Geology of Banda Arc - Wikibook

The Geology of Indonesia/Banda Arc 1
The Geology of Indonesia/Banda Arc

The Banda Arc, a west facing horse-shore shaped arc in eastern Indonesia, defines the locus
of three converging and colliding major plates, the Indo-Australia Plate, the Pacific Plate,
and the Eurasian Plate. Splinters of the Mesozoic southern Tethyan crust now form the
base of the Banda Sea. On the surrounding islands, dismembered ophiolites can be found in
high mountains. Recent studies in the metamorphic aureoles at the base of these ophiolites
have revealed a new alternative for the explanation of the complex tectonic development of
the arc, i.e. by invoking obduction as being the major mechanism in the emplacement of
southern Tethyan crust onto the passive Australian continental margin.
From the inner (Banda Sea) side to the outer (Foreland Basin) side the following belts has
been distinguished in the Outer Banda Arc geology by de Smet (1999, Figure 1): 1. An
ophiolite belt, which is in general blocky and narrow, 2. A metamorphic belt, composed of
low to high grade metamorphosed rocks, 3. A thrust and fold belt dominated by
Permo-Triassic and Jurassic sediments of Australian continental margin origin. 4. A thrust
and fold belt dominated by Late Mesozoic and Tertiary deep water sediments 5. A belt of
uplifted Late Neogene basins. Despite the many local exceptions in the order of these five
belts, the general trend in the Outer Banda Arc seems to be that older rocks associated
with ophiolites occur at the inner side of the arc, and younger rocks associated with young
basins occur at the outer side. This order is not a logical one in terms of plate tectonic
theory.
11.1.TECTONICS
The origin of the arc has been a subject of continuing controversy and proposals then be
grouped into three: 1. The arc was formed by just a simple 180° counterclockwise rotation
of an originally straighter east-west trending arc, by which its northern part has rotated
relative to the southern part (Katili, 1975; Carrey, 1976; Audley-Charles, 1972; Carter et
al., 1976). 2. The arc has had achieved its present curvature at least from Late Cretaceous
(Norvick, 1979). 3. The arc was formed by a pieces of northern margin of the Australian
continental masses leading to the enclosure of the Banda Sea oceanic basin (Silver et al.,
1985; Bowin et al., 1980; Lee & McCabe, 1986; Lapouille et al., 1985; Pigram &
Panggabean, 1983, 1984; Hartono, 1990a).
Richardson & Blundell (1996) summarized the proposed structural models into three main
groups, resulting mainly from near-surface observations on Timor:
1. The imbricate model (Fitch & Hamilton, 1974; Hamilton, 1979) is based largely on
marine geological and geophysical data (e.g. von der Borch, 1979; Silver et al., 1983; Karig
et al., 1987). In this model, Timor is interpreted as an accumulation of chaotic material
imbricated against the hanging wall of a subduction trench, the Timor trough, and
essentially forms a large accretionary prism.
2. The overthrust model is probably the oldest model in which Timor was interpreted in
terms of Alpine-style thrust sheets (e.g. Wanner, 1913). This model was dominantly based
on surface geology where overthrust sheets of the Timor allochthon are well exposed.
Subsequent workers (Carter et al., 1976; Barber et al., 1977; Barber, 1979; Haile et al.,
1979.; Brown & Earle, 1983; Audley-Charles, 1981, 1986a, b; Price & Audley-Charles, 1983,
1987; Harris, 1989; Audley-Charles & Harris, 1990) have made a clear distinction betrween
allochthonous units of non-Australian origin and paraautochthonous units derived from the
Australian continent.
3. The rebound model (Chamalaun & Grady, 1978) suggests that the Australian continental
margin entered a subduction zone in the vicinityh of the wetar Strait. Subsequently, the
oceanic lithosphere detached from the continental part, resulting in the uplift of Timor by
isostatic rebound on steep faults.
Closely linked with the origin of the Banda Arc is speculations around the age and mode of
occurrence of the Banda Sea, which origin remains controversial i.e. whether it formed by
back-arc spreading (Barber, 1981; Carter et al., 1976; Hamilton, 1988; Nishimura &
Suparka, 1986) or whether it represents a trapped oceanic lithosphere of Indian Ocean
affinity (Bowin et al., 1980; Lee & McCabe, 1986; Pigram & Panggabean, 1983; Silver et al.
1985).
As originally proposed by Earle (unpublished PhD, 1981), recent studies in Timor
(Sopaheluwakan, 1990a, b, 1991; Sopaheluwakan et al., 1989; Helmers & Sopaheluwakan,
1989, Helmers et al., 1989) and Buru-Seram microplate (Linthout et al., 1989, 1991;
Sopaheluwakan, 1993; Sopaheluwakan et al., 1992) have provided an alternative
interpretation of the origin of the metamorphic basements in the Banda Arc, emphasizing
the important role of dismembered ophiolite and metamorphosed oceanic crust, which was
overlooked by previous models. It invokes multiple obductions of hot ophiolite sheets over
the Australian continental margin, thus invalidating the long-standing and widely accepted
continental origin hypothesis of the metamorphic rocks of Timor and part of the
Buru-Seram microplate.
Plate tectonics theory which predict the presence of an accretionary wedge, composed of
distal sediments scraped from the ocean floor at the inner side of the arc. At this place,
however, de Smet (1999) found continental basement rocks and Early Mesozoic continental
sediments. The situation is explained as the result of an inversion process of the Australian
continental margin during the Neogene plate collision between Australia and the Banda
subduction zone. De Smet (1999) concludes that the Outer Banda Arc is not an accretionary
complex, but instead the compressed northern rim of the Australian continent. The load of
Australian continental margin sediments that accumulated during the Mesozoic and
Tertiary is pushed up on the back of crustal blocks of continental basement to form the
present islands and mountains of the Outer Banda Arc.
11.2.STRATIGRAPHY
11.2.1. TIMOR
The stratigraphy of Timor is very complicated due to structural complexity. In general the
stratigraphy of Timor is divided into two sequence, named Kekneno, Kolbano and Viqueque
Sequence, ranging from Permian to Pleistocene. This chapter is a shortened version of
Sawyer et al. (1992)
11.2.1.1. BASEMENT ROCK
The affinity of basement rocks that outcrop on Timor is not well understood. Schist,
phyllites, amphibolites, and associated serpentinites of the Mutis-Lolotoi Complex represent
either pre-Permian basement (e.g. Barber et al., 1977), or Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous
oceanic lithosphere (e.g. Earle, 1979). Sawyer et al. (1992) suspected that pre-Permian
basement in Timor is compositionally similar to the Mutis-Lolotoi, on the basis that
Mutis-Lolotoi lithologies were associated in the field with Permian age Maubisse formation
and Kekneno Sequence, and both contained accessory minerals similar to the Mutis-Lolotoi
complex. However, Earle (1981) showed that heavy mineral assemblages identified in the
metamorphic complexes of West Timor are different to those in the Permo-Triassic
formations on Timor, and incompatible with derivation from continental basement.
11.2.1.2. KEKNENO SEQUENCE
Kekneno Sequence ranges from the Early Permian to Middle Jurassic with an Upper
Jurassic hiatus. Units include the Atahoc and Cribas Fm., Triassic Niof, Aitutu and Babulu
Fm., and the Jurassic Wai Luli Fm. On strictly stratigraphic basis, the Permian age
Maubisse Fm. can be linked to the Kekneno Sequence. This, however, contrasts with
structural observations, which indicates a need for tectonic separation (Audley-Charles,
1968). Sawyer et al., tentatively introduce the term “Tethys Margin nappe” to reflect the
disparity in occurrences of the Maubisse.
