Carnegie Mellon University

Research Showcase @ CMU

Tepper School of Business

5-1985

The Organizational Implications of Robotics

Linda Argote
Carnegie Mellon University, argote@cmu.edu

Paul S. Goodman
Carnegie Mellon University

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Part of the Economic Policy Commons, and the Industrial Organization Commons
Published In
D.O. Davis (Ed.), Implementing advanced technology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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To

appea~

in D.O. Davis (Ed.),

Implementing advanced technology.

San

Jossey-Bass.

F~ancisco:

The Organizational Implications of Robotics

Linda Argote

Paul S. Goodman

CaI'negie-Mellon

Unive~sity

May 1985

Support for this

~esea~ch

was provided by gI'ants from the Program on the

Social Impacts of Information and Robotic Technology at Carnegie-Mellon

University to both authors a,d by a grant
Foundation (No. RII-840991) to the
were wri tten while the

fi~st autho~

fi~st

f~om

the National Science

author.

Parts of this chapter

was on leave in the Department of

Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management at

Stanfo~d

Unive~sity.

Robots are
world.

While

bei~g

o~ly

i~troduced

i~ i~creasi~g ~umbers

a few hundred robots were used

1970,7,000 were in use in 1983 (Ayres

&

i~

throughout the

the

U~ited

Miller, 1983; Hunt

Forecasts of how many robots will be used in 1990

i~

range between 75,000 and 150,000 (Hunt & Hunt, 1983).

the

&

States

i~

Hunt, (983).

U~ited

States

Little is known,

however, about how individual employees react to the introduction of robots

or about the changes needed in organizations to support robotics.
research focuses on

~~derstandi~g

Our

the human side of robotics--how

individuals react to robots, how and when organizations should be modified

to support t'obotics, and what effective strategies are for the
implementation of robotics.
The Robot Institute of America defines a robot as a programmable,
multifunctional manipulator designed to move objects through variable
programmed motions to perform a variety of tasks (Robot Institute of
America, 1982).

Two characteristics dHfet'entiate t'obots from most other

forms of automation:

multiple task capability and programmability.

The

robots used most frequently in U.S. factories today, in jobs that involve
moving material, welding, drilling, or spray painting, are called level I
Ot' first-generation robots.

Researchers are now in the process of

developing t'obots, known as level II or second-generation robots, with more

sophisticated sensing and thinking capabilities.

For example, a level II

robot that is capable of identifying the location of parts of different

shapes and sizes is currently

bei~g

developed.

Other examples of level II

robots include those that mine underground coal seams, detect gas leaks, or
perform sophisticated

i~spection

tasks.

Ayres and Miller

(1983) provide a good description of the current and expected future

capabilities of robotics.

1:1 this paper. we first develop a ge:leral framework for' u:lde!"sta:ldi:lg

the effects of robots O:l i:ldividuals and orga:lizatio:ls.

We i:lcorporate

fi:ldi:lgs from our field studies of the implementatio:l of robotics as well

as fi:ldi:lgs from other field studies of the impact of robotics i:l our
general framework.

The methodology and results of our field studies are

described in greater detail in Argote, Goodman, a:ld Schkade (1983) a:ld

Argote and Goodman (1984).

We conclude the paper with suggestions for

researchers who are analyzing the implementation of t'obotics and with

recommendations for managers who plan to utilize robotics in their
organizations.
A General Framework
The use of robotics may have a profound effect on the organization of
work a.'ld on the productivity of ot'ganizations.

Robots typically require

:lew skills of both production and technical support personnel and require
closer i:lteractions among functional areas (Argote. Goodman, & Schkade,
1983).

Robots may displace some employees a.'ld alter the jobs of those who

are retai:led (Guest, 1984; Office of Technology Assessment, 1984).

Robots

may also enable organizations to be more flexible by decreasing set-up

times associated wi th product changeovers.

Moreover, robots may enable

organizations to achieve greater consiste:lcy i:l the quality of their

products (Ayres & Miller, 1983; Guest, 1984).

In this section, we develop

a general framework for anticipating these effects of r'obots on individuals

and organizations as well as for predicti:lg the conditions under which the
use of robots will enhance organizational performance.
Organizational Performance
L"l order to present our general framework, we first must discuss the
concept of orga:lizatio:lal performance.

Organizations can be thought of as

consisting of three basic components--people,

tec~"lology.

and structure.

It is the compatibility
orga~izatio:ls

Trist, 1973).

that

betwee~

determi~es

these three basic

their

performa~ce

compo~e~ts

of

(Leavitt, 1965; Emery &

Organizational performance is a complex variable with

multiple dimensions (Goodman &

Pen~ings,

1977; Katz & Kahn, 1978).

Examples of performance criteria that are critical in the manufacturi:lg

environment are productivity, product quality, manufacturi:lg flexibility,
absenteeism, turnover, and employee motivation and well-bei:lg.

These

criteria may vary in importance over time and to different constituencies.

For example, sales and marketing departments may place a higher premium on
manufacturing flexibility than other functional areas because it enables
the organization to adapt to customers' needs in a timely fashion.
Similarly, manufacturi:lg flexibility may be more important in early than in
late stages of a product's life cycle (Kaplan, 1983).
Further, these performance cri teria are likely to be interrela ted,
sometimes i:l complex ways.

