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How to Conduct Job Analysis

How to Conduct
Effectively Job Analysis
by I - Wei Chang and Brian H. Kleiner Effectively

How to Conduct Job Analysis

Job Analysis is a systematic process of obtaining valid job information to aid


management in decision-making. Each component of this definition is criti-
cal; for example “systematic process” means the job analysis is carefully
planned to meet specific objectives. Systematic process is implemented in
such a manner that it ensures employee co-operation, and utilises job analy-
sis methods that are acceptable within the human resource management
field. The word “valid” indicates the method by which the information was
obtained for job analysis is accurately followed. Sometimes when job analy-
sis is inadequately conducted, it results in incomplete or inaccurate informa-
tion. “Valid” also means the information obtained meets the purpose for
which the job analysis was conducted. Finally, job analysis provides criti-
cally important information that will guide management in decision-making.

In this article, the result of job analysis will be used in job evaluation and
decision-making of compensation.

The purpose of job analysis is to elicit information pertaining to various


types of jobs. H. E. Roff and T.W. Watson (1961) of Management Selection
Services Ltd suggests two stages: “(1) to collect and record evidence of the
nature of the job; (2) to sift this recorded data to discover those aspects of the
job which are important in relation to the problems which have prompted the
undertaking of the job analysis”. Most importantly, the need to gain the trust,
confidence, and co-operation of those whose jobs are being placed under
scrutiny. The job analyst is naturally perceived by others with suspicion
since his/her investigations are going to be used as the basis for job evalua-
tion. It would be easy for him/her to be regarded as an enemy because his/her
reports could lead to an undermining of an individual’s status, relative pay;
and organisational position. Good communication is essential. People
should be elucidated as to the purpose of the exercise, the reasons why it is
necessary, what it is hoped will be achieved, ways in which information ob-
tained will be collated and processed, and how decisions affecting their jobs
will be arrived at. It is better for them to be invited either directly or through
representatives to contribute to the formation of that policy and its execution.

Sifting the important from the trivial aspects of a job during and after
analysis is really what the whole exercise is about. Attention finally should
be directed at the significant differences between jobs, having first collected
all the relevant information necessary to form a complete picture of any par-
ticular unit of work. There are no hard and fast rules that can be applied; at

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root it is a matter of judgement. A common danger is to collect too much in-
formation, making it difficult to see the wood for the trees. On the whole, this
How to Conduct is a more common pitfall than making just a cursory examination and ending
Job Analysis up with a sketchy, incomplete picture. In making the analysis, if a fact is un-
Effectively important, it should immediately be discarded. To provide a framework on
which to structure both the analysis and the information obtained, it is useful
to look at the job from two points of view: first, the duties and responsibilities
entailed; second, the skills and personal attributes necessary for the success-
ful execution of that job. What an individual does and what personal attrib-
utes he needs to bring to the job provide us with the dimensions critical for
making evaluative decisions between the relative worth of one job and an-
other.
The main steps in the process of job analysis can be set out as follows:
* Identify and isolate the component tasks in a job
Some jobs may consist of a large number of tasks and sub-tasks, and it may
be convenient to group some of these into task ‘taxonomies’ where there is
sufficient in common between them, to reduce the complexity of the analysis
to manageable proportions.
* Examine how tasks are performed
For example, the skills required; order in which they have to be exercised;
whether tasks are done in isolation or as part of a team effort, etc.
* Identify the main areas of responsibility
Identify the main duties involved, both regular and occasional. Scale the
main duties according to their difficulty, frequency and importance to the job
as a whole.
* Note the prevailing working conditions in respect of the physical, social
and financial aspects of the job.
Physical environment involves the temperature, noise, dirt, danger, or com-
fortable office facilities. Social environment is regard to whether in teams,
shifts, isolated work, etc. Financial conditions should concern about if a pay-
ment system is already in existence, the basic wage rate or salary currently
obtaining, and any bonus, incentive schemes, fringe benefits, etc., which
may apply.
* Identify the personal demands which a job makes on an individual incum-
bent
Demands can be categorised into five criteria. First, physical demands, like
muscular energy, sedentary work, travel, hours of work, appearance, bear-
ing, speech, any basic medical requirements, etc. Second, intellectual de-

74 Management Research News


mands, such as verbal or numerical ability. Another demand is skills, such as
any particular psycho-motor, social or diplomatic skills called for. Fourth,
experience is a necessary criteria. Some jobs call for considerable occupa- How to Conduct
tional experience, know-how or previously held levels of responsibility, con- Job Analysis
trol or decision making. The last demand is personality factors. For instance, Effectively
such things called for in the job as the ability to work through other people, to
provide leadership, to initiate, to work without close supervision, to possess a
degree of extraversion, or the kind of temperament to cope with dull, and rou-
tine procedures.