11.2.1.2.1. MAUBISSE FORMATION
The Maubisse Fm. consists primarily of Early through Late Permian limestone and extrusive
igneous members that are the oldest known rocks in West Timor (de Roever, 1940;
Audley-Charles, 1968). Comparison of brachiopod assemblages led to an interpretation that
the Maubisse was formed as part of Gondwana (Bird and Cook, 1991). The most common
Maubisse lithologies are red to purple color biocalcarenites, packstones and boundstones
rich in debris of coral, crinoids, bryozoans, brachiopods, cephalopods, and fusilinids. The
matrix is typically recrystallized micrite with sparry cement replacing most bioclasts.
Subordinate Maubisse facies include a massive white to grey limestone, well bedded
micrites, rare interbedded clastics and channel-fill deposits lithologically equivalent to the
Permian age Cribas Fm.
11.2.1.2.2. ATAHOC FORMATION
The Atahoc fm of East Timor was dated on the basis of ammonoids as Early Permian
Sakmarian (Bird, 1987). In West Timor, the Atahoc Fm. is not widely exposed, occurring
only along the remote northwest coastline and in the north of West Timor. Atahoc basal
contacts are not documented in West Timor. Bird (1987) described an upper contact
consisting of amygdoloidal basalt between the Atahoc and overlying Cribas Fm. Large areas
of West Timor assigned to the Permian Kekneno Series by Rosidi et al., (1981) were found
to be Triassic age, and are reassigned to the Niof and Babulu Fm. Atahoc Fm sandstones
are a fine-grained, moderately sorted arkose, with large pyritized woody fragments, and
lithic fragments of Mutis / Lolotoi-equivalent (?) phyllite and shale (Sawyer et al., 1992).
11.2.1.2.3. CRIBAS FORMATION
A classification of the Early Permian Cribas Formation established in East Timor by
Audley-Charles (1968). Bird (1987) described five major facies with laterally continuous,
sharp bed boundaries consisting of varicolored sands, silts, black shales, and bioclastic
limestones and a thickness greater than 400 meters. This formation are exposed only in
portions of the Northern Range. Sandstones are classified from petrographic analysis as
bimodal, fine to coarse-grained feldspathic litharenites. The provenance was proximal to
basic igneous rocks. A shallow shelf environment of deposition is in agreement with Bird’s
(1987) identification of Atomodesme communities that represent temperature to
subtropical waters in depths of 20-50 m. Sedimentary structures indicate that turbidity
currents were a common mode of sediment transport.
11.2.1.2.4. NIOF FORMATION

The Early to Middle Triassic Niof Formation bedding contacts are typically sharp and
exhibits numerous sedimentary structures. Intraformational growth faulting, large-scale
slumps and other syn-sedimentary structures are common. Dominant lithologies include
laminated, thin-bedded claystones, red, grey, black and brown shales with rip-up clasts,
siltstones, sandstones that fit a greywacke field classification, carbonate mudstones, and
brittle limestones. In the northern range, nort of Atambua, Sawyer et al. (1992) observed a
series of small exposures tentatively assigned to the Niof Fm. These consist of subrounded
to angular conglomerates with clasts of Maubisse limestones, trachyte with sanidine
phenocryst, intermediate volcanics, andesite, and granite. Microlitic matrix texture is
compsoed of siltstone and micaceous sandstones. The section is in faulted contact with a
fine-grained, indurated volcanic breccia and to the north, serpentinized peridotite of the
Maubisse Fm. Atapupu facies.
11.2.1.2.5. AITUTU FORMATION
The dominant lithologies of the Aitutu Formation are white to occasionally pink limestone
with interbedded carbonate mudstones that vary from pale to grey to black color.
Sometimes rounded chert precipitated within limestones. In outcrop, units are very well
bedde3d on the order of 45-60 cm, with sharp, planar contacts. Along bedding planes,
macrofauna Halobia, Daonella, Monotis, various ammonites and other fossil fragments are
common. The Aitutu outcrops in the Northern Range and contacts are diachronous and in
part graditional with Niof and Babulu fm., in agreement with Cook (1986). The upper
contact with the Lower Jurassic Wai Luli Fm. is synchronous, and recognizable from a
pronounced lithologic charge to dominantly shale. The Aitutu environment of deposition
was predominantly open marine, outer shelf to slope, and probably distal to both the Niof
and Babutu Fm.
11.2.1.2.6. BABULU FORMATION
Lithologies of the Babulu Fm. consist of interbedded shale and silt, sand stringers, and
massive sandstones of the Lapunif member (Gianni, 1971; Cook, 1986). Contacts are
distinct but undulatory. Uppermost Babulu lithologies may consist of brittle, cross-bedded
limestone and light grey calcareous shales that are similar to parts of the aitutu Fm. In
outcrop, weathered surfaces of the Lapunuf member always appear tan to buff colored with
fresh surfaces a salt and pepper gray color. Bedding planes within massive sandstones are
typically 60 cm to 3 meters in thickness. Sedimentary structures are very common and
include current bedding, biogeneic features, and mud cracks. Bedding plane surface
contain brachiopods and small amonites, abundant oriented plant fragments, mud cracks,
sole marking, and trace fossils of the Nereites facies (Cook, 1986). Sawyer et al.’s date
largely agree with Cook’s (1986), and range from Early Middle Norian to latest Carnian.
Transitional Babulu and Niof Formation shales, however, all yields, a Ladinian age. The
Babulu Fm. was deposited as a massive regressive sand wedge at the end of a major
Triassic sea level trasngression. We interpret the paleoenvironment as fluctuating between
proximal nearshore to shelf-slope break, with deposition from both deltaic progradation and
turbidity current.
11.2.1.2.7. WAI LULI FORMATION
Homogeneous dark grey colored claystone and shale with interbedded organic-rich
limestones, calcilutites, and siltstones dominate the Jurassic age Wai Luli Formation. The
siltstones are always a homogeneous dark grey color on unweathered. Claystones and
limestones are either pastel blue, yellow or green on fresh surfaces are. Organic –rich
limestones exhibit millimeter color banding and laminations, and branching trace fossils
that along with filled burrows, produce a characteristic mottled grey appearance.
Interbedded units are always less than 60 cm thick, with sharp contacts that commonly
contain bedding-parallel assemblages of ammonites (Sawyer et al, 1992). Thicknesses of
sections in East Timor were estimated by Audley Charles (1968) at between 800-1000
meters.
Sawyer et al. (1996) dated some samples, all of which range from the Early to Middle
Jurassic Hettangian to Callovian. Depositional environment was shallow inner shelf to
middle shelf. The overlying Early Cretaceous Nakfunu Fm follows a nondepositional hiatus
that encompassed the upper Callovian through Tithonian. Upper Wai Luli contact has yet
been described between the Wai Luli and younger Oe Baat Formation lithologies.
In contrast to the Permian and Triassic age units of the Kekneno Sequence, the Wai Luli
has not been observed in the Northern Range. This may result from erosion or perhaps
because Wai Luli overpressured shales were the site of a major decollment between the
Kekneno Sequence and upper thrust sheets. The latter implies that the Wai Formation was
tectonically incorporated into the Sonnebait melange (Harris et al., in prep).
11.2.1.3. KOLBANO SEQUENCE
Kolbano Sequence lithologies range from Upper Jurassic Tithonian to Lower Pliocene stage.
Formations include the Tithonian to Berriasian Oe Baat, Early Cretaceous Nakfunu,
Cretaceous Menu, and Tertiary Ofu. The succession is punctuated by four major hiatuses or
condensed section that occur in the: 1) Middle Cretaceous Albian trough Turonian, 2) Early
Paleocene, 3) Oligocene and extends locally into the Lower Miocene, and 4) post-Early
Pliocene. Exposures of Kolbano Sequence are rare north of the Southern Range due to
erosion, removal by thrusting, subduction beneat the Banda Terrane, or a distal facies
change to the Palelo Group of the Banda Terrane that has since been tectonically shortened
(Sawyer et al, 1992). Kolbano Sequence lithologies in the Southern Range form a hinterland
(north) dipping leading imbricate fan composed of frontally accreted Australian margin
material (e.g. Harris, 1991). The unit is bounded to the north by tectonic contacts with the
Kekneno Sequence from which the decollment level rise progressively from the footwall
thrust cutoff ramp of the Boti-Merah thrust to within the upper part of the Kolbano
Sequence by the southern coast.
