Food Toxicology

Toxicology is the study of side and toxic effects of xenobiotics in living

beings.
This
includes
the
substances
pharmacokinetics
and
pharmacodynamics, along with its absorption, distribution, metabolism and
excretion.
It is connected to Pharmacology, Biochemistry, Chemistry, Genetics and
Pathology.

Toxic effects
Toxic effects have 3 different phases, related to exposure, toxicokinetics and
toxicodynamics.
After taking a dose of a substance, it is available to be absorbed, which will
then be dissipated or give place to the formation of active toxic substances
(exposure). Then, it will be ready for the toxicokinetic phase, which consists
in distributing and metabolising the substance inside the body, so it can
reach the target organ or tissue and produce an effect.

Accidental
Toxic food (fish, vegetables)
Container (plastic, aluminum, lead)
Biological contamination (mycotoxins)
Chemical contamination (pesticides, growth hormones)
Radiological contamination (additives)

Voluntary
Homicide (biological/chemical war, fraud)

Factors that influence toxic effects

Dose
Quantity of xenobiotics administered by unit of weight.

Toxic agent
Physical and chemical characteristics
Presence of other chemicals (synergistic effects, additives)

Exposure
Ways of exposure/administration
Duration and frequency

Elimination
Absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion.

Individual
Inter-species differences
Gender
Age

Among the many different types of Toxicology is food toxicology. This area
studies the source and formation of toxic substances in food and drinks
(foodstuffs), as well as their toxic effects and safety limits.

Hazards associated with different foodstuffs

Physical
Foreign materials (glass, metal, plastic, wood, insects, parts of animals)

Radiological
Radioactive materials (uranium mines, nuclear accidents)

Chemical
Vegetable origin - Heavy metals, use of fertilizers with high amounts of
nitrogen, subterranean and superficial water contamination, pesticides
Meat, dairy products, eggs - Dioxins, heavy metals, pesticides, nitrates,
pharmaceuticals, additives
Fishery products - Heavy metals, pharmaceuticals, additives

Biological
Meat, dairy products, eggs - Fungi and mycotoxins, parasites, viruses and
prions
Vegetable origin - Neurotoxins (Clostridium botulinum), mycotoxins, biogenic
amines (histamine)
Fishery products - Fungi and mycotoxins, biotoxins

Foodstuffs alterations
Group of modifications that are done in foodstuffs, destroying partially or
totally its essential characteristics, by compromising its physical and
chemistry properties, hygiene status and nutritive quality. In other words, it
includes all the changes that cause the food to be unwanted or inadequate
to its ingestion.

These alterations are reflected on:

Organoleptic characteristics
Chemical composition
Physical state
Nutritive value
Hygiene

Favourable conditions for alterations:

Harvest
Omissions on the manufacturing
Insufficient or incorrect conservation processes
Inadequate packaging materials
Transportation liabilities

Types of alterations
Microbial

Mould or rotting of parts

Changes in taste, smell or texture

Physical or mechanical

Impacts or physical/mechanical pressure (cracks on eggshells, cold or

dehydration burns on vegetables)

Chemical

Oxidative staleness/auto-oxidation (peroxides, alcohols, aldehydes,

ketones - unpleasant smell). This process is accelerated by O2, light,
temperature, metals and/or enzymes.

Enzymatic

Insect and/or rodent attacks

Alterations on food due to packaging materials

Food can be altered due to the inefficiency of the container's protection or
its interaction with the foodstuff.

Metallic containers

Corrosion and interaction of the metal with the content

Sulfuration of cans, making the consumer reject the product due to its
visual aspect

Glass containers
Completely harmless. However, the constant exposure to light may cause
the oxidation of very reactive compounds.

Cellulose containers
Not usually used for direct contact with the food. However, when it's used,
it's for dry products, so there are no interaction hazards.

Plastic containers
Due to its high amount of polymers that may offer a smaller or bigger
barrier, this type of container can alter the foodstuff through:
Oxidation due to light exposure
Absorption of loss of humidity
Migration of monomers, solvents or additives of the polymers
Loss or absorption of volatile compounds
Alterations to the permeability to O2 and CO2

Usual methods of fraud

Disguise or modification of the organoleptic characteristics (color,

taste, consistency)
Removal of parts
Addition of foreign foodstuffs (that can be legal or not)
Substitution of normal components for foreign products
Simulation of the original product, substituting it by one with similar
characteristics or artificially created products
Reduction of the weight
Simulation of the amount of food
Illicit advertising

Examples
Adulteration of milk by adding water
Attracting the consumer by simulating a lower price and a higher
amount of food

Weighing fraud, by manually compressing part of the package

Misleading advertising
Exposing food in better conditions at the front

Types of fraud
Alteration
This type includes modifications on the organoleptic characteristics, hygiene
and nutritive value without human interference or action of physical,
chemical (and more) agents.
However, its the economic agent that orders its commercialisation.

Adulteration

Addition of inferior food or substances to the product

Addition of forbidden or unrevealed substances
Removal of some components
Simultaneous removal and addition
Substitution of one or more components
Substitution of the original food for an artificial one or a raw material
of a lower value
Simulation of the quantity/amount that is written in the package
Use of unsuitable food
Fraudulent retrieval of the food

Sampling
Sampling and the collection of samples are necessary to obtain
representative results.
The sampling plan is dependant on the type of sample that is analysed.
The taken sample (or fraction of it) should reflect the entire composition.

Food Toxicology Analysis

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Sampling Plan
Sample Collection
Transportation, Storage and Pretreatment
Analysis of Contaminants
Analysis of Results

Procedures
1. Designing the sampling plan
2. Implementing the sampling plan

Types of Sampling
Random
Gathering of a small number of samples from a high amount of packed
samples or raw material/product in bulk. A table of random numbers is used
to select the samples. Each item/package gets a number and the collecting
is made according to the generated table.
Used in packed foodstuffs, such as food cans. However, its necessary that
the product is not heterogeneous so that the analyte has the same chance
of being included in the sample (e.g. cereal boxes).

Systematic
Collecting of increasing quantities in a pre-settled period of time. The first
unit is randomly chosen and the following ones will be chosen at constant
intervals of K units.

Stratified
Used mostly in samplings of liquids in lakes, tanks and reservoirs. The
samples are collected from different layers.

Sequential
Used to verify the compliance to a specification (labels). The samples are
collected from the production line in pre-determined, random intervals.

Ad-hoc
Used in specific foodstuffs, such as vegetarian diets. The sampling can be
biased or random.

The collection and conservation of samples must be done with precision and
has to obey certain requirements and norms; only then can it be considered
representative of the sample in question. Lastly, a report must be
presented.

Sampling Preparation Techniques

The techniques used in the preparation depend on:
Physical and chemical properties of the sample
Physical and chemical properties of the analyte
Concentration of the analyte
Technique sensitivity
Technique specificity

Techniques:

Size reduction
Drying
Sample attack
o fusion
o dissolution
Sample digestion
o mineralisation
dry
wet
o solvent extraction
continuous
discontinuous

o
o

pressurised fluids
supercritical fluids
microwave assisted
sample derivatisation
extraction/concentration with adsorbent materials

Classification of toxic agents in foodstuffs according

to their source

Natural source
Biological contaminants
Chemical contaminants
Additives
Toxic agents formed during processing, preparation and storage of
food
Natural carcinogens / nutrient-xenobiotics interactions