5/20/2015

Basic Flying Principles &

Aerodynamics

Content

Bernoullis Principle & Basic forces on aircraft

Control of aircraft
Speed measurement
Altitude measurement
Aircraft Instrument
Aircraft Engine

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Bernoullis Principle & Basic forces on aircraft

Bernoullis Principle
Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure = Constant
Increase in speed of fluid Decrease in static pressure

A
B

Bernoullis Principle & Basic forces on aircraft

Weight gravitational force

Thrust generated by engine
Lift produced by wing
Drag induced drag + parasitic drag

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Bernoullis Principle & Basic forces on aircraft

Weight
Aircraft own weight, fuel, passengers, baggage
Mass constant, but weight varies
Gravitational force + aircraft acceleration
Example roller coaster

Bernoullis Principle & Basic forces on aircraft

Thrust
Driven by propeller
Accelerate a mass of air - slipstream

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Bernoullis Principle & Basic forces on aircraft

Lift
Provided by wing

Wing span
Wing chord
Wing tip
Leading edge
Trailing edge

Efficiency

Wing area/camber

Bernoullis Principle & Basic forces on aircraft

Drag

Parasitic drag (skin friction) ~ V2

Induced drag caused by
production of lift

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Control of Aircraft

Thrust > Drag = accelerate

Thrust < Drag = decelerate
Lift > Weight = climb
Lift < Weight = descend

Control of Aircraft
CL angle of attack

Angle increases, lift increases

Critical angle, flow separation
Stall

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Control of Aircraft

Control of Aircraft

Pitch elevator
Roll aileron
Yaw rudder

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Control of Aircraft
Pitch
Control column down
Elevator down
Pitch down
Control column up
Elevator up
Pitch up

Control of Aircraft

Roll
Differential aileron differential
lift on wings
Left down Right up roll to right
Left up Right down roll to left
Secondary effect adverse yaw
More lift more drag

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Control of Aircraft
Yaw
Rudder right
yaw right
Rudder left
yaw left
Secondary effect
adverse roll

Control of Aircraft

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Control of Aircraft

Flap

Slat

Increase camber(trailing
edge)
Initial flap increase lift >
drag
Final flap increase drag > lift

Increase camber (leading

edge)

Spoiler (speedbrake)

Destroy the flow

Reduce lift and increase
drag

Control of Aircraft
Slots:
air accelerate
mixed with boundary layer
Delay flow separation

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Speed measurement

Unit: Knots (nautical mile/hr)

Three main types:

Indicated Air Speed (IAS)

Ground Speed (GS)
True Air Speed (TAS)

Pitot-static system

Pressure measuring equipment

Consists of Pitot tube (dynamic pressure) and static port
(static pressure)
Static pressure density of air
Dynamic pressure density of air + velocity of flow
D-S air speed

Speed measurement

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Speed measurement
IAS corrected for instrument error: Calibrated Air Speed
(CAS)
CAS corrected for density error: True Air Speed (TAS)
Density error:
Higher Altitude lower air density lower air pressure
Same IAS

Higher higher TAS

Higher faster

Speed measurement

What if pitot block during climb?

Speed = Dynamic pressure static pressure
= (velocity + static pressure) static pressure
Constant due to
blocked

Decrease
when climb

Blockage of pitot tube - Aeroper Flight 603 (2 Oct 1996)

70 people died

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Speed measurement
Ground Speed reference to ground
Actual distance travelled per hour
Vector sum of TAS + wind speed
Head wind GS = TAS wind speed
Tail wind GS = TAS + wind speed
Different flight duration to/back
Uses
GS: trip calculation
IAS: for flight control (stall/overspeed)

Altitude measurement

Altimeter
Measure static pressure
Pressure decrease, capsule
expand
Altitude, height and Flight
Level?