11.2.1.3.1. OE BAAT FORMATION
The massive sandstone facies of Oe Baat Fm. has rare bedding surfaces, but when observed
consist of alternating silts and sandstones. The base of the section consists of brown to
black siltstone and shale with limonite-encrusted silt nodules. The shale yielded a Late
Jurassic Tithonian age (Sawyer, 1992). The environment of deposition of the bedded,
glauconitic facies was shallow shelf, whereas the massive sandstone facies is less marine.
Charlton (1987) concluded that the abundance of glauconite and phosphatic minerals
implied proximity to a shallow shelf in an area of upwelling. Massive member textural
maturity, feldspar composition, and subangularity of quartz grains indicated proximity to an
uplifted sedimentary and continental granitic or gneissic source provenance. Sawyer et al.
(1992) and Charlton (1987) suggest 480 meters thickness of this formation. Two upper
formation contact relationships were observed by Sawyer et al. (1992). The first is a
disconformity between the Oe Baat massive facies and Eocene age Ofu Formation Boti
member. The second consists of Oe Baat overlain by Zanclian age Viqueque Formation.
Although a major hiatus exist between units, structural dips are concordant. This implies
that at least part of the section was eroded previous to deposition of Tertiary lithologies, wit
a post Zanclian folding event responsible for the present antiformal structure.
11.2.1.3.2. NAKFUNU FORMATION
Nakfunu Fm. lithologies consist of radiolareites, claystones, calcilutites, interbedded shales,
and less commonly, calcarenites, wackestones and packstones. One distinguishing feature
of the Nakfunu is bedding that consistently varies in thickness from only 3 to 30 cm with
sharp, flat, planar to undulatory contacts. Shale units can be interbedded or massive. Black
colored ferro-manganese nodules are common in outcrop. Measured sections indicate an
average formational thickness of 500 m. Sawyer et al (1992) biostratigraphic results
indicate Early Cretaceous ages in essentially two age range populations; Berriasian to
Aptian, and Hauterivian to Aptian, with a major nondepositional hiatus between the Albian
and the Turonian. Age relationships and allogenic composition indicate that the base of the
Nakfunu is equivalent to the bedded, glauconitic facies of the Oe Baat Formation. Lithology
was nearly identical to the Oe Baat, consisting of very fine grained, moderately sorted
sublitharenite sandstone. The Nakfunu Fm. was deposited during a gradual Early Cretacous
eustatic sea level rise that culminated in the Albian. The depositional environment was
probably a starved distal continental rise. Abyssal water depths near or below carbon
compensation depth are presumed by he occurrence of manganese, palynoflora species,
and a lack of terrestrial phytoclasts, which suggests a low clastic input. Foraminifera were
rare or absent in samples, however radiolarian were abundant and nannofossils common.
Several samples contained reworked Middle to Late Triassic palynomorphs.
11.2.1.3.3. MENU FORMATION
The Cretaceous Menu formation is lithologically similar to the Tertiary age Ofu Fm., and
includes some of the units assigned by Charlton (1987) to the Boralalo Fm. In contrast to
the nearly always massive lithologies of the Ofu, the Menu Fm. exhibits sharp, planar
bedding where individual unit thickness is usually range from 6 to 60 cm. Limestones may
contain 1 to 2 cm horizons and nodules of red chert, and often exhibit intense internal
cleavage. Bedding planes show branching trace fossil casts up to 70 cm in length and 5 cm
in width. Lithologic similarities between the Menu and Ofu Fm strongly suggest a
stratigraphic contact. In the Noil Menu type area, the Early Cretaceous Nakfunu is
imbricated with the Menu, but the original contact is suspected to be stratigraphic. Menu
lithologies were deposited as distal calciturbidites in a deep marine environment similar to
the Ofu Fm. (Sawyer et al, 1992)
11.2.1.3.4. OFU FORMATION
The dominant lithology of the Ofu Formation is a hard, white to pink massive limestone that
exhibits conchoidal to subconchoidal fracture, and is lustrous or porcelainous on fresh
surfaces. In outcrop, units may contain very fine millimeter laminations and intense
pressure solution cleavage, giving rise to calcite veining within stylolites, joints and
fractures. The large size of abundant, inherited reworked Cretaceous and Paleogene forams
suggests an origin from rapid downslope transportation by turbidity current processes. Like
the Nakfunu and Menu, the Ofu Fm. was deposited in an essentially clastic starved, deep
marine setting. Clastic preservation, however, indicates accumulation above the carbon
compensation depth (CCD). This suggests either a relative water depth shift from lower rise
in the Early Cretaceous to an upper rise or slope setting, or a favorable change in world
ocean temperature or chemistry.
11.2.1.4. VIQUEQUE SEQUENCE

The Viqueque Sequence consists largely of Plio-Pleistocene sediments of synorogenic
“molasse-type” origin. The sequence includes the Viqueque Fm. and various melange units,
although a genetic tie is not necessarily implied. Wells drilled in the Suai Basinof East
Timor encountered up to 3,000 meters of Viqueque Sequence in contact over a folded Mutis
/ Lolotoi thrust sheet.
11.2.1.4.1. VIQUEQUE FORMATION
The Viqueque Formation is an overall coarsening-upwards succession from chalks and
calcilutites to sandstones capped by quaternary gravels and reef limestones. This formation
occurs within the Central Basin, west and south of the Kolbano imbricated units, and
perhaps into the Northern Range. It shows strong lithologic variations that reflect rapid
proximal uplift and variations in the original depositional topography. Units are nearly
always bedded, on the order of 10 cm or more. Contact at the base of the Viqueque Fm. are
highly variable. Sawyer et al. (1992) observed angular contact over Triassic Aitutu,
structurally conformable over eroded or nondepositional Oe Baat Fm., high-angle faulted
with the Kolbano Sequence, drapped over klippen of the Banda and Tethys nappes, and in
contact with Sonnebait and Bobonaro melange. Batu Putih member lithologies are primarily
massive white calcilutites or chalks and light grey marls with common plant debris. Units
are soft to firm, and bedding indistinct. Tuffaceous horizons are rare outside the type
locality, although accessory vitric glass shards are common. Coarse bioclasts and clastic
allogens occur where the unit interfingers with the Noele member.
11.2.1.4.2. MELANGES
Throughout timor, several units can be described as melange or are easily confused with
melange. Harris et al. (in preparation) distinguishes between a diapiric and reworked
sedimentary deposit called the Bobonaro Scaly Clay, and a significantly more deformed
melange of probable tectonic origin called the Sonnebait Melange. Bobonaro Scaly Clay
occur where basal Viqueque Fm. is in contact with grey shales and common entrained
cobble to boulder-size blocks, in the Oeleu diapir and within active diapirs of Pulau Semau,
Oecussi and Halilukiuk. The extruded shales contain blocks and fauna as old as Middle
Triassic and as young as Pleistocene. In contrast, the Sonnebait Melange appears to be a
product of tectonic deformation. Shales are usually recrystalliezed, and associated or
entrained blocks exhibit sheared contacts. In general, the size of tectonized blocks and
ratio of blocks to melange matrix decreases across the island from north to south.