There are, of course, many different ways in which job analysis can be
tackled. Some cover the information which would normally go into a job de-
scription, and some cover the main points of a job specification. The sugges-
tion here is that a comprehensive job information sheet should be compiled
for each job. It does not matter whether it is called a job description or job
specification, provided all relevant information about the job is recorded
clearly, accurately, and so far as is possible, with brevity. There are various
ways in which information can be obtained. The main methods are interview,
observation, questionnaires, critical incidents, and diaries.

Interview is the most flexible and productive approach for the job analyst
to conduct a personal interview with the job holder. Properly structured, the
interview can elicit information about all aspects of the job, the nature and se-
quence of the various component tasks. Much of the job activity is obvious,
and not too much is hidden in the form of mental processes or in the exercise
of individual discretion. It is unlikely that simple observation will produce all
the answers, but it can always be backed up with interview and discussion.
With a large number of similar jobs of a routine clerical nature, it may well be
expeditious and time-saving to structure a questionnaire to be circulated to
all employees in those jobs. The questionnaire must be tailor-made to elicit
the right sort of responses and useful information. The replies can then be
sorted, and any further details, misunderstanding, gaps or disagreements can
be investigated during the interview.

The critical incident technique (Flanagan, 1954) is an attempt to identify


the more important, or ‘noteworthy’, aspects of job behaviour. Originally it
was developed as a check-list rating procedure for performance appraisal,
but its merits lend itself to other investigatory activities such as job analysis
for the purpose of job evaluation. In this latter context, the idea is to highlight
the critical aspects of a job which are crucial to its successful performance. It
can usefully be applied to multi-task jobs as a means for establishing priori-
ties between job elements. The diary method is a self-reporting analysis of
the activities engaged in over a period and the amount of time spent on all of
them, recorded in the form of a diary. It can become tedious and onerous for
the job incumbent, and is probably the method most open to abuse and fak-
ing.

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The process of job analysis is much more difficult than might appear at
first sight. The conventional techniques listed all have limitations. For mana-
How to Conduct gerial jobs, the matter can become very complicated, and it may well be nec-
Job Analysis essary to construct the analysis in terms of the criteria by which the job is to
Effectively be evaluated, for example, problem-solving, accountability, and know-how.
Job analysis can be misleading, therefore, the totality of a job is greater than
the sum of its individual parts. For the purpose of job evaluation, the evi-
dence from job analysis should be treated with caution.
Job Evaluation
A major purpose for job analysis is to obtain information for a job evaluation
project that may be organisation-wide or simply consist of an individual em-
ployee’s request for his or her job to be re-evaluated. Also, the organisation
may want to implement a new pay system such as one with pay incentives. In
pay system studies, the job analysis planning must include such items as the
compensable factors used in the job evaluation. For example, the Equal Pay
Act states male and female employees must be paid the same for jobs requir-
ing equal skill, effort, responsibility, and performed under similar working
conditions. If these compensable factors are used in the job evaluation, then
the job analysis planning process must include them.
Evaluation plans used to translate job duties into relative job worth may
take different forms. Essentially, however, the principal measuring tech-
niques for determining relative job worth differ from one another in three
ways. First, what is measured - the whole job or identifiable elements of the
job. Second, whether or not point values are assigned to establish quantita-
tive measures of job value. Third, how jobs are measured - against other jobs,
or against a pre-described yard-stick. Application of these techniques can re-
sult in four basically different types of job evaluation plans. These are, and
have been for many years, the ranking system, the classification system,
point evaluation plans, and factor comparison plans. Combinations of these
systems can also be used.
The Ranking System
The most widely used method of job evaluation is the ranking system. Under
this plan, a job is ranked against other jobs, without assigning point values.
Evaluators simply compare two jobs and judge which is more difficult. Once
this determination has been made, a third job is compared with the first two
and similar decision made. The process is repeated until all jobs have been
ranked, from the most difficult to the least difficult.
The greatest advantage of the ranking system is its simplicity. The evalua-
tion process is quick and inexpensive. Also, the ranking system uses a job-
against-job comparison, which is the most accurate method of evaluation,
because it is far easier to judge which of two jobs is more difficult than it is to
judge the absolute difficulty of either.

