W16 - Groundwater Modification:

Stabilizing the Foundations of

Public Works Projects
Douglas Dycus, P.E.
Senior Engineer
E Sciences, Inc.

April 2013

Causes of Unconsolidated Soils

Water
Clays
Organics
Man-made
Karst

Soil Stabilization
Improvement of stability or bearing capacity of
soil by use of controlled compaction or by the
addition of suitable admixtures or stabilizers.

Methods for Soil Improvement

Ground Reinforcement

Ground Improvement

Ground Treatment

Stone Columns

Deep Dynamic Compaction

Soil Cement

Soil Nails

Drainage/Surcharge

Lime Admixtures

Deep Soil Nailing

Electro-osmosis

Flyash

Micro Piles (Mini-piles)

Deep Dynamic
Compaction
grouting

Jet Grouting
Ground Anchors
Geosynthetics
Fiber Reinforcement
Lime Columns
Vibro-Concrete Column
Mechanically Stabilized
Earth
Biotechnical

Dewatering
Soil Cement
Compaction
Heating/Freezing
Lime
Blasting
Drainage/Surcharg
Admixtures
Surface Compaction
Vitrification
e
Flyash
Electro-osmosis
Dewatering
Compaction
Heating/Freezin
grouting
g
Compaction
Blasting
Vitrification
Surface
Compaction

Mechanical Stabilization
Process of improving the properties of soil by
changing its gradation.
Two or more natural soils are mixed to obtain a
composite material.

Cement Stabilization
Done by mixing soil and cement with water and compacting
the mix to attain a strong material.

Lime Stabilization
Lime stabilization is done by adding lime (2%-10%) to soil.

Bituminous Stabilization
Bituminous stabilization provide water proofing and binding.

Chemical Stabilization
Stabilization by adding different chemicals.

Electrical Stabilization
Done by a process known as electro-osmosis.

Stabilization by Grouting
In this method grouting is done under pressure the stabilizers
with high viscosity are suitable only for soils with high
permeability.

Stabilization by Geotextiles and Fabrics

Geotextile which have very high tensile strength can be
used as reinforcement for strengthening soil.

Reinforced Earth
Soil can be stabilized by introducing thin strips in to it .

Stabilization using Bio-Enzymes

Bio-enzyme stabilization is a newer technique for
strengthening of sub grade soil.
Terra Zyme is one of the largely used bioenzymes.

Vertical Drains
Act as free draining water channel. surrounded by a
thin filter jacket which prevents the surrounding soil
from entering the core.
A vertical sand drain accelerates the rate of
consolidation.
Installation of vertical sand drains is a convenient
technique for stabilization of soft and compressible
soil.
There are two types of vertical drains - sand drains
and sand wicks.

Vertical drains

Sand drains
Typically 200-500 mm in diameter
Formed by infilling sand in to a hole in the ground
Hole formed by driving, jetting or augering
Typical spacing 1.5 - 6.0

Sand wicks
Sand wicks are improved technique of sand drains
A small diameter hole is made by driving mandrel
or by boring
Then cylindrical bag with sand is lowered into this

Stabilizing Trenches
Excavation which has a blanket of filter material
between 0.5m and 1.00 m thick against its
upstream slope and at the bottom of system for
collecting and eliminating water.
Improves the stability of embankment by providing
drainage and replacing weaker material with better
material .

Stabilizing Trench

Capillary Cut-Off
In some cases capillary water accumulates and
saturates the subsurface layers which results in
failures.
To arrest this capillary rise, capillary cut-off has to
be provided.
Capillary cutoff is of two types.

Permeable Capillary Cut-off

Impermeable Capillary Cut-off

Permeable Capillary Cut-Off

A layer of granular material is provided which has
a thickness higher than the capillary rise so that
water cannot rise above the cut-off layer

Cross-Section of pavement showing

permeable capillary cut-off

Impermeable Capillary Cut-Off

An impermeable capillary cut-off is prepared by
inserting bituminous layer in place
of permeable blanket.

Cross-Section of pavement showing

impermeable capillary cut-off

Methods for Soil

Improvement-Soil Nailing

Soil Nailing
Earth retention structure that combines
reinforcements and shortcrete to support
excavations, hillside, embankment steeping, etc.
The nails must have bending stress. The tension
developed in nails provides resisting forces which
stabilize the soil mass.