11.2.1.5. BANDA TERRANE
The Banda Terrane is regard as a dismembered, high level nappe consisting of forearc
basin and volcanic arc lithologies. The upwards shallowing sequence from ocean floor to
continental shelf to reefal (Barber, 1978) begins with Mutis=Lolotoi equivalent
metamorphic no older than Later Jurassic (e.g. Earle, 1981). The Palelo Series or Group
unconformably overlies this oceanic lithosphere basement, and comprises a thick sequence
of forearc clastics and volcanics that were deposited on the Asian plate prior to its collision
with the continental margin of Australia (Earle, 1979, 1981, 1983).
11.3.TANIMBAR
11.3.1. TRIASSIC – LOWER JURASSIC SANDSTONES
The oldest rocks so far recognised on Tanimbar are of Triassic age found only in
decimetre-sized blocks ejected from mud volcanoes. The Triassic rocks comprise yellow,
brownish and grey coarse to fine grained sandstones which commonly show sedimentary
structures including cross- bedding, ripples, sole and tool marks typical of turbidite
sedimentation. Other sandstones show herringbone cross-bedding, possibly indicative of
tidal deposition environments. The rocks are immature subarkosic micaceous sandstones,
with grains subangular to subrounded and with variable degrees of sorting. They are
petrographically reminiscent of Triassic sandstones in Timor (the Babulu Formation of Cook
et al. 1989, Bird et al. 1989, Bird and Cook 1991). Palynomorphs indicate Middle – Late
Triassic (Anisian – Rhaetian) and Early Jurassic ages for the sandstones (P. T. Corelab
Indonesia, written communication 1987). Occasional coal fragments found in the mud
volcanoes also yield Early Jurassic ages, and these may have been deposited
contemporaneously with the shallower water, possibly inter-tidal sandstones. Alternatively
they may represent drifted logs within the turbiditic sequence. The likely environment of
deposition for the Late Triassic – Early Jurassic sandstones was within a fluviodeltaic
system, shallowing from fairly deepwater during the Triassic to marginal marine in the
Early Jurassic (Charlton et al, 1991).
11.3.2. LOWER – MIDDLE JURASSIC SHALES
The matrix of the mud volcanic ejecta is primarily Jurassic shale. These are medium-dark
grey in colour, partly pyritic, containing abundant ferromanganiferous nodules. Barite
mineralisation also occurs commonly in association with the ironstones. The mud volcanic
ejecta also locally includes numerous ammonites and belemnites which in general occur
loose, but are sometimes enclosed within shale blocks, demonstrating their primary
relationship with the shales. Another specimen was identified as late Toarcian based on its
ribbing pattern. Thus the entire Lower Jurassic is represented by this faunal collection.
Other poorly preserved ammonites and a nautiloid (Cenoceras) are also typical of the Lower
Jurassic. Palynological determinations (P. T. Corelab Indonesia, written communication
1987) indicate a Pliensbachian – Callovian age range for shale samples. Part of the jawbone
of a Jurassic ichthyosaur was also collected. The environment of deposition for the Jurassic
shales is interpreted as a low-energy restricted marine environment, at least partly under
anoxic conditions (as indicated by the abundance of pyrite). The palynological
determinations indicate a shallow marine, inner shelf environment (P. T. Corelab Indonesia,
written communication 1987). The shales were deposited contemporaneously with the
upper part of the Triassic – Jurassic sandstone sequence, and the two lithofacies may have
interdigitated (or even been parts of the same interbedded sequence). The Jurassic shales
are again strongly reminiscent of time equivalents in Timor (the Wai Luli Formation), and
are also similar to the Buya Formation of the Sula islands (Garrard et al. 1988) and the
Yefbie Shale of Misool (Pigram et al. 1982).
11.3.2.1. UNGAR FORMATION
This is a new stratigraphic division proposed here to cover part of what was recorded as the
Molu Complex by Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981, 1990). The formation comprises a thick
sequence of coarse to medium, massive to well bedded sandstones virtually uninterrupted
by finer sediments. It is extensively exposed on Ungar, Vulmali and Natraal islands (Fig. 2),
and similar lithologies are seen commonly as clasts in mud volcanoes in the Yamdena
Straits region. Two distinct members of the Ungar Formation have so far been recognised,
First, orange or yellow weathering massive to poorly bedded, very coarse (up to 3 – 4 mm)
mature quartz sandstones, composed of well rounded and moderately to well sorted quartz
grains, with a minor clay matrix sometimes present. These sandstones occur on Vulmali
island, and in the ejecta of some mud volcanoes. Second there are greenish or buff fine –
medium arkosic sandstones composed of angular to rounded grains, with a glauconite and
clay matrix. Parallel, wavy and low-angle cross-bedding on a mm – dm scale are common,
but these are the only sedimentary structures so far observed. The glauconitic sandstones
have been observed on Ungar and Natraal islands, and in the ejecta of some mud
volcanoes. Both sandstone lithologies are variably cemented with calcite, and porosity in
the sandstones varies from poor to good depending on the degree of cementation. The
environment of deposition for the Ungar For- mation remains uncertain. The formation is at
least in part a marine sediment as it contains glauconite, but the large, well-rounded quartz
grains may have been derived from an aeolian environment. Sedimentary structures are
scarce, apart from parallel- and minor cross-bedding in the glauconitic sandstones. The
well-rounded quartz grains may have been reworked from an aeolian environment into a
marine one, possibly suggesting a fluviodeltaic system. Neither macro- nor microfossils
have so far been found in this sequence, and so the Ungar Formation is not accurately
dated. The Ungar Formation is the source for fine-grained sandstones in the Early Miocene
Tangustabun Formation (see below), and so pre-dates the Neogene. As sedimentary
sequences have already been described above covering much of the Triassic and Early –
Middle Jurassic, the Ungar Formation was probably deposited within the age range Late
Jurassic – Palaeogene. The Late Cretaceous and Palaeogene of Tanimbar were probably
developed in deepwater carbonate facies as will be discussed in the next section. The
Ungar Formation is therefore most likely Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous in age. The
dating of the formation will be discussed in more detail in a later section. The thickness of
the Ungar Formation is presently unknown, but the extensive outcrops on Ungar Island
suggest that the formation is several hundred meters thick.
11.3.2.2.TANGUSTABUN FORMATION
The Tangustabun Formation consists of reddish-brown and grey clay alternating with dirty
white vitric tuff, reddish- brown to grey limestone and calcareous sandstone, with quartz
sandstones present in the upper part of the sequence. Planktonic foraminifera in this
formation indicating a Middle Palaeocene (P4) age for part of the sequence, and concluded
a Palaeogene age overall for the formation (Charlton et al, 1991). The geological map shows
the Tangustabun Formation cropping out in a number of inliers in the centre of Yamdena,
surrounded by the younger Batimafudi Formation. During the 1986 field season the
Tangustabun Formation was sampled in the Keustenan river section (De Smet et al. 1990a).
In this section the formation consists of greyish quartz sandstone with intercalations of red
clay. The sandstone is fine grained and very well sorted, virtually unconsolidated, and lacks
obvious sedimentary structures. Bedding is only indicated by occasional clay interbeds
which occur irregularly at intervals of metres to tens of metres. Contacts between
sandstone and claystone horizons are sharp and flat, with no evidence of bioturbation or
scouring. The sandstones contain a reworked fauna of Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian –
Maastrichian) and Palaeogene planktonic foraminifera. The youngest faunal element in the
samples was dated as planktonic foraminiferal zone N8 (latest Early Miocene), which
indicates a maximum age for part of the sequence. The Tangustabun Formation is thus late
Early Miocene in age rather than Palaeogene as has been previously suggested. Although
no basal stratigraphic contacts have yet been recognized, it is likely that the Tangustabun
Formation rests unconformably on the Ungar Formation, which was the primary source of
siliciclastic grains in the younger formation. No provenance source has yet been found in
Tanimbar for the Late Cretaceous – Palaeogene microfossils which occur reworked in
abundance within the Tangustabun For- mation. It is suggested that rocks of this age,
which were originally developed in deepwater carbonate facies, were eroded away in the
latest Palaeogene or Early Miocene, immediately before deposition of the Tangustabun
Formation. This will be discussed in more detail in a later section. The Tangustabun
Formation has a thickness of at least 300m in the Keustenan river section (De Smet et al.
