently confirmed.
When atoms combine in only one ratio, "..it must be presumed to be a binary one,
unless some cause appear to the contrary".
This was merely an assumption, derived from faith in the simplicity of nature. No evidence
was then available to scientists to deduce how many atoms of each element combine to form
compound molecules. But this or some other such rule was absolutely necessary to any
incipient theory, since one needed an assumed molecular formula in order to calculate relative
atomic weights. In any case, Dalton's "rule of greatest simplicity" caused him to assume that
the formula for water was OH and ammonia was NH, quite different from our modern
understanding.
Despite the uncertainty at the heart of Dalton's atomic theory, the principles of the theory
survived. To be sure, the conviction that atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed
into smaller particles when they are combined, separated, or rearranged in chemical reactions
is inconsistent with the existence of nuclear fusion and nuclear fission, but such processes are
nuclear reactions and not chemical reactions. In addition, the idea that all atoms of a given
element are identical in their physical and chemical properties is not precisely true, as we
now know that different isotopes of an element have slightly varying weights. However,
Dalton had created a theory of immense power and importance. Indeed, Dalton's innovation
was fully as important for the future of the science as Antoine Laurent Lavoisier's oxygenbased chemistry had been.

[edit] Later years

James Prescott Joule

Dalton communicated his atomic theory to Thomson who, by consent, included an outline of
it in the third edition of his System of Chemistry (1807), and Dalton gave a further account of

it in the first part of the first volume of his New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808). The
second part of this volume appeared in 1810, but the first part of the second volume was not
issued till 1827. This delay is not explained by any excess of care in preparation, for much of
the matter was out of date and the appendix giving the author's latest views is the only portion
of special interest. The second part of vol. ii. never appeared.
He was president of the Lit & Phil from 1817 until his death, contributing 116 memoirs. Of
these the earlier are the most important. In one of them, read in 1814, he explains the
principles of volumetric analysis, in which he was one of the earliest workers. In 1840 a
paper on the phosphates and arsenates, often regarded as a weaker work, was refused by the
Royal Society, and he was so incensed that he published it himself. He took the same course
soon afterwards with four other papers, two of which (On the quantity of acids, bases and
salts in different varieties of salts and On a new and easy method of analysing sugar) contain
his discovery, regarded by him as second in importance only to the atomic theory, that certain
anhydrates, when dissolved in water, cause no increase in its volume, his inference being that
the salt enters into the pores of the water.
James Prescott Joule was a famous pupil of Dalton.

[edit] Dalton's experimental method

Sir Humphry Davy, 1830 engraving based on the painting by Sir Thomas Lawrence (17691830)
As an investigator, Dalton was often content with rough and inaccurate instruments, though
better ones were obtainable. Sir Humphry Davy described him as "a very coarse
experimenter", who almost always found the results he required, trusting to his head rather
than his hands. On the other hand, historians who have replicated some of his crucial
experiments have confirmed Dalton's skill and precision.
In the preface to the second part of Volume I of his New System, he says he had so often been
misled by taking for granted the results of others that he determined to write "as little as
possible but what I can attest by my own experience", but this independence he carried so far
that it sometimes resembled lack of receptivity. Thus he distrusted, and probably never fully
accepted, Gay-Lussac's conclusions as to the combining volumes of gases. He held
unconventional views on chlorine. Even after its elementary character had been settled by
Davy, he persisted in using the atomic weights he himself had adopted, even when they had
been superseded by the more accurate determinations of other chemists. He always objected

to the chemical notation devised by Jns Jakob Berzelius, although most thought that it was
much simpler and more convenient than his own cumbersome system of circular symbols.

[edit] Public and personal life

John Dalton (from Arthur Shuster & Arthur E. Shipley: Britain's Heritage of Science.
London, 1917)
Before he had propounded the atomic theory, he had already attained a considerable scientific
reputation. In 1804, he was chosen to give a course of lectures on natural philosophy at the
Royal Institution in London, where he delivered another course in 18091810. However,
some witnesses reported that he was deficient in the qualities that make an attractive lecturer,
being harsh and indistinct in voice, ineffective in the treatment of his subject, and singularly
wanting in the language and power of illustration.
In 1810, Sir Humphry Davy asked him to offer himself as a candidate for the fellowship of
the Royal Society, but Dalton declined, possibly for financial reasons. However, in 1822 he
was proposed without his knowledge, and on election paid the usual fee. Six years previously
he had been made a corresponding member of the French Acadmie des Sciences, and in
1830 he was elected as one of its eight foreign associates in place of Davy.
In 1833, Earl Grey's government conferred on him a pension of 150, raised in 1836 to 300.
Dalton never married and had only a few close friends. He lived for more than a quarter of a
century with his friend the Rev. W. Johns (17711845), in George Street, Manchester, where
his daily round of laboratory work and tuition was broken only by annual excursions to the
Lake District and occasional visits to London. In 1822 he paid a short visit to Paris, where he
met many distinguished resident scientists. He attended several of the earlier meetings of the
British Association at York, Oxford, Dublin and Bristol.