For example, employee motivation may be

positively related to work unit productivity under conditions of

uncertai:lty that occur, for example, when a machine breaks down, while
employee motivation may have little effect on the productivity of
capital-i:ltensive firms under
(cf. Goodman, 1979).

routi~e

or programmed condi tions

Similarly, productivity, at least measured

i~

the

short tun, may be negatively associated with manufacturi:lg flexibility.

The complexity of the concept of organizational performance suggests
that understanding the impact and effects of :lew technologies requires an
appreciation of the interrelationships among the elements of
organizations.

It also suggests the

~eed

for

exami~i:lg

performance criteria a:ld the trade-offs among them.

:leeded to identify how the

i~troductio:l

multiple

Further research is

of robots will affect the elements

of an organization a:ld the conditions under which these elements may be

rhe few

compatible.

existi~g empi~ical

studies of the

i~t~oductio~

of

robots (Argote, Goodman, & Schkade, 1983; Argote & Goodma~, 1984; Office of
theo~etical

Technology Assessment, 1984) and

o~ganizational

st~ucture,

work on job design,

o~ganizational effective~ess,

a~d

the

introduction of change enable us to suggest what these effects

to be and when the use of
pe~fomance

~obots

likely

e~ha~ce manufactu~i~g

We want to emphasize that

certain

is likely to

a~e

conseque~ces

usi~g

robots does not automatically imply

for organizations but rather it is the interplay

between characteristics of the technology, the manner in which it is

i~troduced,

the organization's structure, and the people who work in the

organization that

determi~e

companies

little training

p~ovide

the impact of
fo~

~obotics.

For example, some

their robot operators and design the

jobs of operators such that they have little autonomy and are very
dependent on technical support staff.
trai~ing

compa~ies

provide more

for their operators, design more autonomy into their jobs, and

expect them to be actively involved in

robots.

Other

pt'omoti~g

Our sense is that the latter approach to

the operation of the

desig~ing

the operator's

job results in more motivated operators and a speedier and smoother

impleme~tation

same.

than the fomer.

The technology in each approach is the

It is the supporting organizational arrangements that are

different.

Thus, the use of robots does not determine certain consequences

for organizations.

Instead it is the relationship between characteristics

of the robots, the people who operate and maintain the robots, and the
organizational arrangements that support the t'obots that affect the
pet'formance of

o~ganizatio~s.

5
I~dividual

We

~ow

Employees
turn to what is known about how the

typically affects individual employees

i~troductio~

i~ orga~izations.

The

of robots usually changes the skills and job activities of

employees.

of

"0 bot

i~troductio~

i~dividual

In our study of a plant in the metal-working industry, the

introduction of a robot that performed material handling activities caused

a shift in the robot operators' jobs ft'om primarily manual to primarily
mental activities (Argote, Goodman, & Schkade, 1983).

The Office of

Technology Assessment (OTA) reports a similar change with the introduction

of welding robots in the automobile industry:

the introduction of the

robots removed some of the physical demands from the jobs of human
operators (OTA, 1984).

Thus, the introduction of robots in both studies

had a positive effect on employees' work environments:

the robots assumed

some of the very physically demanding tasks otherwise performed by humans.

At the same time, both studies found that the introduction of robots
had certain negative effects on employees.

Operators in our study reported

that they experienced more stress and less control after the robot
introduced (Argote, Goodman, & Schkade, 1983).

\oI8S

Similarly, the OTA report

indicates that direct production employees felt less control with the
introduction of the welding robots, because their jobs were now tied to an
assembly line (OTA, 1984).

Repair supervisors in the OTA report also

experienced greater stress upon the implementation of robots, apparently

due to the pressures of maintaining a complex and highly integrated
production system (OTA , 1984).
Based on previous research, we expect that if the

i~troduction

of

robots leads to employees experiencing less control over their work

environment, then they will be less satisfied, less motivated, and
experience more stress upon the introduction of new technologies (Blauner,

6
Hackma~

1964;

press).

& Lawler, 1971; Hackman & Oldham, 1975; Sutton & Kahn, in

We also expect that systems that are very complex or characterized

by low reliability will be associated with increased stress (Bright, 1958;

OTA, 1984).
The experience of variety and feedback on the job promotes employee
well-bei~g

(Hackman

&

Oldham, 1975).

If the use of robotics affects the

variety and feedback employees experience, then we expect corresponding

changes in their satisfaction and motivation.
report

i~dicates

that

mai~tenance

Along these lines, the OTA

workers experienced positive changes in

their work environment upon the introduction of welding robots:

the

maintenance workers' jobs were characterized by greater variety and more

challenge (OTA, 1984).
The introduction of robotics typically changes the skill requirements
of both production and technical support personnel.

As noted earlier, the

use of robots usually shifts operators' jobs from manually-oriented to

mentally-oriented activities.

If these changes are compatible with

employees' skills and preferences, employees will feel more satisfied and
less stress with the change.