1990a), and Sukardi and Sutrisno (1990) estimated a total thickness of 600 m for the
formation. De Smet et al. (1990a) were unsure as to the environment of deposition, but
overall favoured a relatively deep outer shelf setting.
11.3.3. OLIGO-MIOCENE SHALLOW WATER AND NON-MARINE SEDIMENTS
Several samples collected from mud volcanoes in the Yamdena Straits region are shallow
marine sediments of Oligocene or Early Miocene age. These include quartz sandstones
composed of well sorted and well rounded grains, and containing large benthic
foraminifera. The sand grains are similar to those in sandstones of the Ungar Formation,
and are almost certainly derived from erosion of that unit. One of these samples has been
interpreted as a near-reef deposit based on its benthic foraminiferal assemblage (A. Racey,
pers. commun. 1987). Another sample contains Oligo-Miocene shallow water benthic
foraminifera mixed with deeper water planktonic foraminifera, and is probably turbiditic,
but again indicates that shallow water environments existed in what is now western
Tanimbar during Oligo-Miocene times. A second rock type collected from a mud volcano in
the Yamdena Straits region that may be approximately contemporaneous is an immature
deltaic coal, dated as possibly Miocene in age (P. T. Corelab Indonesia, written
communication 1987).
11.3.3.1. BATIMAFUDI FORMATION
The Batimafudi Formation was defined by Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981, 1990) as a Miocene
sedimentary sequence composed predominantly of light grey or brown calcarenites
interbedded with white or grey marls. These authors indicated an Early – Middle Miocene
age range. On their geological map, the formation is shown outcropping widely in eastern
Yamdena. Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981, 1990) also recognised a separate Marl Member of
the formation, which they indicated as outcropping in central Yamdena and the Western
Islands; that is, to the west of the Batimafudi Formation proper. De Smet et al. (1990a)
described the Batimafudi Formation from a number of localities in eastern Yamdena. In that
area the formation is composed of interbedded marls and calcarenites, with the
calcarenites mainly of turbiditic and mass flow origin. The calcarenites are composed
predominantly of planktonic foraminifera, but locally contain well-sorted benthic faunas
derived from a carbonate shelf environment. Autochthonous faunas from the intervening
marls indicate N16 – N17 (Late Miocene) ages, whilst allochthonous faunas range from
Palaeogene to Late Miocene. De Smet et al. (1990a) interpreted a palaeo-bathymetry of
1000 – 2000m for the Batimafudi Formation. Somewhat restricted, probably near-land
conditions are indicated by the small size of planktonic foraminifera and the common
occurrence of biserial forms in samples collected from the upper Keustenan river section
(L. J. van Marle, Free University Amsterdam, personal communication to M.E.M.S. 1986).
The formation has an estimated thickness of 700 – 1000 m. The relationship between the
Batimafudi Formation and the underlying Tangustabun Formation is not clear (De Smet et
al. 1990a). On the one hand a transitional contact is suggested by the occurrence of reddish
clays similar to those in the Tangustabun Formation within the lower parts of the
Batimafudi Formation; on the other, no rocks were found of Middle Miocene age. At present
this problem remains unresolved. The westward transition from predominant calcarenites
in the east to predominant marls in the west as suggested by Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981,
1990) was not supported by our fieldwork. Thick marly intervals occur locally near the east
coast of Yamdena (e.g. in the Batimafudi river), and conversely thick calcarenites occur in
the Western Islands (e.g. in SE Laibobar). It seems more likely that the transition is a
vertical one, from predominantly marly sequences in the lower part of the formation to
more calcarenitic at the top. The east – west transition suggested by Sukardi and Sutrisno
(1981, 1990) more likely reflects a deeper level of erosion in the west compared with the
east. The relative distribution of marl and calcarenite in the Batimafudi Formation does not
therefore reflect a westward transition to more distal facies as might be expected on the
outer edge of the Australian continental margin. More- over, six well-constrained
palaeocurrent indicators were recorded from the Batimafudi Formation with a mean flow
towards 120’ azimuth (range of recordings 065 – 160 ). This predominant flow to the SE is
the opposite of what would be expected if Tanimbar occupied a position near the edge of
the Australian continental block at this time.
11.3.3.2. BATILEMBUTI FORMATION
The Batilembuti Formation was described by Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981, 1990) as
comprising dirty white to light grey marl rich in planktonic and benthic fossils. A
Plio-Pleistocene age was assigned to the formation, and the environment of deposition
interpreted as open marine. At the type section on Cape Batilembuti near Saumlaki, the
formation passes upward conformably into Quaternary reef described as the Saumlaki
Formation. A possibly lower part of the formation was described by De Smet et al. (1990a)
from þ near the village of Batuputih on the west coast of Yamdena. The Batuputih section
consists of white, poorly consolidated foram-rich marls, poorly bedded on a scale of 1 – 3 m.
Bioturbation is locally observed, and some levels are rich in shell fragments. The planktonic
microfauna indicates an Early Pleistocene (N22) age, whilst the benthic fauna indicates
water depths of 100 – 300 m. This is in marked contrast with the underlying Batimafudi
Formation, which accumulated in water depths of 1000 – 2000m. Also unlike the Batimafudi
Formation, the Batilembuti Formation shows no evidence of gravitational transport or
faunal reworking. The most striking difference, however, between the Batimafudi and
Batilembuti formations is the different degrees of deformation in the two sequences. The
Bati- mafudi Formation is rather intensely deformed by folding and thrusting, whilst the
Batilembuti Formation is only tilted and locally cut by normal faults. Although the contact
between the two formations has not yet been observed, the different degrees of
deformation and the age gap between the two (the Pliocene was not identified in the
palaeontological studies of De Smet et al. 1990a) suggest an unconformable relationship. It
appears that the main phase of deformation on Tanimbar occurred during the Pliocene,
during which time the Batimafudi Formation and older rocks were transferred from the
outer continental margin of Australia into the arc – continent collision complex, and were
simultaneously raised from water depths of 1000 – 2000 m during the Miocene to depths of
100 – 300 m during the Early Pleistocene. The Batilembuti Formation is essentially a
post-orogenic deposit, and may infill hollows in the paIaeotopography of the collision
complex. It may have a stratigraphic thickness of up to several hundred metres over such
topographic lows.
11.3.3.3. SAUMLAKI FORMATION
Quaternary reefs, described by Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981, 1990) as the Saumlaki
Formation, are widely distributed around the coast of the Tanimbar islands, and are locally
found inland as raised reef terraces. The highest reef terraces recorded by Sukardi and
Sutrisno (1981) are on the islands of Molu (200m), Wuliaru (188 m), Teneman (152 m) and
Selu (148 m). Quaternary reefs are recorded at 123 m elevation in northeastern Yamdena,
127 m near Saumlaki in southern Yamdena, and 104 m in western Selaru. Elsewhere
Quaternary reefs do not exceed 50 m above sea-level. The abundance of raised Quaternary
reefs indicates that uplift is continuing in Tanimbar. However, the uplift has not been as
dramatic in Tanimbar as in Timor, where Quaternary reefs have been locally uplifted to
more than 1200m elevation (Rosidi et al. 1981).
11.3.4. PLEISTOCENE(?) CLAYSTONES
At several localities along the Keustenan river and its tributaries, a marked unconformity
was observed between deformed Miocene rocks of the Batimafudi Formation and an
undeformed grey clay rich in mol- luscs. The clay is assumed to be Pleistocene in age based
on its young appearance and the unrecrystallised nature of the gastropod shells. This
claystone is thus the time equivalent of the Batilembuti and/or Saumlaki formations. The
unconformity surface is planar and locally truncates folding in the Batimafudi formation.
