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Published in IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution
Received on 9th June 2011
Revised on 15th September 2011
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0439
ISSN 1751-8687
Abstract: The value of the potential that appears at the fault location during a ground fault at a high-voltage overhead line
depends on many different factors and cannot be considered as an a priori known quantity. Owing to this, the inuence of
this quantity on the current and voltage measured at one of the line terminals is also unknown so the fault distance cannot be
exactly calculated, and as a nal consequence, the relay may operate undesirably. It could happen especially in the case of
the relatively short lines such as those in sub-transmission systems. The development of the proposed algorithm is based on
the complete transmission line model under ground-fault conditions that include ground-fault current component coming from
the remote end. The proposed algorithm has been tested using the simulated current data. Sample test results have also been
presented in this study.
Introduction
technique
[5]
utilises
conventional
power
line
communication line traps and high-voltage capacitors of
capacitor voltage transformers (CVTs). The line traps
conne the fault-generated high-frequency transient signals
to the protection zone, where they are then captured by the
high-frequency voltage detectors. However, this technique
requires line traps at both ends of the protected line, which
unavoidably increases the costs and limits the application of
this technique. The non-communication is achieved by the
detection of whether or not the system is in a balanced
operation, to identify the breaker operation at remote end of
the protection section, from which the fault position (inside
or outside of the protected section) can be determined [19].
However, this technique also has limited application. It
cannot be applied in cases of radial sub-transmission
systems where the circuit breakers are installed only at the
beginning of the lines. Another approach for overcoming
the problem is based on a specic improvement of the
conventional algorithm for calculating zone-2 setting [8].
Also, an attempt to achieve this goal is described in [6].
Recent papers [9, 10] suggest the usage of fault resistance
estimation in distance relaying.
The algorithm presented in this paper uses a priori
determined (calculated or measured) value of grounding
impedance at the border between zone-1 and zone-2 and the
results of an a priori made ground-fault current analysis. It
enables the operation of distant relay without causing
coordination problems characteristic in the cases of
relatively short radial sub-transmission systems. Also, the
proposed algorithm considers particular fault type, so-called
line-to ground with broken conductor fault, which is not
the case with algorithms given in [9, 10].
This paper is a logical continuation of the investigation
presented in publications [2 4, 20]. The proposed
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 3, pp. 226 232
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0439
www.ietdl.org
algorithm calculates the distance to the fault location by using
fundamental frequency voltage and current from one terminal
of the transmission line. The technique necessary for
obtaining corresponding phasors for these magnitudes at the
moment of the fault is described in detail in [7].
(1)
Ua
Ia (z0 z)I0 z1
(2)
Ua
ZIa (z0 z)I0
(3)
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tower footing resistances are mutually equal and any
mutual interference to their own ground current is negligible,
impedances of the ground wire(s) between the two
adjacent towers are mutually equal.
In order to obtain better insight into the problem, we will
consider only the elements representing the ground-fault
current return paths through the earth as shown in Fig. 3.
The notation used in the given circuits has the following
meaning:
r reduction factor of the line
ZA(ZB) impedance of the grounding system of the
substation A (B) which does not include the grounding
effects of the ground wire(s) of the line under consideration
Zs self-impedance of the ground wire(s), per span
Zm
mutual impedance between the ground wire(s) and the
faulted phase conductor with common earth return, per span
Rt average tower footing resistance
n number of spans to the fault place, counted from
substation A
N total number of spans
G remote ground
(8)
Vf
= grZn
Ia
(9)
where
g=1+
Ib
I Il
= 1 + b
Ia
Ia + Il
(10)
Z
r = 1 m
Zs
(4)
Impedances Zs and Z m
can be either calculated by using
formulae based on Carsons theory of the ground-fault
current return path [21], or measured.
Since a transmission line is usually transposed, the value of
the reduction factor varies from tower to tower. However,
these variations are limited between the values
corresponding to the closest and the farthest positions of the
phase conductor with respect to the ground wire(s).
By using the superposition principle, the potentials at
points 0 and n are determined as the sum of the potentials
that currents rI a , rIf and rI b (parts of currents If , I a and I b )
owing through the earth, separately produce at these
places, or
(5)
(6)
On the basis of (5) and (6), the voltage drop on the groundfault current return paths can be expressed as
Un0 = Vn (rIa ) + Vn (rIf ) + Vn (rIb ) V0 (rIa ) V0 (rIf ) V0 (rIb )
(7)
In practical conditions, the relations between the considered
quantities are such (ZA ZB Zn and I a , If ) that the
Algorithm derivation
Ua
= dZ + grZf
Ia
(11)
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expression
Z = Z1 + (Z0 Z1 )
I0
Ia
(12)
(13)
Im{Zm } = dX + Im{grZf }, V
(14)
Re{grZf }
R
(15)
di = d +
Im{grZf }
X
(16)
(17)
wf = wg + wr + wn
(18)
(19)
Xm Rm tan wf
X R tan wf
(20)
(21)
1
X cR
(22)
c2 =
c
X cR
(23)
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distribution network: Z1B 0, Z2B 0, Z0B j27 V;
grounding impedances: ZA 0 and ZB 0.