Strategies are suggested later in this

chapter for maximizing the fit between employees and their jobs and for
designing the jobs of employees, both direct and indirect, who must
interact with robots.
The manner in which robots are implemented may also affect employee
reactiona to the change.

Coch and French's (1948) classic study indicates

that introducing change in a participative fashion increases the likelihood

that employees will react positively to change.

Other researchers have

also stressed participation as a key variable in determining the extent to

which employees react positively to change (Kotter & Schlesinger, 1979;
Tornatzkyet al., 1983).

While employees

i~

the two organizations we studied did

participate at all in any decisions surrounding the

robots, employees at both organizations desired more

~ot

i~troduction

i~flue~ce

of the

tha~

they

actually had (Argote, Goodman, & Schkade, 1983; Argote & Goodman, 1984).
The discrepancy between how much influence they actually had and how much
they desired was especially pronounced at the second organization we
studied, possibly because the organization was unionized and had a
tradition of employee participation.

While employees desired more

influence, they acknowledged that the implementation of robotics is a

complex activity requiring technical expertise that they generally do not
possess.

Hence, employees did not expect a great deal of influence in

decisions regarding robotics.

They did feel, however, that they had some

expertise, especially concerning work processes and machines in their

department, and that they should be involved in

decisio~

related to their

areas of expertise.
Another dimension of the implementation process is the method
organizations use to communicate with employees about the introduction of
robotics.

Organizations may use a variety of communication mechanisms,

including talks by the plant manager, meetings with first-line

supervisiors, and demonstrations.

L~

our research, we examined how

effective employees rated the various communication sources their

organizations used to introduce robotics.

Our results indicate that

demonstrations of the operation of robots are ['ated by employees as most

effective for increaSing their understanding of robots (Argote, Goodman.
Schkade, 1983).

This result is corroborated by the finding that the

demonstration had a gt'eater impact on employees' beliefs about and

attitudes towards robotics than any other communication source the
organization used (Argote & Goodman, 1985).

&

How employee motiviation, satisfaction and stress affect the

performance of firms using robotics remains an open question.

Thet'e is a

growing sense in the business literature that these human reSOurce issues
are critical to a firm's ability to compete effectively (Abernathy, Clark,

& Kantrow, 1983).

There is also some limited evidence that using robotics

and other programmable automation in ways that enhance employee well-being

leads to increased organizational efficiency (OTA, 1984).

Consequently, it

is important that we identify the conditions under which employee

motivation, satisfaction, and stress affect the overall performance of
firms using robotics.

A~

interesting hypothesis developed from previous

research is that these human resource variables affect the overall

performance of work units when unprogrammed situations occur, for example,
a machine breakdown or the introduction of a new product (cf. Goodman,
1979).
~ay

Under routine operating conditions, human motivation and attitudes

have little effect on the performance of roboticized systems.

human resource variables may matter more when

tech.~ologies

That is,

are first being

implemented, when new products aI'e being introduced, Ot' when unexpected
problems arise than when systems are operating routinely.
Organizational Structures
In addition to affecting individual employees, the introduction of
robots may also change the basic structures of organizations--communication
within and between departments, decision-making responsibilities, role
relationships and the like.

In our study, we found that the introduction

of a robot led to increased interactions between production and technical

support personnel from engineering and maintenance.

Studies of other

technologies similar to robots, such as numerical control machines, report

similar increases in interaction among production, engineering, and
maintenance groups (Williams

&

Williams, 1964; OTA, 1984).

The use of robotics also has the potential to cha:1ge c'elatio:1ships

between production a:1d marketi:1g groups si:1ce robots may reduce the time it
takes to change from one product to another.

This potential could e:lable

organizations both to accommodate a more varied product mix a:1d to respo:ld

more easily to customer demands.

Although we have :lot yet witnessed a:1Y

empirical evidence of modified relationships between production and

marketing due to the introduction of robots, these changes might occur as
more robots are put on line and linked in integrated systems.
There is some evidence that the use of advanced automation on the
factory floor may enable organizations to centralize production scheduling
decisions (OTA, 1984).

This may reduce the need for technical experts who

schedule production as well as eliminate scheduling tasks from supervisors'

jobs.

Similarly, intelligent robots that perform inspection tasks may

reduce the requirement for special quality control staff.

Indeed the use

of intelligent robots may lead to fewer hierarchical levels within

organizations as well as to a smaller number of direct production workers
(Cyert, Dunkle, Jordan, & Miller, 1984).

This is because intelligent

systems aI'e capable of performing many activities, both manual and mental,
traditionally performed by supervisors and certain support staff as well as
by direct production workers.

There are already examples of organizations

where the use of programmable automation has led to the elimination of one
layer of supervisors (Chen, Eisley, Liker, Rothman, & Thomas, 1984).

At

the same time, the use of intelligent robots may require more individuals
with expertise maintaining and programming robots.
Thus far, we have focused on describing how the use of robotics is
likely to change the basic structures of organizations.

Now we seek to

address under what conditions these structural changes may be associated

with improved manufacturing performance.

As noted earlier, the use of

10

robotics typically

i~creases

the

i~terdepende~ce

membet'S of different functional groups.