The unconformity surface was repeatedly seen in the banks of the Keustenan river over a
distance of several kilometres, during which the river dropped several tens of metres
elevation. This suggests that the river cut rapidly through the soft Pleistocene clays until it
reached the hard underlying Batimafudi Formation below, after which downcutting of the
river slowed considerably, and the river tended to follow the dip of the unconformity
surface. Yamdena is topographically asymmetrical, with a sharp escarpment near the east
coast, and a long, gentle backslope down to the west coast. It is likely that the backslope is
controlled by the Pleistocene basal unconformity which was initially a peneplain surface,
and that this surface has been subsequently tilted gently to the NW.
11.3.5. NON-STRATIGRAPHIC MAPPING UNITS
Non-stratigraphic mapping units (metamorphics and ”tectonites”) and some other
problematic rock types were grouped together by Sukardi and Sutrisno (1981, 1990) as the
Molu Complex. As has already been described, one part of the Molu Complex, the Ungar
Formation, is here regarded as a normal mappable stratigraphic sequence. Preliminary
investigations of other parts of the Molu Complex (and parts of what was mapped as the
Batilembuti Formation) suggest that these areas can be interpreted either as normal strati-
graphic sequences, or as part of a unit here described as the Bubuan Mud Complex. We
suggest that the name Molu Complex has little geological value, and should be abandoned.
Our fieldwork in 1986 and 1987 was insufticient to delineate in detail the normal
stratigraphic parts of the ”Molu Complex” other than the Ungar Formation, and these units
will not be described further here. Only that part of the ”Molu Complex” (and the
Batilembuti Formation) here re-assigned to the Bubuan Mud Complex will be described in
the present paper.
11.3.5.1. BUBUAN MUD COMPLEX
The Bubuan Mud Complex is a melange unit, consisting typically of decimetre sized blocks
of various lithologies set in a non-scaly clay matrix. Upon erosion, the clay matrix is often
differentially removed, leaving a lag deposit of mixed boulders. The Bubuan Mud Complex
outcrops in areas shown on the geological map of Sukardi and Sutrisno (1990) as both the
Molu Complex and the Batilembuti Formation (Fig. 3). In general, the designation of the
unit as Molu Complex corresponds to areas where the clay matrix has been removed,
leaving only the bouldery lag. These areas occur mainly along river courses where the
rivers have removed much of the clay matrix. Where the clay and mud matrix remains
predominant, rocks that are here assigned to the Bubuan Mud Complex were mapped by
Sukardi and Sutrisno (1990) as part of the Batilembuti Formation. This includes extensive
areas of western Yamdena (Fig. 3). The name proposed for this melange is taken from the
island of Bubuan oA’ the west coast of Yamdena (Fig. 2), on which representative examples
of the Bubuan Mud Complex are exposed. As the map of Sukardi and Sutrisno (1990)
indicates, Bubuan is also the site of active mud volcanism. The significance of mud
volcanism as a rock-forming process in eastern Indonesia was discussed by several pre-war
Dutch geologists (e.g. Brouwer 1922, Heim 1942, van Bemmelen 1949). More recently
Williams and Amiruddin (1983), Williams et al. (1984) and Barber et al. (1986) have revived
interest in mud volcanism in this region by interpreting it as a major element in the
formation of melange. In Timor, where levels of erosion are considerably deeper than in
Tanimbar, the process of shale diapirism which feeds the mud volcanic activity has been
used by Barber et al. (1986) to explain the origin of the Bobonaro Scaly Clay melange. In
Tanimbar, the Bubuan Mud Complex is here interpreted as the superficial coalescence of
the ejected material from numerous mud volcanoes. The Bubuan Mud Complex might also
be comparable with the Salas Block Clay of Seram (Audley-Charles et al. 1979).
The matrix of the Bubuan Mud Complex is fairly uniform throughout Tanimbar. It consists
of a medium to dark grey clay, thixotropic and sticky when wet, but generally completely
desiccated at outcrop during the dry season. As described above, the clays locally contain
an abundant ammonite fauna that indicates the clays are primarily Early Jurassic in age. A
variety of rock types are found as boulders in the mud complex, and relative proportions
vary considerably from locality to locality. The most abundant component is
ferro-manganiferous, sometimes septarian, nodules that are thought to have originated
within the Jurassic claystones. Barite and calcite mineralisation are also cogenetic with the
ironstones. The second commonest component is sandstone: both Triassic sandstone and
Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous(?) sandstone of the Ungar Formation. Triassic sandstones
are par- ticularly abundant from the Yamdena Straits region, but are absent from the
Bubuan Mud Complex in the south of the island near Saumlaki. Other subordinate rock
types include pastel pink unfossiliferous calcilutites (very similar to the latest Cretaceous –
earliest Palaeogene Borolalo Limestone of Timor), Oligo-Miocene shelf sediments,
serpentinite and high grade metabasic amphibolite.
11.4.KAI BESAR
The stratigraphy of Kai Besar has been described by Achdan and Turkandi (1982) with
additional data from Charlton et al. (1991) which are used in this chapter. The oldest
stratigraphic unit consists of flat-bedded poorly fossiliferous calcilutites and marls
interbedded on a decimeter scale, named Elat Formation. Achdan and turkandi (1982)
reported Upper Eocene ages from planktonic foraminifera in the marls, with reworked
Middle-Upper Eocene benthic foraminifera in the calcilutites. They estimated the formation
to be about 500 m thick. In 1987, Charlton et al. logged approximately 450 m of this unit
from continuous coastal exposure north and south of Mun, and they suspect that the total
exposed thickness may be some what greater, perhaps 600-800 m. The Elat fm. is
interpreted as pelagic or hemipelagic carbonates deposited in a distal continental slope

setting, possibly slightly shallowing upward. The Elat fm. is overlain (disconformably?) by
yellowish or reddish-brown shallow water limestone of Tamangil Formation. The limestone
is a characteristic calcirudite containing numerous Lepidocyclina benthic foraminifera up to
6 cm diameter. Achdan and Turkandi (1982) reported a Middle-Upper Oligocene age for
this unit, and identified a stratigraphic thickness of up to 50 m. In our opinion the unit is
sufficiently distinct to warrant separate formational status. The overlying Weduar fm.
consists of reef limestone, calcilutite, calcarenite and marl deposited in neritic shelf
environments. It is believed to be entirely Miocene in age. According to Achdan and
Turkandi (1982), the formation is approximately 500 m thick. The youngest stratigraphic
unit recognised in Kai Besar by Achdan and Turkandi (1982) is the Weryahan Formation,
which consists of shallow water limeestone and marl of Pliocene age. On their map, Achdan
and Turkandi (1982) indicated stratigrpahic contacts between the Weryahan Formation and
both the Elat Formation (Eocene) and Weduar Formation (Miocene). This suggests that the
Weryahan formation has an unconformable relationship with tese older sequences.
Charlton et al (1991) were unable to confirm these relationships after fisiting the locality,
as the area indicated consisted of unbroken outcrops of the Elat Formation. At the second
indicated locality of the Weryahan Fm. immediately north of Weduar village, a simple
gradation was observed in a series of outcrops from the Weryahan Formation down into the
Weduar Formation (Charlton et al., 1991). Bedding dips in the Weryahan and Weduar
formation are similar, indicating that the boundary is at most oa disconformity.
