Assignment:PHI446APhilosophyofScience

Submittedby
ShashankGupta
12661

Question1
WhatisthejustificationtoconsiderNicodsCriterionasa
sufficientconditionofconfirmation?

Answer
NicodscriterionisusedtoprovideatheorytotheRaven
paradoxasinwhatstatementsandconditionscanbeconsideredasthe
evidencefortheparadoxandwhichstatementsorconditionsareunrelated.
AccordingtoNicod'scriterionofconfirmationtellsthatall"A'sareB"can
beconfirmedbytheobservationthatanAisB.Alsoatthesametimeitwill
bedisconfirmedbytheobservationthatanAisnotB.Nicod'scriterionalso
saysthatanobservationofanonAisirrelevant(neitherconfirmsnor
disconfirms)tothehypothesis.
Ifweapplythisontheravenparadoxthenwecansaythataccordingto
Nicod'scriterionanobservationthataravenisblackwillconfirmthe
hypothesis"Allravensareblack".Andtheobservationthataravenisnot
blackwilldisconfirmit.Buttheobservationthatanythingotherthanaraven
isblackornonblackiscompletelyirrelevanttothehypothesisandthisis
justifiable.Theevidencethatanappleisblackornonblackdoesn'trelate
tooriginalhypothesisandthus,itisabsurd.
ThusaccordingtoNicodifweconsideranythingotherthanaraven(letit
beblackornonblack)cannotproveordisprovethehypothesisandit
seemsfairbecausethecolorofanyotherobjectdonotaffectthecolorof
raven.

Hypothesis
(x)(R
>B
){Allravensareblack}
x
x
then,

1.
Confirmingevidence
:R
.B
a
a

Ablackravenwillconfirmthehypothesis

2.
Disconfirmingevidence:
R
.~B
a
a

Awhiteravenwilldisconfirmthehypothesis

3.
Irrelevantevidences
:~R
.B
and~R
B
a
a
a
a

Ablackornonblackappleisirrelevanttothehypothesis
Imagesource:googleimages

Question2
ExplaintheintuitionofHempelssolutionandanalyse
whetherhissolutionsucceedsinarticulatingtheintuition.
CriticallyanalyseHempelssolution.

Answer
RavenParadoxbeginswithanapparentlystraightforward
statementthatAllravensareblack.Thiscanbematchedbyalogically
contrapositivestatementthateverythingthatisnotblackisnota
ravenwhich,despiteseeminglikeafairlyunnecessarypointtomake,is
alsotruegiventhatweknowallravensareblack.AccordingtoHempel
wheneverweseeablackraven,thisprovidesevidencetosupportthefirst
statement.Butbyextension,wheneverweseeanythingthatisnotblack,
likeanapple,thistoomustbetakenasevidencesupportingthesecond
statementafterall,anappleisnotblack,andnorisitaraven.Thiscan
becontradictorytotheNicodscriterionasaccordingtoNicod,anything
otherthanaraven(letitblackornonblack)cannotbeconsideredasan
evidencetothehypothesisthatallravensareblack.ButHempel
explainedthatlogicallyanonblacknonravenisalsoconsideredasan
evidencetothehypothesis.
ItisequivalenttosayingthatLucknowifthecapitalofUttarPradeshisthe
evidencethatKanpurisnottheCapitalofUttarpradesh,orthatsaying
yourageis21istheevidencethatyouarenot22.
Hempelsaidthatthetwosetofstatements
1. Allravenareblack
2. Allnonblackthingsarenotraven
areequivalenttooneanotherandhenceaccordingtothetheequivalence
conditionanyconfirmingevidenceforstatement1willalsobethe
confirmingevidenceforstatement2.Thismaysoundabitoddbut
accordingtoHempelitislogicallycorrect.
Further,HempelalsopresentedtheSpecialconsequencecondition
accordingtowhichifanyevidenceEconfirmsthehypothesisHandH
logicallyimpliesH,thenEalsoconfirmsthehypothesisH.
Nowhere,

H=statement1oftheaboveexample,andH=statement2oftheabove
example.ItisclearthatbothHandHarelogicallyequivalentandhence
thespecialconsequenceconditionissatisfiedhere.

Hypothesis
:Allravensareblack

Ablackravenconfirmsthehypothesis.

Aredapple(notravenandnotblack)alsoconfirmsthehypothesis

Ablackapple(notravenbutblack)isneutral/irrelevant.