established
Re{Zm } . R + Ra + |ZB |
(24)
dr = di
(25)
wn = arctan
network:
Z1A j4.3 V,
Rn + Ra
Xn
X0B , V
(26)
Line parameters:
Z2A j4.3 V,
230
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2012
2.1
6.3
2.1
27
27
54
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.23
0.62
0.08
20.43
20.04
20.35
21.17
20.78
20.82
22.01
21.62
21.32
22.97
22.58
21.85
24.08
23.69
22.43
2.1
6.3
2.1
X0B , V
27
27
54
d
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.15
0.41
0.05
20.26
0.02
20.20
20.75
20.49
20.47
21.24
20.97
20.74
21.82
21.55
21.04
22.35
22.10
21.16
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 3, pp. 226 232
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0439
www.ietdl.org
not difcult to show that the value of angle wg in the case of the
lines with ACSR ground wire also changes in the similar limits.
Table 5
Rt , V
Testing algorithm
20
Table 6
ds
grZf , V
Zm , V
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
2.4162 + j0.2635
2.2843 + j0.2412
1.9697 + j0.2154
1.3156 + j0.1067
1.2540 2 j0.0104
2.6982 + j1.3028
0.6133 + j1.4537
2.3457 + j1.6005
1.7386 + j1.6657
0.7240 + j1.7217
0.5996
0.6949
0.8000
0.8779
0.9773
Rt , V
20
Table 7
ds
grZfa , V
Zm , V
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0.4668 + j0.2809
0.4444 + j0.2470
0.4230 + j0.2012
0.3411 + j0.1110
0.2489 2 j0.0100
0.7369 + j1.1827
0.7596 + j1.2991
0.7832 + j1.4036
0.7463 + j1.4637
0.6992 + j1.4930
0.6457
0.7277
0.8000
0.8603
0.9003
Table 8
0.7492
0.8058
0.8632
0.9178
0.7499
0.7977
0.8402
0.8770
0.7596
0.8132
0.8693
0.9458
0.7535
0.8025
0.8467
0.8862
Table 4
ds
grZf , V
Zm , V
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
2.7976 + j0.2132
2.7079 + j0.2314
2.5787 + j0.2409
2.3465 + j0.2433
1.9540 + j0.2235
3.4556 + j2.6382
3.4129 + j2.8296
3.3307 + j3.0124
3.1455 + j3.1880
2.8000 + j3.3414
0.6857
0.7436
0.8000
0.8571
0.9121
Table 9
0.7012
0.8229
0.8792
0.9178
0.7317
0.8020
0.8672
0.8890
Rt , V
20
ds
grZf , V
Zm , V
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.6740 + j0.3949
0.6321 + j0.3680
0.5786 + j0.3295
0.5132 + j0.2770
0.4365 + j0.2060
1.3040 + j2.4991
1.3075 + j2.6225
1.2990 + j2.7931
1.2786 + j2.9878
1.2469 + j3.0674
0.7045
0.7532
0.8000
0.9063
0.9455
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 3, pp. 226 232
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0439
0.7091
0.8148
0.8693
0.9458
0.7289
0.8046
0.8682
0.9132
231
www.ietdl.org
Also, according to the results in Tables 3 6, the highest
degree of accuracy is obtained for a fault distance, d 0.8,
where it is most desirable.
When conguration of the power system is changed in such
way that its equivalent reactance, X0A , or X0B , become
signicantly larger, zone-1 becomes slightly larger. In the
considered numerical examples, this increase is, according
to Tables 7 10, smaller than one line span. Thus, it is not
difcult to conclude that the correct DIR operation in the
considered cases is achieved by adopting the value of angle
wg that corresponds to the prevailing power system
operation conditions. However, in cases when these
variations are so great that correct DIR operation is
jeopardised, the other value of angle wg should be found
and adopted for calculations c1 and c2 . This value should
be such that the mentioned variations do not exceed the
foreseen limits. It can be determined on the basis of the
preliminary ground-fault current analysis and is placed
between the value that corresponds to the prevailing power
system conditions and the value that corresponds to the
power system conditions, when the equivalent power
system impedances obtain their maximal anticipated values.
In this manner, correct digital DIR operation will be
ensured for any possible power system conguration.
The effect of approximation made in the given numerical
example, ZA 0, is certainly negligible (actual values of
ZA are between 0.05 and 0.5 V). This impedance reduces
the relative participation of the fault impedance, Zf , in the
value of the measured impedance, Zm (Figs. 2 and 3). This
means that higher accuracy of the proposed algorithm will
be obtained in practical conditions. Under the unrealistic
assumption that this impedance is so large that the value of
V0 is equal to Vf (Fig. 3), the inuence of the unknown
impedance, Zf , on the algorithm accuracy would be
completely cancelled. The situation would be identical to
the idealised situation when this impedance is completely
disregarded. However, the inuence of the grounding
impedance ZB is completely different. For correct DIR
operation, this impedance should be sufciently small, or
should, on the basis of (21), satisfy the following criteria
|ZB |
c1 X L1 max
R Ra
c2
(27)
Conclusions
232
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2012
References
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 3, pp. 226 232
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0439