He~ce

of activities performed by

the use of robotics usually

requires more interaction among these functional areas.

We have observed

companies where the increased interactions went extremely smoothly,

groups were motivated to cooperate in the implementation of the
technology.

a~d

all

~ew

We have also observed companies where the increased

interaction was characterized by hostility,

What differentiates these two situations?

impedi~g

the implementation.

In their analysis of

interdepartmental conflict in organizations, Walton and Dutton (1969)

discuss the conditions under which interorganizational relationships are
characterized by conflict.

These conditions include:

a reward structure

that emphasizes the performance of separate groups; asymmetric

interdependence in which one group is more dependent on the other;
communication obstacles such as different locations or specialized
languages; and aggressive individuals.
Applying these findings to the implementation of robotics provides
insight in predicting when the increased interactions required by the use
of robotics are likely to be smooth and when they are likely to be
conflictual.

If a company's reward structure emphasizes the pet'formance of

separate groups, we expect the introduction of t'obotics to be characterized

by conflict.

This might occur, for example, if production groups are

t'ewarded according to short-term efficiency figures while engineering

groups are rewarded for the number of

~ew

equipment pieces they introduce.

Asymmetric interdependence is also likely to contribute to conflict.

This situation characterizes most introductions of new technology where, at
least in certain stages of the implementation, pt'oduction is more
dependent on engineering for hardware and software then engineering is
dependent on production.

The effect of asymmetric needs on conflict is

11

moderated by the company's reward system.

A reward system that emphasizes

the performance of separate groups will only amplify the conflict potential
of asymmetric interdependence.

Instead, a reward system that has a more

global and long-term orientation may foster cooperation and reduce the
potential for conflict caused by asymmetric interdependence.
When the functional groups that must interact to implement new
technology are located in different at'eas or use different terminologies,
conflict is likely to surround the process.

Conversely, if the different

groups are located near each other, sit in on each other's meetings to
understand each other's goals and constraints, and use a common language,
then we expect the interactions required by the introduction of robotics to
be more graceful.

Finally, the nature of people who play key roles in the introduction,
such as the lead engineer, affects the level of conflict.
positions are occupied by

.~ggressive,

When key

authoritarian individuals concerned

primat'ily with their own careers, the probability of conflict increases.

The behavior of these individuals also will be affected, of course, by the
company's rewat'd sys tem.
&~other

structural issue raised by the implementation of robotics

concerns the balance between centralization and decentralization in a

organization.

Current thinking on the centralization-<iecentralization

issue emphasizes the role of uncertainty.

When uncertainty is high,

f--

decentralized structures are thought to be most appropriate (Burns &

Stalker, 1966; Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967; Argote, 1982).

Centralized

structures tend to function less effectively under' conditions of high

uncertainty, because the person or unit at the apex of the structur'e either
becomes overloaded (Shaw, 1964) or lacks the information that people closer
to the problem possess by virtue of their proximity (Perrow, 1984).

More

12

generally, the benefits of decentralized structures include g!'eater sensi:'!g

abilities as well as quicker processing and response times which are
especially critical under conditions of high uncertainty.

The advantages

of centralized structures include enhanced opportunities for taking

advantage of economies of scale and the ability to achieve coordination and
control (Khandwalla. 1977).
The introduction of robotics and expert systems may challenge us to
refine our thinking on the centralization question.

On the One hand,

intelligent robots and computer systems are able to provide us with more
processing capabilities.
or

~~its

This may reduce some of the overload that people

at the hub of centralized structures experience under high

uncertainty.

Hence, the introduction of intelligent systems may enable us

to effectively centralize certain decisions previously made best on a

decentralized basis.

There are already indications that the use of these

systems facilitates the centralization of production scheduling decisions

(OTA, 1984).

On the other hand, the use of robotics may reduce the set-up times
required to change from one product to another.
the benefits of long production runs.

This may in turn reduce

How these two forces--the increased

processing capabilities of computerized manufacturing systems and the

decreased benefits of long production runs--play out in affecting the
centralization of roboticized systems is an empirical question.

It appears

that the use of computerized manufacturing systems may enable uS to

centralize more decisions while at the same time to enjoy fast response
times and the ability to respond to change.

Thus, robotics will perhaps

increase the overall flexibility of o!'ganizational structures.

13

Technology
Finally, the third major component of an organization, its technology,
may affect manufacturing performance.

As noted already, robots have the

capacity to provide greater consistency and quality as well as greater

flexibility.

Whether this potential is realized depends at least in part

on the extent to which employees, both direct and indirect, understand the
new technology and are motivated to utilize it to its full potential as
well as on the organizational arrangements that support the technology.

At

the same time, the technology itself may have a direct effect on system
performance.

This effect is likely to be especially strong when the

technology is highly reliable and does not require much human

intervention.

As the need for

huma~

intervention increases and/or the

technology becomes less reliable, the effect of technology on performance

would depend to a greater extent on the motivation of employees and on
supporting organizational arrangements.
Clearly, additional research is needed to increase our understanding
of the effects of robots on individuals and organizations.
a strategy for conducting research on robotics.