Soil Nail

Tension Anchor
Tiebacks can be used in tension applications to anchor
retaining walls.
Helical tiebacks have shorter bond lengths than grouted
ones so they can be used where space is limited.

Tiebacks

Tiebacks can be used in tension applications to anchor shot-crete walls.

Shotcrete Walls

Helical tiebacks were favored over grouted ones

because they would not encroach beyond the property line.

Stressing Tiebacks

Recesses were formed in the wall to allow the tiebacks

to be stressed against bearing plates.

The Finished Wall

Recesses were filled and

the wall stuccoed..

Top Down Walls

Construction can proceed with the excavation and there is no

need for backfill behind the wall.

Greater Span Without Buckling

The large 2-7/8 OD shafts can stand unsupported for the

full depth of the trench.

Underpinning
Underpinning is used when an existing structure has failed and
support must be restored. Underpinning brackets allow
transferring of the structure load to the newly installed piles,
this helps to preserve the integrity of the structure.

Definitions
Passive Anchor
Small diameter tension element (not-stressed)

Active Anchor
Small post tensioned element.

NICHOLSON

Definitions
Micropile
41

Small diameter drilled

and grouted pile.

NICHOLSON

Made with combinations

of pipe (casing) and
treaded rods.
Can be post grouted

Grout under
pressure

Excavation Support Wall Movements

What factors control wall movements?
Wall Stiffness
Ground Stiffness
Depth of first level of brace/anchor
Magnitude of preload
Toe support
Base Safety Factor

Stone Columns
Done to provide adequate support for relatively
light foundation.
The method consists of forming vertical holes in
ground which are filled with compacted crushed
stone, gravel and sand or a mixture.

Methods for Soil Improvement

Jet Grouting

45

Elephant and Compaction

Question?

The compaction
result is not good.
Why?

Heavy Weight

Compaction and Objectives

Compaction

Many types of earth construction, (dams, retaining walls,

highways, airport) require man-placed soil, or fill. To compact
a soil, that is, to place it in a dense state.

The dense state is achieved through the reduction of the air

voids in the soil, with little or no reduction in the water
content. This process must not be confused with
consolidation, in which water is squeezed out under the
action of a continuous static load.

Objectives

Decrease future settlements

Increase shear strength
Decrease permeability

General Compaction Methods

Field

Laboratory

Coarse-grained soils
Vibrating hammer (BS)

Fine-grained soils
Falling weight and hammers
Kneading compactors
Static loading and press

Hand-operated vibration plates

Motorized vibratory rollers
Rubber-tired equipment
Free-falling weight; dynamic
compaction (low frequency
vibration, 4~10 Hz)

Vibration

Hand-operated tampers
Sheepsfoot rollers
Rubber-tired rollers

Kneading

Field Compaction Equipment

and Procedures

49

Equipment
100% coverage under the wheel
Contact pressure up to 380 kPa
Can be used on all soil types except for rocky soils.
Compactive effort: static
weight
The most common use of
large smooth wheel rollers
is for proof-rolling
subgrades and compacting
asphalt pavement.

Smooth-wheel roller (drum)

Equipment (Cont.)
80% coverage under the wheel
Contact pressure up to 700 kPa
Can be used for both granular and fine-grained soils.
Compactive effort: static weight and kneading.
Can be used for highway fills
or earth dam construction.
Compactive effort: static
weight and kneading.
Can be used for highway fills
or earth dam construction.

Pneumatic (or rubber-tired) roller

Equipment (Cont.)
Has many round or rectangular shaped protrusions or
feet attached to a steel drum
8% - 12% coverage
Contact pressure is from 1400 to 7000 kPa
It is best suited for clayed soils
Compactive effort: static
Sheepsfoot rollers
weight and kneading
It is best suited for
clayed soils
Compactive effort: static
weight and kneading

Equipment (Cont.)
About 40% coverage
Contact pressure is from 1400 to 8400 kPa
It is best for compacting fine-grained soils (silt and clay).
Compactive effort:
static weight and
kneading.

Tamping foot roller

Equipment (Cont.)
50% coverage
Contact pressure is from 1400 to 6200 kPa
It is ideally suited for compacting rocky soils, gravels, and
sands. With high towing speed, the material is vibrated,
crushed, and impacted.
Compactive effort:
static weight and
vibration.