[edit] Death and legacy

Bust of Dalton by Chantrey

Dalton suffered a minor stroke in 1837, and a second one in 1838 left him with a speech
impediment, though he remained able to do experiments. In May 1844 he had yet another
stroke; on 26 July he recorded with trembling hand his last meteorological observation. On
27 July, in Manchester, Dalton fell from his bed and was found lifeless by his attendant.
He was buried in Manchester in Ardwick cemetery. The cemetery is now a playing field, but
pictures of the original grave are in published materials.[6][7]
A bust of Dalton, by Chantrey, was publicly subscribed for[8] and placed in the entrance hall
of the Royal Manchester Institution. Chantrey also crafted a large statue of Dalton, now in the
Manchester Town Hall.
In honour of Dalton's work, many chemists and biochemists use the (as yet unofficial) unit
dalton (abbreviated Da) to denote one atomic mass unit, or 1/12 the weight of a neutral atom
of carbon-12. There is a John Dalton Street connecting Deansgate and Albert Square in the
centre of Manchester.
Manchester Metropolitan University has a building named after John Dalton and occupied by
the Faculty of Technology, in which the majority of its Science & Engineering lectures and
classes take place. A statue is outside the John Dalton Building of the Manchester
Metropolitan University in Chester Street which has been moved from Piccadilly. It was the
work of William Theed (after Chantrey) and is dated 1855 (it was in Piccadilly until 1966).
The University of Manchester had a hall of residence called Dalton Hall; it also established
two Dalton Chemical Scholarships, two Dalton Mathematical Scholarships, and a Dalton
Prize for Natural History. There is also a Dalton Medal awarded occasionally by the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society (only 12 times altogether).
A lunar crater has been named after Dalton. "Daltonism" became a common term for colour
blindness and "Daltonien" is the actual French word for "colour blind".
The name Dalton can often be heard in the halls of many Quaker schools, for example, one of
the school houses in Coram House, the primary sector of Ackworth School, is called Dalton.

Much of his collected work was damaged during the bombing of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society on 24 December 1940. This event prompted Isaac Asimov to say, "John
Dalton's records, carefully preserved for a century, were destroyed during the World War II
bombing of Manchester. It is not only the living who are killed in war." The damaged papers
are now in the John Rylands Library having been deposited in the university library by the
society.

J. J. THOMSONS CATHODE RAY EXPERIMENT

J. J. Thomson was one of the great scientists of the 19th century; his inspired and
innovative cathode ray experiment greatly contributed to our understanding of
the modern world.
by Martyn Shuttleworth (2008)

Like most scientists of that era, he inspired generations of later physicists, from Einstein to
Hawking.
His better-known research proved the existence of negatively charged particles, later called
electrons, and earned him a deserved Nobel Prize for physics. This research led to further
experiments by Bohr and Rutherford, leading to an understanding of the structure of the
atom.
WHAT IS A CATHODE RAY TUBE
Even without consciously realizing it, most of us are already aware of what a
cathode ray tube is.

Look at any glowing neon sign or any old-fashioned television set, and you are looking at
the modern descendants of the cathode ray tube.
Physicists in the 19th century found out that if they constructed a glass tube with wires
inserted in both ends, and pumped out as much of the air as they could, an electric charge
passed across the tube from the wires would create a fluorescent glow. This cathode ray also
became known as an electron gun.
Later and improved cathode ray experiments found that certain types of glass produced a
fluorescent glow at the positive end of the tube. William Crookes discovered that a tube
coated in a fluorescing material at the positive end, would produce a focused dot when rays
from the electron gun hit it.

With more experimentation, researchers found that the cathode rays emitted from the
cathode could not move around solid objects and so traveled in straight lines, a property of
waves. However, other researchers, notably Crookes, argued that the focused nature of the
beam meant that they had to be particles.
Physicists knew that the ray carried a negative charge but were not sure whether the charge
could be separated from the ray. They debated whether the rays were waves or particles, as
they seemed to exhibit some of the properties of both. In response, J. J. Thomson constructed
some elegant experiments to find a definitive and comprehensive answer about the nature of
cathode rays.
THOMSONS FIRST CATHODE RAY EXPERIMENT
Thomson had an inkling that the rays emitted from the electron gun were
inseparable from the latent charge, and decided to try and prove this by using a
magnetic field.

His first experiment was to build a cathode ray tube with a metal cylinder on the end. This
cylinder had two slits in it, leading to electrometers, which could measure small electric
charges.
He found that by applying a magnetic field across the tube, there was no activity recorded by
the electrometers and so the charge had been bent away by the magnet. This proved that the
negative charge and the ray were inseparable and intertwined.
THOMSONS CATHODE RAY SECOND EXPERIMENT
Like all great scientists, he did not stop there, and developed the second stage of
the experiment, to prove that the rays carried a negative charge. To prove this
hypothesis, he attempted to deflect them with an electric field.