We now turn to

We are following this

strategy in our own work and believe it may be useful to others.

Suggestions for Research
Our suggestions for research on robotics fall into five areas:
design, outcome variables, sources of data, levels of analysis and
statistical analyses, and general methodological issues.
Design
Our strategy for studying the implementation of robotics is to conduct
a~

integrated series of longitudinal studies in different organizations.

It is important to examine how differences in organizational contexts

(e.g., union status, technological sophistication of the plant,

14
relatio~ships

with other

co~ditio~s

the

i~

pla~ts

i~dustry)

and

or corporate support groups,

i~

characteristics of the

(e.g., its type, its integration with

existi~g tech~ology,

spread across production activities) affect the

eco~omic

~ew tec~,ology

its

implementatio~

spa~

or

of robotics.

It is also valuable at this early stage of theoretical development to

do in-depth studies at each

orga~ization.

Since these technologies are

being introduced in different types of organizations, it is difficult to

compare performance across organizations.

Comparisons over time within

each organization, however, are possible.

Consequently, one may compare

productivity data obtained before introducing the new technology with data
obtained after its introduction.

To do this, of course, requires a

sufficiently lengthy period of time for data collection, before and after
the introduction, to be able to adjust for seasonal and other shocks.
Longitudinal studies also
possible.

be~efit

from the use of a control group, where

This approach to assessing the impact of a change on

productivity and other outcomes is illustrated

i~

Goodman (1979).

Longitudinal research also helps uS understand the dynamics of the

change process.

Different organizational responses may be appropriate at

different phases of the implementation.

For example, the participation of

direct production employees may be more appropriate in some (e.g.,

designing the operator's job) than in other (e.g., deciding where to
introduce robots) phases of the implementation.

Collecting data at

multiple points in time helps ensure that we capture these time-dependent

phenomena.
Thus, we believe that a research program on the effects of
technologies requires not only
multiple sites.
introducing new

i~-depth

~ew

studies but also studies at

Our research strategy calls for drawing a sample of plants

tech~ologies,

a sample that incorporates both union and

15
~o~u~io~

plants,

pla~ts

both high

sophistication, and so forth.

~o~-union

a~d

low

i~ existi~g

tech~ological

While our first study was

organization that forges and

machi~es

~ew

at a

metal products, our

study is underway at a unionized organization wi th r'obots

first plant's

co~ducted

o~

li~e.

technology is a robot that performs material

seco~d

Ihe

handli~g

activities and the second plant's new installation is a manufacturing cell

with mUltiple robots.

While employees' jobs at the first plant change, no

one is required to move to a different job or shift; the second plant's

installation, however, causes some employees to move to different jobs and
changes the character of the jobs of other employees.

The results of this

sampling will be an integrated set of longitudinal studies involving

different organizational contexts and different technological
characteristics.
Outcome Variables
It is important to examine multiple criteria of the performance of
roboticized systems.

As noted previously, examples of particularly

important criteria are productivity, product quality, manufacturing

flexibility, absenteeism, turnover, and employee motivation and
well-being.

Inventory costs and the percent of time the system is

operating may also be useful criteria.

These multiple criteria and their

interrelationships should be examined to give us a complete picture of the

costs and benefits of roboticized systems.

For example, there is some

evidence that the introduction of robots causes employees to feel greater

stress (Argote, Goodman, & Schkade, 1983; OTA, 1984).

We need to know more

about this outcome of increased stress and how it r'elates to other

outcomes.

Will the increased stress have any effects on the

well-being of employees?

long-ter~

If there are negative effects, would these costs

be justified by other benefits, perhaps including the enhanced ability of

16

the firm to survive a:1d provide jobs for its employees?

If the benefits

outweigh the costs of increased stress, are there effective strategies for
reducing the stress employees experience?

Clearly, a:lsweri:lg these

questions requires an understanding of multiple outcome variables a:ld the

trade-offs among them.
Further, we should build models that predict each outcome variable.
Previous research in the organizational sciences suggests that the
variables that predict one outcome may be different from the variables that
predict other outcomes.

For example, research has shown that decentralized

communication structures are associated with highest member satisfaction

but that the relationship between communication centralization and group
performance depends on the uncertai:1ty of the task (Shaw, 1981).
Centralized structures are associated with better performance 'on certai:1 or
simple tasks while decentt'alized structues are associated with better
perfonna:1ce for u."lcertai:l or complex tasks.

Similarly, the variables that

predict manufacturi:lg flexibility i:1 roboticized systems may be different

from the variables that are most associated with the productivity of the
systems.

If we are to increase certain outcomes such as productivity, we

must understand what leads to the outcomes.

This calls for developing

fine-grained models of variables that predict each outcome.

Sources of Data and Respondent Groups
To obtain valid and reliable i:1formation, we collect data within each
organization through mUltiple methods and sources.

Data are obtained

;:-:

t--

through a combination of personal interviews, questionnaires, and

observations.

We also use compa:1Y records or archival data on

productivi ty, product mix, absenteeism, accidents, and turnover.

17
Previous research has

sho~

that introducing robots will have effects

extending beyond the immediate departments where they are introduced.

