Chapter 17: Springs

It must be confessed that the

inventors of the mechanical arts have
been much more useful to men than
the inventors of syllogisms.

Voltaire

A collection of helical compression springs.

(Courtesy of Danly Die)

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Stress

Stress Cycle
6U

Strain

Figure 17.1: Stress-strain curve for one complete cycle.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Spring Materials
Elastic
modulus,
E,
GPa (Mpsi)

Shear
modulus,
G,
GPa (MPsi)

Density,
,
kg/m3
(lbm/in3 )

Maximum
service
temperature,
C ( F)

207 (30.0)
207 (30.0)

79.3 (11.5)
79.3 (11.5)

7840 (0.283)
7840 (0.283)

120 (248)
120 (248)

High strength; excellent fatigue life

General purpose use; poor fatigue life

200 (29.0)
193 (28.0)

75.8 (11.0)
68.9 (9.99)

7750 (0.280)
7840 (0.283)

250 (482)
315 (600)

Unsatisfactory for subzero applications

Good strength at moderate temperatures;
low stress relaxation

110 (15.9)

41.4 (6.00)

8520 (0.308)

90 (194)

Phosphor bronze (ASTM B159)

103 (14.9)

43.4 (6.29)

8860 (0.320)

90 (194)

Beryllium copper (ASTM B197)

131 (19.0)

44.8 (6.50)

8220 (0.297)

200 (392)

Low cost; high conductivity; poor

mechanical properties
Ability to withstand repeated res;
popular alloy
High yield and fatigue strength;
hardenable

214 (31.0)
214 (31.0)

75.8 (11.0)
75.8 (11.0)

8500 (0.307)
8250 (0.298)

315 (600)
600 (1110)

186 (27.0)

66.2 (9.60)

8140 (0.294)

90 (194)

n
High-carbon steels
Music wire (ASTM A228)
Hard drawn (ASTM A227)
Stainless steels
Martensitic (AISI 410, 420)
Austenitic (AISI 301, 302)
Copper-based alloys
Spring brass (ASTM B134)

Nickel-based alloys
Inconel 600
Inconel X-750
Ni-Span C

Principal characteristics

Good strength; high corrosion resistance

Precipitation hardening; for high
temperatures
Constant modulus over a wide
temperature range

Table 17.1: Typical properties of common spring materials. Source: Adapted from Relvas
[1996].

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Spring Material Properties

Size range
Exponent,
Constant, A p
Material
in.
mm
m
ksi
MPa
a
Music wire
0.004-0.250
0.10-6.5
0.146
196
2170
b
0.020-0.500
0.50-12
0.186
149
1880
Oil-tempered wire
c
0.028-0.500
0.70-12
0.192
136
1750
Hard-drawn wire
d
0.032-0.437
0.80-12
0.167
169
2000
Chromium vanadium
e
Chromium silicon
0.063-0.375
1.6-10
0.112
202
2000
302 stainless steel
0.013-0.10
0.33-2.5
0.146
169
1867
0.10-0.20
2.5-5
0.263
128
2065
0.20-0.40
5-10
0.478
90
2911
f
Phosphor-bronze
0.004-0.022
0.1-0.6
0
145
1000
0.022-0.075
0.6-2
0.028
121
913
0.075-0.30
2-7.5
0.064
110
932
a Surface is smooth and free from defects and has a bright, lustrous QLVK
b Surface has a slight heat-treating scale that must be removed before plating.
c Surface is smooth and bright with no visible marks.
d Aircraft-quality tempered wire; can also be obtained annealed.
e Tempered to Rockwell C49 but may also be obtained untempered.
f SAE CA510, tempered to Rockwell B92-B98.