Mesh (or grid pattern) roller

Equipment (Cont.)
Vertical vibrator attached to smooth wheel rollers
The best explanation of why roller vibration causes
densification of granular soils is that particle
rearrangement occurs due to cyclic deformation of the soil
produced by the
oscillations of
the roller
Compactive effort:
static weight and
vibration
Suitable for granular
soils

Vibrating drum on smooth-wheel roller

Equipment-Summary

56

Variables-Vibratory Compaction
There are many variables which control the vibratory
compaction or densification of soils.
Characteristics of the
compactor:
(1) Mass, size
(2) Operating frequency and
frequency range

Characteristics of the soil:

(1) Initial density
(2) Grain size and shape
(3) Water content
(4) Towing speed

Construction procedures:
(1) Number of passes of the roller
(2) Lift thickness
(3) Frequency of operation vibrator
(4) Towing speed

Dynamic Compaction
This involves in increasing the density of soil
near the surface by tamping.
Density improvement up to 10m is feasible.
This method consists of dropping heavy mass
of 8 to 40 tonnes known as pounder on the
surface from a height 5 to 30m

58

Dynamic Compaction
Dynamic compaction was first
used in Germany in the mid1930s.
The depth of influence D, in
meters, of soil undergoing
compaction is conservatively
given by D (Wh)1/2
W = mass of falling weight in
metric tons
h = drop height in meters

Dynamic Compaction Equipment

Vibro Compaction
For loose sand deposits, the density index can
be increased by vibro compaction.
This process employs a depth vibrator
suspended from crane.
Compaction of sand can be achieved up to
distance of 2.5m from axis of vibrator.
Compaction can be carried out to significant
depths up to 12m.

Vibro Compaction

Vibroflotation

Vibroflotation is a technique
for in situ densification of
thick layers of loose
granular soil deposits.
It was developed in Germany
in the 1930s.

Vibroflotation Procedures

What is Benefit of Pressure Grouting?

How much pressure?
300 to 600 kPa
NICHOLSON

How long?
< 1 minute
Grout under
pressure

Duplex Drilling With Air

Duplex Drilling
with Water
67

Hollow Bar
Drilling with Grout
68

Seepage Stress Important to

Stabilize Hole

Chemical Grouting
Same Principles as Pressure Grouting but
changing the product from slurry grout to
polyurethane.
Use of either single part or two part polyurethane
depending on the situation.
Benefit:
Quicker & Cleaner
Less down time/MOT

New York, July 18, 2007

An underground steam line ruptured, blasting a
hole in a Manhattan street and releasing large
quantities of asbestos into the air along with the
escaping steam.
Companies like ConEd in New York need to
have a regular schedule of replacement of parts
of the system that weaken with age.

A New York City policeman wears a mask as he walks past

the scene of the steam pipe explosion.

Collapsed Sewer Line Erodes a

Sinkhole in Tucson, Arizona

Old sewers
need to be
replaced
before they
rupture or
collapse.

St. Louis, MO 2007

A 100-year-old large brick sewer line in
downtown St. Louis collapsed causing
a very large hole in a downtown street.
Many old cities like St. Louis have
old masonry sewers or pipes made
of wood these have limited
serviceable life.

Sinkhole collapse in Nixa, MO.

This is a
danger
wherever
streets or
buildings are
built on
Karst
limestone
bedrock.

Very Large Sinkhole

This large
sinkhole
destroyed
homes and
streets. Broken
water or sewer
lines can create
collapses much
like this.

Taum Sauk Reservoir

Water
(1.5 bil. gal.)
stored in the
upper reservoir
was released in
peak usage
periods to
produce extra
hydroelectric
power.

December 14, 2005

There was a breach in the upper reservoir to the
Taum Sauk Hydroelectric plant in Southern
Missouri early this morning. A 20 foot wall of water
came rushing down into the Black River like the
water of a gigantic bathtub being drained.
Negligence in maintenance and repair and refusal
of management to heed warnings seem to be
responsible for the catastrophe.

Before the breach

After the breach

Remains of Home of Johnson

Shut-ins Park Superintendent

20-ft. Wall of Water Scoured

the Land

Conclusions
While constructing public works facilities,
different ground conditions are encountered.
Considering all factors a suitable ground
improvement technique has to be done. Ground
improvement techniques have been extensively
used by developed countries.

Questions