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Altitude measurement

Height reference to specific datum

Altitude- reference to sea level
Pressure unit: millibars (mb) or hectopascals (hPa)
Pressure decreases when height increases
30ft = 1mb/hPa

600ft

1200ft

980mb

QFE: 980mb 600ft

QNH: 1000mb 1200ft
Height (reference to ground) = 600ft

600ft
Sea level: 1000mb

Altitude measurement
Problem
High to Low, watch out below!

Set local QNH

= 1010mb
Altimeter shows 1500ft
Altimeter still shows 1500ft

1010mb

980mb

Cadet interview question:

What is the reading after typhoon?

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Altitude measurement
Change QNH often?
Standard temperature &
pressure setting
at mean sea level

(15 lapse rate = -1.98 /1000ft)

1013.25hPa
Flight level
Transition level
QNE = the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). It is the average mean
sea level pressure around the globe. It is planet earths mean atmospheric
pressure at sea level basically

Altitude measurement
Set 1013.25hPa
Altimeter shows 15,000ft/ FL150

Set QNH 1003hPa

Altimeter shows 9,800ft
FL150
Transition level
FL110
9,800 ft

11,000 ft
Local QNH = 1003hPa

Standard pressure = 1013.25hPa

0 ft
(sea level)
airport

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Aircraft instrument
Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
Attitude Indicator (AI) (Artificial Horizon, AH)
Altimeter
Turn Coordinator
Heading Indicator/
Direction Indicator (DI)
Vertical speed indicator (VSI)

Basic T?
Which is the most important?

Aircraft instrument

Attitude Indicator

Gyroscope rapidly spinning wheels (negligible influence by

external force)
Provide horizontal reference
Measure pitch attitude/banking angle

Turn Coordinator

Gyro system
Sense roll and yaw
Measure rate of turn
Rate 1 turn = 3 degree per second
Balance indicator (skidding/slipping)

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Aircraft instrument

Direction indicator

Gyro system
Align with compass

Vertical speed indicator (VSI)

Rate of change of static pressure

Climb/descend

Pressure difference
Delayed

Aircraft engine
Piston engine
Cylinder, piston, crankshaft
Inside cylinder, fuel air mixture ignite
Expansion/explosion push the piston
down and turn the crankshaft
Propeller links with crankshaft

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Aircraft engine

Four Stroke cycle (Otto cycle)

Aircraft engine

Turbine Engine

Compressor: compress the incoming air to high pressure

Combustion area: burn fuel and produce high pressure high
velocity gas
Turbine: extract the energy from high pressure high velocity
gas

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Aircraft engine

Turbine engine vs Piston engine

High compressibility better performance , esp high altitude

Smaller size with higher power
Use more fuel and more expensive

Turbine engine

Turbo-jet
Turbo-fan
Turbo-prop

Aircraft engine
Turbofan engine

Turboprop engine

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Aircraft Engine

Bypass ratio

High

low noise
save fuel

Engine

Major
applications

Bypass ratio

Rolls-Royce (turbojet)

Concorde

0:1

Pratt & Whitney F100

F-16, F-15

0.36:1

Eurojet EJ200

Typhoon

0.4:1

Klimov RD-33

MiG-29, Il-102

0.49:1

Kuznetsov NK-321

Tu-160

1.4:1

General Electric GEnx

747, 787

8.5:1

Rolls-Royce Trent 900

A380

8.7:1

General Electric GE90

777

9:1

Rolls-Royce Trent 1000

787

10:1

Zero bypass

High bypass

Low bypass

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Bibliography

Aircraft General Knowledge, Flight Performance and

Planning, Jeremy M Pratt, Airplane Flight Equipment
Limited, 2004. - ISBN: 9781874783237
Aircraft General Knowledge, Navigation, Meteorology,
Jeremy M Pratt, Airplane Flight Equipment Limited, 2003. ISBN: 9781874783183
Hong Kong Government Flying Service, HKSARG,
http://www.gfs.gov.hk/eng/home.htm

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