Table 17.2: Coecients used in Eq. (17.2) for selected spring materials.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Helical Coil
R

T = PR
P

R
P

(a)

(b)

Figure 17.2: Helical coil. (a) Coiled wire showing applied force; (b) coiled wire with
section showing torsional and direct (vertical) shear acting on the wire.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Wire Stresses and Correction

1.5
d

1.4

(a)

(b)
Spring
axis

Spring
axis

Spring factor

Kw
1.3

Kb

1.2
1.1

Kd

1.0
D/2
(c)

D/2

12

Spring Index, C

(d)

Figure 17.3: Shear stresses acting on wire

and coil. (a) Pure torsional loading; (b)
transverse loading; (c) torsional and
transverse loading with no curvature
eects; (d) torsional and transverse
loading with curvature eects.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

Figure 17.4: Comparison of the

Wahl and Bergstraesser curvature
correction factors used for helical
springs. The transverse shear
factor is also shown.

2014 CRC Press

Compression Spring Ends

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 17.5: Four end types commonly used in compression springs. (a) Plain; (b) plain
and ground; (c) squared; (d) squared and ground.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Deection
(P = 0)
Pr

Po
Ps
lf
li
lo

ga

(a)

(b)

(c)

ls

(d)

Figure 17.6: Various lengths and forces applicable to helical compression springs. (a)
Unloaded; (b) under initial load; (c) under operating load; (d) under solid load.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Spring Equations

Term
Number of end coils, N e
Total number of active coils, N a
Free length, l f
Solid length, l s
Pitch at free length, p

Plain
0
Nt
pN a + d
d(N t + 1)
(l f d)/N a

Type of spring end

Plain and ground Squared or closed
1
2
Nt 1
Nt 2
p(N a + 1)
pN a + 3 d
dN t
d(N t + 1)
l f / (N a + 1)
( l f 3d)/N a

Squared and ground

2
Nt 2
pN a + 2 d
dN t
(l f 2d)/N a

Table 17.3: Useful formulas for compression springs with four end conditions.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Deection Graphical
Representation
lf
li
lo
ls
Length, l

Spring force, P

Ps

Po

Pi
0
0

bi

bo

bs
Deflection, b

Figure 17.7: Graphical representation of deection, force and length for four spring
positions.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Spring Buckling
Ratio of deflection to free length, b/l f

0.80
Stable

Unstable

0.60
Unstable
0.40

Stable
Pa
rall
el en
d

0.20

0
3

Nonpa
rallel e
nds

4
5
6
7
8
9
Ratio of free length to mean coil diameter, lf /D

10

Figure 17.8: Critical buckling conditions for parallel and nonparallel ends of
compression springs. Source: Engineering Guide to Spring Design, Barnes Group, Inc.,
[1987].

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Design Procedure 17.1: Design

Synthesis of Helical Springs
The following are important considerations for synthesis of springs. The considerations
are strictly applicable to helical compression springs, but will have utility elsewhere as
well.
1. The application should provide some information regarding the required force
and spring rate or total deection for the spring. It is possible that the solid and
free lengths are also prescribed. Usually, there is signicant freedom for the
designer, and not all of these quantities are known beforehand.
2. Select a spring index in the range of 4 to 12. A spring index lower than 4 will be
dicult to manufacture, while a spring index higher than 12 will result in
springs that are imsy and tangle easily. Higher forces will require a smaller
spring index. A value between 8 and 10 is suitable for most design applications.
3. The number of active coils should be greater than 2 in order to avoid
manufacturing diculties. The number of active coils can be estimated from a
spring stiness design constraint.
4. For initial design purposes, the solid height should be specied as a maximum
dimension. Usually, applications will allow a spring to have a smaller solid
height than the geometry allows, so the solid height should not be considered a
strict constraint.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Design Procedure 17.1 (concluded)

5. When a spring will operate in a cage or with a central rod, a clearance of
roughly 10% of the spring diameter must be specied. This is also useful in
compensating for a coating thickness from an electroplating process, for
example.
6. At the free height, the spring has no restraining force, and therefore a spring
should have at least some preload.
7. To avoid compressing a spring to its solid length, and the impact and plastic
deformation that often result, a clash allowance of at least 10% of the
maximum working deection should be required before the spring is
compressed solid.
8. Consider the application when designing the spring and the amount of
force variation that is required. Sometimes, such as in a garage door
counterbalance spring, it is useful to have the force vary signicantly,
because the load changes with position. For such applications, a high spring
rate is useful. However, it is often the case that only small variations in force
over the spring's range of motion are desired, which suggests that low
spring rates are preferable. In such circumstances, a preloaded spring with a
low stiness will represent a befer design.
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.
2014 CRC Press
Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

Extension Spring
Ends

d
r3

r1

r2
r4
B

(a)

(b)
P

d
d

r3
r1

A
r2
r4
B

(c)

Figure 17.9: Ends for extension springs. (a)

Conventional design; (b) side view of Fig. 16.8a; (c)
improved design over Fig. 16.8a; (d) side view of Fig.
16.8c.