Earlier experiments had failed to back this up, but Thomson thought that the vacuum in the
tube was not good enough, and found ways to improve greatly the quality.
For this, he constructed a slightly different cathode ray tube, with a fluorescent coating at one
end and a near perfect vacuum. Halfway down the tube were two electric plates, producing a
positive anode and a negative cathode, which he hoped would deflect the rays.
As he expected, the rays were deflected by the electric charge, proving beyond doubt that the
rays were made up of charged particles carrying a negative charge. This result was a major
discovery in itself, but Thomson resolved to understand more about the nature of these
particles.
THOMSONS THIRD EXPERIMENT
The third experiment was a brilliant piece of scientific deduction and shows how
a series of experiments can gradually uncover truths.

Many great scientific discoveries involve performing a series of interconnected experiments,

gradually accumulating data and proving a hypothesis.
He decided to try to work out the nature of the particles. They were too small to have their
mass or charge calculated directly, but he attempted to deduce this from how much the
particles were bent by electrical currents, of varying strengths.
Thomson found out that the mass to charge ratio was so high that the particles either carried a
huge charge, or were a thousand time smaller than a hydrogen ion. He decided upon the latter
and came up with the idea that the cathode rays were made of particles that emanated from
with the atoms themselves, a very bold and innovative idea.
LATER DEVELOPMENTS
Thomson came up with the initial idea for the structure of the atom, postulating
that it consisted of these negatively charged particles swimming in a sea of
positive charge. His pupil, Rutherford, developed the idea and came up with the
theory that the atom consisted of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by
orbiting tiny negative particles, which he called electrons.

Quantum physics has shown things to be a little more complex than this but all quantum
physicists owes their legacy to Thomson. Although atoms were known about, as apparently
indivisible elementary particles, he was the first to postulate that they had a complicated
internal structure.
Thomsons greatest gift to physics was not his experiments, but the next generation of great
scientists who studied under him, including Rutherford, Oppenheimer and Aston. These great
minds were inspired by him, marking him out as one of the grandfathers of modern physics.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/cathoderay.html#ixzz0vHViFaSp

The Rutherford Experiment

At the turn of the century, there was little known about atoms except that they contained
electrons. J. J. Thompson discovered the electron in 1897, and there was considerable
speculation about where these negatively charged particles existed in nature. Matter is
electrically neutral; some positive charge must balance the charge of the electron. One
popular theory of the time was called the plum pudding model. This model, invented by
Thompson, envisioned matter made of atoms that were spheres of positive charge spiked with

electrons throughout. Electrons were chunks of plum distributed through a positively charged
sphere of pudding.
In 1911, Ernest Rutherford performed an experiment to test the plum pudding model. He
fired energetic [He2+] particles at a foil, and measured the deflection of the particles as they
came out the other side. From this he could deduce information about the structure of the foil.
To understand how this works, imagine shooting a rifle at a mound of loose snow: one
expects some bullets to emerge from the opposite side with a slight deflection and a bit of
energy loss depending on how regularly the pile is packed. One can deduce something about
the internal structure of the mound if we know the difference between the initial (before it
hits the pile) and final (after it emerges from the pile) trajectories of the bullet. If the mound
were made of loose, powdery snow, the bullets would be deflected very little; if the bullets
were deflected wildly, we might guess that there was a brick of hard material inside.
Rutherford expected all of the particles to be deflected just a bit as they passed through the
plum pudding. He found that most of the s he shot at the foil were not deflected at all. They
passed through the foil and emerged undisturbed. Occasionally, however, particles were
scattered at huge angles. While most of the s were undisturbed, a few of them bounced
back directly. Imagine if something like this happened at our mound of snow. We shoot
bullets at the pile for days, and every round passes straight through, unperturbed then a
bullet hits the snow, reflects back, and splinters the guns stock! Rutherfords result lead him
to believe that most of the foil was made of empty space, but had extremely small, dense
lumps of matter inside. No other model accounted for the occasional wide angle scattering of
the . With this experiment, Rutherford discovered the nucleus.
Physicists have since used particle scattering in many ways to learn about matter, and have
had much success in studying solids. To understand some of the ways that ions are used to
probe solids, we consider an important technique used in crystallography: Rutherford
Backscattering.

What experiment did Niels Bohr do?

In: Niels Bohr [Edit categories]
[Improve]

he performed experiments on the hydrogen spectrum

What were the experiments that Niels Bohr carried out to create h
In: Niels Bohr [Edit categories]
[Improve]

Bohr studied the spectrums of various atoms and generalized his quantum theory from his
discoveries. He concluded that the electrons of an atom determined many of its
characteristics.

What did Niels Bohr have to do with an atom?

In: Niels Bohr [Edit categories]
[Improve]

Based on conversations with Rutherford Niels Borh developed the Bohr nuclear
model of the Atom. It is the one you have met in elementary school where
Protons and Neutrons form a core with electrons circling in fixed orbits around
the core. The orbits explained (some kind of) radiation which had hitherto been a
mystery.

What did Niels Bohr have to do with an atom?

In: Niels Bohr [Edit categories]
[Improve]

Based on conversations with Rutherford Niels Borh developed the Bohr nuclear
model of the Atom. It is the one you have met in elementary school where
Protons and Neutrons form a core with electrons circling in fixed orbits around
the core. The orbits explained (some kind of) radiation which had hitherto been a
mystery.