Capturing these effects requires interviews with a variety of individuals
at each

organizati~n.

Key respondents within the plant include production

workers from the departments where the new technology is introduced,

individuals from other departments such as engineering, maintenance,
quali ty control, production scheduling, marketing, and personnel t'elations,
plus management and supervisory staff.

In addition, key respondents

outside the site include vendors (cf. Ettlie & Eder, 1984) and, if the
plant is part of a larger corporation, members of corporate support
groups.

Since employees' positions and departmental affiliations affect

their perceptions and beliefs (cf. Dearborn & Simon, 1958), collecting data
from individuals in these different departments and different hierarchical
levels provides us with a balanced view of the implementation as well as
with the perspectives of different constituencies.
Levels of Analysis and Statistical

~,alyses

Research on the effects of new technologies requires multiple levels

of analysis, including the individual, the work group, and the
ot'ganization.

Variables that predict outcomes at one level may be

different f!'om variables that predict outcomes at another level (cf.

Wagner, Pfeffer & O'Reilly, 1984).
appropriate level of analysis.

Models should be built at the

For example, understanding the effects of

new technologies on employees requires analysis at the individual level.

Since data are collected typically from about 50 individuals at each
organization at multiple points in time,

fOt~al

statistical techniques may

be used to build models and to test hypotheses about the employee.

For other questions, such as the effect of the new technology on
organizational structures, the department or plant is the appropriate unit

18

of analysis.

While our sample size is presently too small to proceed with

formal modeling at the department level, the i:ltensi ve natut'e of these

studies provides insights into the process and the conditions u:lder which
departmental structures change with the introduction of :lew technologies.
Such

L~sights

can then be tested more formally as data from additional

sites are accumulated.

Yin (1981) discusses issues surrounding

comparisons across case studies.

Qualitative material is also extremely useful, particularly when it is
combined with the results of quantitative analyses.

Indeed, in our first

study, some of the more interesting insights came from our respondents'
answers to open-ended questions regarding their thoughts on what a robot
was and how it affected them and their jobs.

Ettlie's chapter in this

volume illustrates furcher the usefulness of qualitative material (Ettlie,

in press).
General Methodological Issues
Other methodological issues one encounters in studying the
implementation of new technologies include:

attrition in one's sample over

time, the nonindependence of data collected from the same individuals over
time, the lack of an adequate conceptual scheme for representing the
technology variable, the lack of instrumentation, problems in sampling
technology uset's, and the nonequivalence of control groups in field
research.

These issues are discussed more fully in Goodman and Al:'gote

(1984)

Suggestions for Managerial Practice

Findings from our research and the research of others on the
implementation of t'obotics are just beginning to accumulate.

It will take

additional field studies before we fully understand the consequences for

individuals and organizations of using robotics. Yet many companies are

19
now in the process of introducing robots into their factories.
best information currently available about effective
utilization strategies?

Our studies

~,d

impleme~tation a~d

previous studies of increased

automation suggest strategies for managers to consider when

robots L,to their organizations.

What is the

introduci~g

These strategies cover five areas:

managing job displacement, anticipating individual's' reactions to new

technologies, anticipating larger-scale organizational effects,
implementing change, and being open to change.
~,aging

Job Displacement

The introduction of new technologies often raises the issue of

displacement.

To date, the amount of displacement directly attributable to

robotics is low (Cyert, Dunkle, Jordan, & Miller, 1984).

Yet, this is

likely to change if the adoption of robotics is accelerated.

Questions concerning job security and pay are very important to
employees; their concerns may also regard being bumped to a less desirable
job or shift.

Fallut'e to deal wi th these concerns may slow down the speed

of implementation, reduce the effectiveness of the change, as well as

contribute to employee stress.
To deal with employees' concerns about job loss, many companies have
successfully taken advantage of natural attrition to handle any reduction
in the number of employees.

In this way, while employees may have to

change jobs, they are still working with the company.

In-house training

programs may be necessary to equip employees with the skills required by

their new jobs.

If shifting employees to different jobs is not feasible,

the firm should be open with its employees and let them know as soon as
possible who will lose their jobs as a result of the new technology.
Ideally, the company should provide assistance writing resumes,
interviewing, and finding new jobs, to individuals affected by the change.

20

Anticipating Individuals' Reactions

New technologies often alter the job activities of individual
employees.

Therefore, it is important to analyze the requit'ements of ehe

new job and maximize the fit or congruency between job and employee
characteristics.

Research on job-person fit indicates that a lack of

congruency may have dysfunctional effects on the person (e.g., increased

stress) and on the organization (e.g., increased absenteeism and
turnover).

The question is not only whether the employee is able to

perform the new activities, but also whether the employee likes to perform
the new activities.

We have, for example, encountered factory workers who

prefer manual to cognitive activities; for these employees there would not
be a good fit between the job of robot operator and their preferences for
manual wot'k.

Such incongruencies between the job and the person may be

resolved by redesigning the job or by changing personnel selection

procedures.
Operators in our first study commented that they felt less control and
experienced more stress after the robot was introduced.