76 Management Research News


On the other hand, the system does little to guide the judgment of evaluat-
ors. There is a tendency to judge each job on the basis of its dominant charac-
teristics, which can result in inconsistencies. In addition, it is extremely How to Conduct
difficult to explain or justify the results of ranking to employees or managers, Job Analysis
because there is no record of the judgements of evaluators. Finally, the rank- Effectively
ing system can indicate only that one job is more difficult than another, not
how much more difficult it is.

The Point System

Under the point evaluation system, various factors which measure a job are
selected and defined. A separate yard-stick for different degrees of each fac-
tor is prepared. A job is then rated against every yard-stick. In essence, this is
the same process as the classification system except that the job is evaluated
on a separate scale for each factor. In addition, each degree of each factor has
point weightings.

Point evaluation systems provide a written record of judgements made. In


addition, the degrees in each factor provide a guideline for judgements. Be-
cause points are assigned for each factor, each job can be given a total nu-
meric point value, which provides a measure of how much more difficult one
job is than another.

The main problems of the point evaluation system are the difficulty of se-
lecting relevant factors, of defining degrees for each factor and assigning ap-
propriate point values. In addition, there is the problem of determining the
correct number of degrees. Ideally, just enough degrees are established to
identify minimum measurable differences in each factor. Finally, the various
degree definitions must be written so as to serve as guides that are both useful
and meaningful in terms of the jobs being measured in each specific com-
pany.

Factor Comparison

The final basic approach used in traditional job evaluation is the factor com-
parison system. In this system, factors must also be identified, as under the
point system. Within each factor, a ranking system rather than a classifica-
tion system is used. That is, for each factor, the evaluator ranks all jobs from
highest to lowest. Various degrees result, but they are not defined or de-
scribed. Points are assigned to each of these degrees.

Factor comparison has two basic advantages. First, it uses the job-by-job
comparison technique. Second, it does not involve the semantic problems
encountered in defining factor degrees. However, because of the lack of defi-
nitions, it is always difficult to explain the results of factor comparison
evaluations to employees or supervisors.

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Combination Systems

How to Conduct In practice, most companies use combination plans. The most typical ap-
Job Analysis proach is to use a combination factor comparison and point system. In this
Effectively way, the advantages of each system are obtained, and the difficulties of each
are neutralised.

In the combination system, there are five steps involved. Firstly, factors
are selected and defined. These are usually the five basic factors of responsi-
bility, authority, knowledge, skill, and working conditions. Secondly,
benchmark jobs are selected and priced if they can be priced in the market,
and all benchmark jobs are ranked under each factor. This includes both
those which were priced in the market-place and those which were not.
Ranking of market-priced jobs, however, must reflect market pay relation-
ships. Ranking of other jobs is done primarily by comparison with jobs that
have been priced. Thirdly, points are assigned to each degree of each factor
on the basis of a standard system. The relative maximum weight of each fac-
tor is a function of the number of degrees established in the ranking process.
Fourthly, each degree is defined. This is done in terms of the company jobs
that have been ranked in each degree. Finally, all other jobs are evaluated, by
comparison against degree definitions and on a job-against-job ranking sys-
tem, particularly using benchmark jobs priced under each factor.

Management of Compensation

Compensation is a management method. The programme and practices of


compensation should be an integral part of the company’s effort to manage
effectively those who work in the firm. Employees receive their pay in vari-
ous forms. Each form or element of compensation serves a different objec-
tive for the company. Each has evolved over time to deal with specific
company needs. Each element of compensation also tends to meet different
employee aspirations or objectives. The elements of compensation may be
categorised in six ways. There are premium payments, bonus payments,
long-term income payments, pay for time not worked, benefits, and estate-
building plans.

Each of these elements is more applicable to some groups of employees


than to others. For instance, overtime is applied only to operations persons.
Long-term income plans are typically restricted to higher-paid persons.
There are also non-financial rewards, which are difficult to categorise. Basi-
cally, some company characteristics represent a form of remuneration to em-
ployees. The work done and the work environment can have value, even
though no monetary payments are involved. Other characteristics whose
value cannot readily be expressed in terms of dollars but which to the em-
ployee represent income value or remuneration include titles and various
perquisites.