11.5.SERAM (AFTER KEMP & MOGG, 1992)

The stratigraphy of Seram is strongly controlled by the Island structural development. As a
result, an integrated analysis and understanding of the two must be undertaken. Seram
Island itself sits within a complex region of crustal plate interactions; the Australian,
Eurasian and Pacific-Philippine Plates have all had a major effect on the development of the
Miocene to Recent sedimentation (Seram Series) and have overprinted and obscured
stratigraphic relationships within the pre-Late Miocene section (Australian Series). The
stratigraphic and structural model set out below is an update of that first presented by
Kemp and Mogg (1992)
11.5.1. AUSTRALIAN SERIES
The Australian Series (Kemp and Mogg, 1992) consists of Permian through Late Miocene
units that form the bulk of the sequence deposited at Seram. These units, deposited on and
along the northern margin of the Australian Continental Plate, constitute an integral part of
the Gondwana (Lower Triassic and older) and Westralian (Mid-Triassic to Latest Miocene)
Superbasins as defined by Bradshaw et. al. (1988, 1994). During the Late Cabonisferous
through Early Permian, major intra-cratonic extension and rifting occurred throughout the
region of the north and northwest, Australian margin. This event resulted in a series of
north to northeast trending rift basins bounded by normal faults that define the margins of
individual basin elements. To the south of Proto-Seram, these formed the margins of the
Vulcan - Malita - Calder Graben system. At Proto-Seram in the north, the extensional basin
system formed the depocentres into which the sediments of the Kobipoto-Taunusa and
Tehoru Complexes were deposited. Subsequent to deposition, a major metamorphic event
occurred in the region of Proto-Seram resulting in high to low grade metamorphism of
these Permian and older units. This early stage metamorphism is confirmed by the
observed inclusion of metamorphic clasts of these unit within younger sediments (ie.
Kanikeh Formation). This initial heating phase may be related to a localised extremes in
crustal thinning and an associated heat pulse although this is still speculafive. DeSmet and
Barber (1992) and Linthout et. al. (1991) suggest an additional phase of late stage Neogene
metamorphism resulting from ophiolite obduction along the present-day south side of the
Island (palaeo-west). This late second stage event is consistent with the main thrusting
episode of the structural model presented.
From the Late Permian through the Early Jurassic, the Westralian Superbasin underwent a
period of relative tectonic quiescence and regional thermal subsidence. This period of
intracratonic sag, resulted in depocentre axes coincident with the previous rift basins, filled
with a series of fluvio-deltaics in the south / southeast to marine units in the area of proto
Seram. The Kanikeh Formation represents this period of deposition on Seram and consists
of a series of fine to coarse grained, at times conglomeratic, litharenites and feldspathic
litharenites that show distinct graded bedding and are interbedded with siltstones and
mudstones. Lithic fragments consists of volcanic, igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
fragments. Metamorphic material derived from the Kobipoto and Tehoru Complexes is seen
as intra-clasts. Calcarenites, calcilutites, shaly limestones, limestones and calcareous
sandstones are found as intercalations, interbeds and discrete units within the Kanikeh
Formation. The clastic Kenikeh units on Seram are mainly turbidite / gravity flow deposits
with well defined Bouma sequences identified in outcrop in central and eastern Seram. Rich
carbonaceous beds of detrital coals are seen throughout. Shallower water units have also
been identified which may be associated with storm sand deposition. The shales and
mudstones within the clastic Kanikeh Formation are believed to act as important
decollement layers during the Late Miocene and younger thrusting episode. Some of the
coarser and conglomeratic cabonate units also have gravity / mass flow origins.
Palynological data has shown that the Kanikeh Formation is Middle to Late Triassic in age,
ranging from Ladinian to Norian (P.T. Geoservices, 1991) with the palynological
assemblages being identical to those seen along the Northwest Shelf of Australia (Dirk Hos,
pers comm., Price, 1976).
From the late Triassic through the Early Jurassic, the Westralian Superbasin underwent a
renewed period of compression, fault reactivation and uplift. In the region of Proto- Seram,
a developing high was isolated from the main clastic depocentres adjacent to the mainland
by an intermediary deep basinal region. This resulted in isolation of the area from clastic
input and the deposition of deepwater carbonates of the Saman-Saman Formation. These
deeper water facies grade laterally and upward into the shallower facies Manusela
Formation. Weber (1926), however, felt that the Saman – Saman was apparently
conformable with, and possibly gradational to, the Kanikeh Formation. This may be based
on lithostratigraphic correlations to similar carbonate facies within the Kanikeh section
although this is speculative. The Saman -Saman Limestone consists of marls with
interbedded calcilutites and nodular chert inter-beds (Tjokrosapoetro & Budhitrisna, 1982;
O’Sullivan et. al. 1985). The Saman- Saman Limestone is interpreted to have been
deposited in a moderate to deep water, outer- shelf to bathyal setting. Outcrops of the
Saman- Saman Limestone are mapped in the central highlands region of Seram. Weber
(1926) described similar limestones with strong bituminous staining in the central
mountains.
The Saman-Saman Limestone is overlain by and is, in part, laterally equivalent to, the
shallow water limestones of the Manusela Formation. This unit consists of skeletal oolitic
grainstones and is found in outcrop in the Nief Gorge and in the exploration wells East Nief
– 1 and Oseil - 1. Outcrops of the Manusela Formation have also been mapped in central
Seram and in the Watubela Islands (Weber, 1926, Tjokrosapoetro & Budhitrisna, 1982). The
Manusela Formation has extensive sand- size oolite grains dominating the groundmass with
lesser bioclastic skeletal material sitting in a fine grain, partly fecal, matrix. Dolomitisation
has occurred in some outcrop samples and is widespread in the section penetrated in East
Nief - 1 and Oseil - 1.
Dating foi the Manusela Formation has proved difficult due to a lack of biostratigraphic
material typical of such shallow, high energy, clean formations. However, outcrop data and
samples from East Nief - 1 and Oseil - 1 have yielded ages ranging from Early Jurassic
(Pliensbachian or older)-.to Callovian - Lowermost Oxfordian or Bathonian. The Manusela
Formation was probably deposited on a regional outer rise high. This rise was further
uplifted as a result of the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic compression and the shallowing
upward Saman-Saman / Manusela sequence deposited. Similar carbonate prone highs are
recorded along the North West Shelf of Australia during the Triassic and Early Jurassic,
such as the Ashmore and Exmouth Platforms (Exon et al, 1991; Barber, 1982). From the
Late Callovian through Early Oxfordian, the Westralian Superbasin underwent extension
and half graben reactivation. This was quickly followed by continental break-up, rapid
subsidence, marine transgression (O’Brien, 1993) and development of the widespread
Callovian unconformity (Mory, 1988; Bradshaw et al; 1988, Struckmeyer et al; 1991, among
others - Table 4). The Manusela Formation was rapidly flooded and carbonate deposition
halted. This marine transgression resulted in the deposition of the overlying Kola Shale at
Proto-Seram. The unit consists of grey and red-brown claystone and shale that was
deposited in a shelfal (possibly neritic) to outer shelf environment. The Kola Shale in East
Nief - 1 has been dated as Berriasian - Kimmeridgian to as old as Middle Oxfordian
(Lowermost Cretaceous to Upper Jurassic) and Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous at Oseil -
1. A possible minor disconformity within the Kola Shale has also been identified from
palynological evidence between the Mid-Tithonian and Upper-Kimmeridgian. This coincides
with the intra-Kimmeridgian unconformity seen in the Vulcan Graben (Patillo & Nichols,
1990). The Kola Shale may act as an important decollement surface during thrusting.
The shelf setting for the Kola Shale also conforms to the paleogeographic model of
Struckmeyer et. al. (1990) for this time section. The Kola can be correlative with the Maril
Shale of the Papuan Basin, the outer shelf deposits of the Kopai (Lengguru region) and the
Lelinta Shale on Misool (Pigram et. al., 1982). Time equivalent units in the Vulcan Graben
in the Timor Sea region are important source units; however, the Kola Shale represents a
more distal, open marine deposit and is not a potential source at Seram, a conclusion
supported by geochemical studies (Corelab, 1988 & 1994).