The possible

sources of these perceptions could be the increased reliance on others

(especially engineering and maintenance personnel) experienced by the robot
operators, and the sense of having their work pace driven by the robot'S
cycle time.

Since the experience of control has positive consequences for

individuals, it is advantageous to design opportunities for control into

the robot operator's job.

t:

This may be accomplished either through

t--

additional training or by providing the operators with some control,

possibly through encouraging them to participate in designing the
operator's job.
If introducing robotics changes the nature of employees' jobs from
manual to cognitive, employees may experience boredom on the job.

Job

21
rotatio~

Job

may be a

rotatio~

mecha~ism

would also

a~d

to alleviate boredom

i~crease

i~dividual

variety for the

up the skills of other employees, and allow the

to decrease stress.

compa~y

employee, build

more flexibility

staffing.
Moreover, there is evidence from the airline

i~dustry

that

compa~ies

with more flexible work rules are more productive than their counterparts
with less flexible rules (Bailey, Graham, & Kaplan, 1985).
both union and
work rules.

non-u~ion,

are

movi~g

Many

compa~ies,

in the direction of more flexibile

The benefits of increased flexibility are likely to be

high, particularly for

organizatio~s

where it is hard to plan

i~

advance

operating in uncertain environments,

(Bur~s

& Stalker, 1966; Argote, 1982).

Since high uncertainty appeat's to characterize the introduction of

robotics, flexible work tules may facilitate their implementation.

Special

care should be taken, however, to keep from exploiting the members of

organizations with flexible work rules.
Anticipating Organizational Effects
The introduction of robotics usually leads to

i~creased i~teraction

between production employees and technical suppOt't personnel from

engi~eering

areas may

a:ld

mai~tenance.

New

to be developed.

~eed

critical as the

~umber

coot'di~ation

These

mecha~isms

of installations of the

High technology firms,

mechanisms between these

organizatio~s

i~

~ew

are likely to be more

technology

i~creases.

which the management of

evolving technology is critical, require close

coordi~ation

marketing, engineering, and production areas (Leonard-Barton & Gogan,

press; Riggs, 1983).
engineering, and
market for

pt'oductio~

e~gi~eeri~g

manufacturi~g,

For these firms, it is imperative that

a~d

share

i~formatio~

L-.

among

~.

i~

marketi~g,

to ensure that there is a

developments, that products are designed for

that production capacity matches market demands.

22
Arranging for members of different functional areas to sit in on each
other's meetings is a step towards promoting coordination as well as
cooperation across areas.

Additional strategies for promoting coordination

across functional areas are discussed in Riggs (1983) and Galbraith (1973).
Earlier studies of automation found that the increased automation of
production tasks and the concomitant decrease in the number of people on
the shop floor led to employees feeling isolated (Whyte, 1961).

Operators

in our first study also reported that they felt isolated and did not have
as much opportunity to talk with their co-workers in the department since
the operators did not want anyone breaking their concentration.
have the sense that the increased sense of isolation was severe.

We did not
The

possiblity of isolation, however, does warrant managerial attention.

Research has shown that social support from others can reduce stress
(House, 1981).

Hence, it is important that the operators of new

technologies who are likely to feel greater' stress, at least in the short
run, are not deprived of a means of dealing with the increased stress.
Management should consider stt'ategies for building social support and
opportunities for interaction into roboticized systems.
The introduction of robotics may require changes in an organization's
pay system.

At a minimum, decisions will have to be made about the

appropriate pay rate for robot" operators.

What rate is appropriate will

depend on decisions the company makes about allocating tasks between direct
and indirect employees.

More generally, the introduction of programmable

automation, such as robots, typically increases the interdependence among

members of organizations (OTA, 1984).

The quality of the output of

roboticized systems depends not only on the performance of the operator and
the equipment but also on the quality of the design and programming of the
system.

This increased interdependence makes it more difficult to reward

23
performance on the basis of the contribution of individuals; instead,
rewarding performance at the level of the group of people who contribute to
the system may be more appropriate.
Implementing Change
When implementing new technologies, a discrepancy often exists between
the information employees desire about the new technology and the
information they actually possess.

This stems in part from employees not

receiving all the messages that management sends.

Hence, management should

monitor how much information employees receive from particular

communication sources and how helpful employees perceive these sources to
be.

Establishing open two-way communiction where employees feel

comfortable raising questions and expressing their views is critical for

the success of the implementation of robotics.
Certain information sources appear more effective than others in
introducing robotics.

Base~

on our research, demonstrations of the

operation of the new technology are an effective technique.

In addition,

communications that include a balance of both positive and negative

messages are more credible to employees.

To the extent that the new

technology has both positive and negative effects (and we believe that this
is usually the case), such messages will give employees a more realistic
preview of what the new technology entails.
smoother implementation.

This should contribute to a

Finally, we have observed companies in which the

employees' first knowledge of the introduction of robotics occurs either

with a crate appearing on the factory floor or upon hearing from their
friends that a robot has arrived.

Clearly, this is not the most effective

way to introduce employees to the new technology.