78 Management Research News


While each company’s compensation programme is necessarily different,
there is a general approach to compensation which is applicable, in general,
to almost every organisation. This basic approach involves identifying How to Conduct
needs, determining objectives, developing programmes, implementing the Job Analysis
programmes, and at some time making revisions to the programme. This is Effectively
simply a general business approach to management.

* Identifying Needs

A practical business approach to compensation administration starts by iden-


tifying needs.

* Determining Objectives

Translating needs to objectives requires assessing the importance of the


problem of opportunity, how and when it may affect the business, the prob-
ability of success in resolving the problem or exploiting the opportunity, and
the costs involved. The process sometimes relies heavily on precedents, in-
tuition, and judgement.

* Plans and Procedures

Once attainable objectives have been identified, they must be further trans-
lated to specific techniques, procedures, and schedules. The specific tech-
niques and procedures need not necessarily be worked on in detail at this
stage, but they should be identified in a general manner. Also, a timetable
must be established. Cost estimates for the work and elapsed time necessary
to accomplish objectives must be determined. Milestones against which
progress can be measured should be established.

* Implementation

Implementation means putting programmes into operation and establishing


the various procedures and reviews that are a necessary part of any pro-
gramme. Implementation, in effect, puts flesh on the bones of a designed pro-
gramme. The very specifics of administrative practices and decisions
become part of the substance of the programme.

* Revisions

As circumstances of the firm change, there comes a time for most pro-
grammes when they must be revised. Actually, the decisions and cases which
occur cumulatively cause sufficient changes in most programmes. A major
revision may be necessary because of a change in operations, regulation, or
management. The company’s needs may change, or there may be changes in
priorities. If the question changes, then a revision is necessary to have a pro-
gramme that reflects the appropriate answer.

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Conclusion

How to Conduct To conduct job analysis effectively, managers have the obligation to keep all
Job Analysis the job information up to date. It is vital that they report changes in the or-
ganisation, job assignments, and methods of work to ensure that classifica-
Effectively
tions are kept current. Even when staff specialists evaluate jobs, line
managers still have the basic responsibility of reviewing both the job analysis
and the results of job evaluation. This review carries with it the authority to
approve or appeal. Line managers have the basic responsibility for making
pay decisions. Decisions must be made within the framework of policies,
practices, techniques, and controls. Clearly, the individual supervisor is in-
volved in interpreting compensation policies and applying them to many in-
dividual situations. The supervisor also has the job of gaining employee
acceptance of the company evaluation and compensation programme. The
supervisor is not likely to gain that acceptance unless employees understand
basic policies and practices, and unless they perceive that the application of
those policies and practices in individual situations is equitable and reason-
able. Information, knowledge, programmes, and practices must be continu-
ously reviewed and re-thought. Management of job analysis, job evaluation
and compensation administration, like many other fields, requires a never
ending search for excellence.

80 Management Research News


References
1. Ferris, G.R. and Rowland, K.M., Research in Personnel and Human Re- How to Conduct
sources Management, JAI Press, London, 1989. Job Analysis
2. Flanagan, J.C., “The Critical Incident Technique”, Psychological Bulletin, Effectively
51, 1954, pp.327-58.
3. Gael, S., Job Analysis-A Guide to Assessing Work Activities, Jossey-Bass
Inc., San Francisco, 1983.
4. James P. Begin, Strategic Employment Policy, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New
Jersey, 1991.
5. Jamieson, D. and O’Mara, D., Managing Workforce 2000, Jossey-Bass
Inc., San Francisco, 1991.
6. Livy, B., Job Evaluation, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980.
7. McCormick, E.J., Job Analysis: Methods and Applications, AMACOM,
New York, 1979.
8. Myers, D.W., Human Resources Management, Commerce Clearing
House, Inc., 1986.
9. Prasad, P., Miss, A.J., Elmes, M. and Prasad, A., Managing The Organiza-
tional Melting Pot, Sage Publications, California, 1997.
10. Roff, H.E. and Watson, T.E., Job Analysis, Institute of Personnel Man-
agement, London, 1961.
11. Sibson, R.E., Compensation, AMACOM, New York, 1981.

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