(d)

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Dimensions and Preload

do

200

28

175

lb

lf

Preload stress, MPa

ll

150
20
125

Preferred
range

16

100
12

75

50

ga
lh

25

Figure 17.10: Important

dimensions of a helical extension
spring.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

Preload stress, ksi

24

di

10
12
Spring index

14

4
16

Figure 17.11: Preferred range of

preload stress for various spring
indexes.

2014 CRC Press

Torsion Springs
P

P
d

a
D

Figure 17.12: Helical torsion spring.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Leaf Spring

Rear shock
absorber

Spring shackle

Brake drum

Spring eye
Leaf spring

Figure 17.13: Illustration of a leaf

spring used in an automotive
application.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

Figure 17.14: Leaf spring. (a)

Triangular plate, cantilever spring; (b)
equivalent multiple-leaf spring.

2014 CRC Press

Gas Springs
High pressure
nitrogen gas
chamber

Metering orifice

Integral grease
chamber

Seals
Oil zone for end position
damping and lubrication
(a)

Polished steel rod

(b)

Figure 17.15: Gas springs. (a) A collection of gas springs. Note that the springs are
available with a wide variety of end afachments and strut lengths. Source: Courtesy of
Newport Engineering Associates, Inc. (b) Schematic illustration of a typical gas spring.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Belleville Springs
200
Height-tothickness
ratio, 2.828

Di
h

t
Do
(a)

(b)

Figure 17.16: Typical Belleville spring.

(a) Isometric view of Belleville spring;
(b) cross section, with key dimensions
identied.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

Percent force to flat

160

2.275

1.000

120
1.414
80

40

0.400

0
0

40

80
120
Percent deflection to flat

160

200

Figure 17.17: Force-deection

response of Belleville spring given by
Eq. (17.54).

2014 CRC Press

Belleville Spring Stacks

(a)

(b)

Figure 17.18: Stacking of Belleville springs. (a) in parallel; (b) in series.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Wave Springs

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 17.19: Examples of common wave spring congurations. (a) Common crest-to-
crest orientation; (b) crest-to-crest orientation with shim ends; (c) nested wave springs.
Source: Courtesy of Smalley Co.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Multiple Wave Factor

Waves per turn,
Nw
2.0-4.0
4.5-6.5
7.0-9.5
> 9.5

Multiple wave factor,

Kw
3.88
2.9
2.3
2.13

Table 17.4: Multiple wave factor, Kw, used to calculate wave spring stiness. Source:
Courtesy Smalley Co.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Case Study: Progressive Die

Ram
Blanking
punch
Pilot

Piercing
punch
Stripper

Scrap
Die

Strip

Stop

Slug
Part
Strip
(b)

Finished
washer

Scrap

First
operation
(a)

Figure 17.20: Illustration of a simple part that is produced by a progressive die. (a)
Schematic illustration of the two-station die set needed to produce a washer; (b)
sequence of operations to produce an aerosol can lid. Source: From Kalpakjian and
Schmid [2008].

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Dickerman Feed
Cam

Gripping unit
(sliding)
Spring

Gripping unit
(fixed)
Fixed rear
guide

Figure 17.21: Dickerman Feed Unit.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press

Case Study Results

1.4
1.2

500

Safety factor, ns

Maximum force, Pmax, lbf

600

400
300
200
100
0

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

0.04

0.08
0.12
0.16
Wire diameter, d, in.

0.20

0.04

0.08
0.12
0.16
Wire diameter, d, in.

0.20

Figure 17.22: Performance of the spring in case study.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

2014 CRC Press