Furthermore, employees

who learn about the new technology from management rather than through

24
i:lformal sources are more likely to have a constt'uctive attitude toward the
change.
~ew

First line supervisors should be given information about the

technology and receive support from upper management in dealing with

employees' reactions to it.

Studies have shown that during periods of

threat, communication structures become more centralized, with increased

reliance on a leader (Staw, Sande1ands, & Dutton, 1981).

This is

consistent with our observation that employees approach their supervisor

more often with questions during the introduction of robotics.

Supervisors

often feel frustrated because they feel they do not have adequate
information to answer their subordinates' questions.

Since the

supervisor's' attitudes and behaviors are critical for the success of the
change, they should be given adequate information.
Developing a strategy for employee involvement or participation in
introducing new manufacturing technologies should be considered.

There are

many possible strategies for employee participation, such as the formation

of a task force consisting of repI'esentatives from departments where robots
aI'e being introduced.

In our two studies, management provided few

opportunities for employee involvement when introducing the robots.

Employees, especially employees at the second organization, desired more
involvement than they had in decisions regarding robotics.

Possible

benefits of involvement include not only a better understanding of the new

technology but also a greater commitment to the change process.
In our current work we are examining whether the experience of

employee involvement has positive effects on the individual or the

organization.

To this point, it is important that management's intentioonnss_____________

regarding participation be translated into the experience of shop floor

employees.

We have observed companies where management intended to

25
i~troduce

technologies in a participative fashion but where shop floor

~ew

employees did not experience any involvement

was formed but it seldom met.

i~

the change.

A task force

Individuals who were not on the task force

were unaware of the task force's activities.

both the company and its employees

~eed

For participation to work,

to work out in advance which

decisions are going to be made jointly as well as what "participation"

means to all involved.

Does employee participation mean that management

will consult employees and then decide what to do?

Does participation

imply that employees will have the the final say over certain decisions?
It is important that everyone understand what participation means for their
organization

~,d

act accordingly.

If they perceive that their

recommendations have not been considered, employees may feel

disillusioned.

Similarly, management may become very frustrated, if it

senses that its attempts to make changes participatively are not working.
Technical support personnel should be involved early in the change
process.

We have observed companies who neglect to involve support

personnel, particularly maintenance employees, in planning for the change.

Stress and poor relationships usually result it'om this lack of
involvement.

Involving the support personnel early in the change process

should facilitate a smooth implementation as well as reduce the stress they

experience.
Being Open to Change
Many of the effects of robotics on individuals and organizations can

be anticipated.

The more a company is able to anticipate these effects,

the more likely gains for individual employees and for the organization
will result from the use of robots.
however, cannot be predicted.

Some of the effects of robotics,

Since these technologies are just now coming

into use, there is uncertainty as to what their effects will be.

It is

26
important therefore for management to create an open culture in which both
the company and its employees
most effectively.

ca~

learn about robots and how to use them

Such a culture is most likely to evolve in organizations

where trust already exists between management and employees, where it is

legitimate for one to admit "I don't know" if a person does not, and where
management and employees are willing to change and update policies and
procedures as learning takes place.

We believe that the more successful

introductions will occur in companies where there is this culture of

openness and responsiveness to change.
Concluding Comments
Changes in the organization of wot'k, such as job enlat'gement,
autonomous work groups, and quality of work life programs, and changes in
technology such as robots

a~d

expert systems, appear to produce opposing

effects on individuals and organizations.

For example, autonomous work

groups typically result in employees having more control, learning more

skills, peI'forming more significant tasks, and intet'acting more often with
members of their work group.

While autonomous work groups do not always

lead to greater group effectiveness, on balance, members of autonomous work

groups are more satisfied, less likely to be absent Ot' to leave the group,
and function at least as productively as theit' counterparts in traditional
work groups (Katz & Kahn, 1978).

Hence, many social scientists have

advocated these types of changes in the organization of work as a way to

increase the well-being of individual employees as well as the
effectiveness of groups and organizations.
In contrast, many technological changes taking place on the factory
floor today have an effect on individual employees that is antagonistic to
the effects of the social changes discussed above.

For example, the

introduction robotics often results in employees experiencing less control

27
and less opportunity to
smaller, less

i~teract

sig~ifica~t

once possessed is

~ow

tasks,

embodied

i~

with others.
a~d

These employees perform

moreover, some of the discretion they

the

~ew tech~ology.
cha~ges

This divergence between social and technological

makes it

imperative that we, as researchers and practitioners, get a better

perspective on the casts and benefits of the two types of changes and the
trade-offs between them.

When is it better for employees to

more contt'ol and mare influence?

decision-making tules
employees?

i~

experie~ce

When is it better to embed

the technology rather than

i~

the minds of

Under what conditions are interactions with co-workers

beneficial for the

i~dividual

or the

orga~ization?

Are current social and

technological changes in conflict with each another, or can they be

orchestrated so that the strengths of one approach complement the
weaknesses of the other?

Clearly, we need a better grasp of the costs and

benefits of these two approaches to

u~derstandi~g

orga~izing.

~ce

we

gai~

a greater

of the trade-offs between these two different approaches, we

can begin to design changes that truly allow for the joint optimization of
social and technological systems in the workplace.

28
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