Immediately following continental break-up in the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous,
a brief period of transpression caused strike-slip reactivation along pre-existing normal
faults, rotation and uplift that resulted in the development of the Valanginian Unconformity
(Table 4). This event marks the top of the Kola Shale at Seram. The Westralian Superbasin
then entered into a period typical of passive margins with maginal sag basin development
from the Early Cretaceous (Falvey and Mutter, 1981; Patillo and Nicholls, 1990,
Struckmeyer, 1990; and O’Brien at. al., 1993). Widespead regional transgession of the
continental magin began at this time. The paleogeographic location of Seram on the outer
margin of the Australian continent moved rapidly from neritic (Kola Shale) to a clastic
starved, outer-shelf, shelf slope, bathyal environment. The Nief Beds were deposited over
the unconformity surface. The Nief Beds consist of a condensed sequence of mudstones,
calcilutites, marls, cherts, cherty limestones, sandy shales and lesser coraline and reefal
limestones.
Seram remained, for the most part, in this distal setting throughout the Cretaceous,
Palaeogene and into the Miocene. Although compressive events and transgessive-regressive
phases have been clearly identified in the adjoining, more proximal areas along the
northwestern Australian margin (Patillo and Nichols, 1990 and O’Brien et. al., 1993), these
are less evident on Seram, partly due to the distal location and to complex tectonic
overprinting obscuring detailed relationships. There is, however, some evidence for at least
two shallowing phases in the geologic record during this marginal sag phase.
The earliest of these is represented by fractured Early Palaeocene coralline limestone’s
(Kemp and Mogg, 1992) and may represent a period of shallow water deposition during
regional uplift. Widespread uplift in the Late Cretaceous and Palaeocene has been
identified elsewhere along the northern Australian margin associated with the opening of
the Coral Sea to the east (Struckmeyer et. al., 1990; Patillo and Nichols, 1990; Etheridge et.
al., 1991). A second period of shallow water coralline limestone deposition has been
identified from outcrop samples in Central Seram. This episode, dated as late Miocene,
probably represents the progressive uplift associated with the next major period of
tectonism on the island; that of the Australia-Eurasian-Pacific plate collision that began as
early as the Oligocene (Etheridge et. al, 1991). Evidence of clastics influx into the sequence
is seen in Bolifar Utara - 1 where late Miocene clastics have been identified. These are
probably the result of erosion and reworking of the Mesozoic to Late Miocene sequence
that was being uplifted in response to early compression and associated thrusting.
11.5.2. SERAM SERIES
The Late Miocene marks a critical phase in the geology and tectonic evolution of Seram. It
was at this time that the collision between the northward moving Australian, eastward
moving Eurasian and westward moving Pacific- Philippine plates had its major influence
and accelarated thrusting and uplift of the section occurred at Seram. As the area of
Proto-Seram moved northward as a part of the Australian Continental plate, it eventually
entered a mobile belt that is presently bounded to the north by the Sorong Fault Sytem and
to the south by the Tarera-Aiduna Fault Sytem (Figure 4). This mobile belt is a complex
left-lateral strike-slip zone caused by the oblique convergence of the Philippine-Pacific plate
against the northern margin of the Australian Plate. Uplift and erosion of the thrust belt
since the Early Pliocene has provided the source material for the Seram Basin sediments of
the Salas Complex, Wahai and Fufa Formations. Associated with the initial stages of
thrusting and rapid orogenic uplift, a gravity slide / slump unit, the Salas Complex, was
deposited in outer shelf to bathyal water depths and sits unconformably on the sediments of
the Australian Series. The Salas consists of clays and mudstones and contains clasts,
boulders and erratic block of the pre-thrusting sequence. The Salas represents a rapidly
deposited gravity slide / slump unit that developed over the uplifting and eroding thrusted
sediments as formation of the thrust belt progressed (Figure 8). The mechanism for
developing these types of deposits are described by Jones (1987). Over pressuring within
the Salas has resulted due to this rapid deposition and is seen in Bolifar Utara l. In both
East Nief – 1 and Bolifar Utara - 1, the Salas unconformably overlies the Nief Beds. Direct
age dating of the Salas is difficult due to the reworking of older biostratigraphic source
material into the Salas. Dating of the underlying Nief and overlying Wahai, although
unconformable, restrict its depositional age to the Early Pliocene although slightly older
section may exist . As erosion of the uplifted thrust belt progessed, a reduction in the
frontal slope resulted in a change from gravity slide and slump dominated sedimentation
(the Salas Complex) to normal clastic deep water outer shelf to bathyal sedimentation. As
further uplift of the thrust front progressed, a series of narrow thrust foreland basins
developed parallel to the strike direction of the thrust front. These formed elongate
”perched” young basins that overly the older Mesozoic sequence. Of those identified, the
best preserved are the Bula and Wahai basins which extend along the northern coast of
Seram Island from east to west respectively. It was into these developing basins that the
Wahai Formation (Figure 8) was first deposited. The Wahai has been dated as Early
Pliocene to Early Pleistocene (Zillman and Paten, 1975) and consists of mudstones, siltstone
and deep water limestones deposited in dominantly bathyal locations. During the Early
Pleistocene, continued uplift of the Island resulted in progressively shallower water depths
in the thrust foreland basins and deposition of the neritic mudstones, claystones, sands,
silts, conglomerates and limestones of the Fufa Formation occurred (Figure 8). Both the
Fufa and Wahai Formations have also been described by Zillman and Patten (1975),
Tjokrosapoetro et. al. (1988) and others for north east Seram and by DeSmet et. al. (1989)
in the south-west.
11.6.BURU
In Buru Island, based on regional correlation, the pre-Triassic interval is grouped as the
Wahlua basement complex, comprises low-grade metamorhpic rock. After transgresion in
Triassic, Dalan Formation was deposited, containing reef-slope carbonates and grading into
a neritic to outer shelf sequence of flysch-type sediments. Folding and uplifting took place
after the sedimentation of the Dalan Formation, and Jurassic is represented by a hiatus in
the geological record and volcanic activity might have taken place during this time. The
Ghegan Formation, is the oldest member of the Buru Group, consists of dolomitized
limestone with minor fine clastic sediments, very rich in carbonaceous material. The
carbonates represent reef-slope wackestones and minor packestones deposited in a neritic
to outer shelf environment. The Kuma Formation, overlies the carbonates pass gradually, or
interfingers with Ghegan Formation. Thinly bedded pelagic calcilutites, with chert layer
alternations are the most common lithology of Kuma Formation. Andesitic tuff and lava flow
is encountered in the uppermost part of the Kuma Formation,. This formation is dated as
Middle Cretaceous to Eocene age. The Kuma Formation is unconformably ovelain by the
Waekan Formation, which is dominated by coarse to fine sandstones and carbonates
lithologies. Interbedded with these clastic sediments are volcaniclastic and lava flows with
andesitic composition. The age of this formation is mostly Oligocene, but might range from
Eocene to Oligocene. The Paleogene and older sediments are overlain with a distinct
unconformity by Early to Middle Miocene Hotong Formation, consists of sandstones and
conglomeratic sandstone, with minor amounts of shale, marl, clay and limestone. The
Pliocene Leko Formation mainly consists of conglomerates and conglomeratic sandstone,
which in the uppermost part interfinger with limestone. The Leko formation is overlain by
Quaternary reefs, terrain deposits and alluvium.
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The Geology of Indonesia/Banda Arc 1

The Geology of Indonesia/Banda Arc

11.2.1.2.4. NIOF FORMATION

11.2.1.4. VIQUEQUE SEQUENCE

interpreted as pelagic or hemipelagic carbonates deposited in a distal continental slope

11.5.SERAM (AFTER KEMP & MOGG, 1992)

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