Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The purpose of this Guide is to provide additional material to educators interested in using the
Stratovolcanoes of the World poster published by the National Geophysical Data Center in August
2000. For each volcano featured on the poster, NGDC provides a map showing the location of the
volcano, a table of facts, a short fictional story to bring the volcano to life, and a section with questions to
ponder, suggested activities, and additional references. Key words in bold throughout the text, are
defined in the Glossary. Finally, we provide a more extensive list of references and resources as well as
some simple activities suitable for grades 5-8.
Authors note:
The authors would like to acknowledge the help of the several teachers and colleagues who contributed
to this Guide, especially Dan Kowal, Colorado Institute for Research in the Environmental Sciences,
Mary Teets, Poudre Valley School District, Diane Theorine, Jefferson County School District, and Joy
Ikelman, National Geophysical Data Center. Special thanks to artist and colleague Ann Reiser for the
original illustrations accompanying the stories. Any errors contained in the Guide are despite their best
efforts. We also would like to thank the many excellent educational resources on the web. In particular,
we acknowledge the U.S. Geological Survey, Volcano World hosted by the University of North Dakota,
NASA's Learning Project, About.com's Science section, and Project Learnz 2K. Thanks also to
MapQuest for allowing us to use maps generated from their web site.
Susan McLean and Patricia Lockridge, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA
Primary web resources referenced:
Volcano World: http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vw.html
USGS's Volcano Hazard Program: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/
NASA's Learning Project: http://learn.ivv.nasa.gov/
New Zealand's Project Learnz http://www.learnz.org.nz/2k
About.com Science http://home.about.com/science
Smithsonian Institution - Global Volcanism Program at http://www.volcano.si.edu/gvp/
Volcanoes Online at: http://library.thinkquest.org/17457/english.html
MapQuest at http://mapquest.com
Introduction
What is a volcano?
A volcano is simply a hole or vent in Earths crust through which molten rock, steam and other
gases come forth. Scientists group volcanoes into four main kinds--cinder cones, strato- or composite
volcanoes, shield volcanoes, and lava domes.
Volcanoes take their name from the island of
Vulcano in the Mediterranean Sea. Long ago
people thought this island mountain was the chimney
of the blacksmith forge of the Roman God Vulcan.
The steam and ash that came out of the vent was a
sign that Vulcan was working at his forge making
weapons for Jupiter and Mars. In Hawaii and other
Polynesian islands, local people once attributed
volcanic eruptions to the Goddess Pele. They
believed Pele was moving from island to island as
she sought to escape her evil sister, Na Maka O
Schematic representation of a stratovolcano
Kahai, the goddess of the sea. Today scientists
from USGS "Volcanoes."
understand that volcanic eruptions are surface
reminders of Earths still hot interior.
never erupt again are considered extinct. Active volcanoes come in two classes -- volcanoes which are
active, either erupting now or having recently erupted and dormant volcanoes, volcanoes which are
currently quiet but are expected to erupt in the future. About sixty volcanoes are actively erupting each
year.
Not all volcanoes erupt explosively. The style of eruption (quiet lava flows versus violent
explosions of gases, ash, and debris) and frequency of eruption are related to the viscosity and amount
of dissolved gas in the magma. Hot, runny magmas with little dissolved gas tend to flow smoothly out of
vents and produce broad gentle volcanoes. The shield volcanoes of Hawaii are examples of this type of
eruption. While such flows are not especially dangerous to humans, they can destroy buildings and
agricultural land.
Somewhat cooler magma with more dissolved gas is more viscous. The magma does not run
smoothly, but rather oozes out like toothpaste, clogging the vent. As the magma rises closer to Earth's
surface, the pressure decreases and gases dissolved in magma separate from the liquid. If the gases
cannot escape, pressure builds. When the pressure from the trapped gases exceeds the pressure of the
overlying rock, an eruption occurs. This is typically a sudden violent blast sending particles as far as 20
miles high and many miles away from the volcano. The erupted material can range in size from tiny
particles of ash to house-size boulders. Commonly there is little, if any, lava extruded. Such eruptions
can be very dangerous and even deadly. It is difficult to predict when a long dormant volcano will
become active. Because they erupt infrequently, unpredictably, and violently, and because they occur in
populated areas, these explosive volcanoes pose the greatest danger to humans.
Featured Volcanoes
Moving clockwise from the top of
the globe:
Crater Peak, Mt. Spurr, Alaska
U.S.A
Mount St. Helens, Washington
U.S.A
Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia
Ngauruhoe, New Zealand
Lamington, Papua New Guinea
Galunggung, Indonesia
Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines
Veniaminof, Alaska U.S.A
Notable Statistic:
National Geophysical Data Center
Alaska, USA
61.3 N 152.25 W,
2309 m (7576 ft)
Stratovolcano
4050 BP
1953 VEI=4
1992, VEI = 4
3
1953, VEI = 4 1992, VEI = 4
In the 1992 eruption, large volcanic bombs traveled
up to 4 km (2.4 mi) from the crater. The size of
these blocks and bombs ranged from 10 cm (4 in)
up to 2 m (6.6 ft).
Large bombs up to 2 meters in diameter
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crumpled mass of metal. Alexa and her dad were deeply disappointed. A radio dispatch to their base in
Anchorage reported the sad news. The dispatcher was encouraging, however.
"You should see the beautiful pictures Dante sent before it crashed," they said. "Dante truly went
where no man could go."
Alexa and her father are fictitious characters, but a robot named Dante II really did explore Crater Peak
on Mt. Spurr in Alaska.
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reached the bottom. Downed trees now choked it as it roared through the river channels taking bridges
out as it passed.
The boys continued to watch until they realized the sun was gone, blocked by the thick cloud of
ash overhead. Steve's growling stomach reminded him of breakfast and he was amazed to see it was
only 10 am.
Wed better get out of here. Our parents will be worried."
"Yeah." Ed agreed. "Dude! What an excellent adventure! I am glad that we werent any closer,
though! Those volcanoes really mean business when they blow!
Steve and Ed are fictitious but the description of the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens is accurate.
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Colombia
4.88N 75.37W
5,389 m, 17,784 ft
Stratovolcano
6660 BP
1570
1985; VEI = 3; 23,000 deaths
3
1595 VEI = 4
lahars (1845, 1985 eruptions)
second largest volcano-related disaster of 20th
Century
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Officials from the government of Colombia and reporters from newspaper, radio, and television
arrived in the morning. Rescue crews were sent to the scene but were unable to reach those trapped in
mudflows up to 40 m (132 ft) thick. Twenty three thousand people died that night in Armero, and in
villages nearby. Three quarters of the people living in the Armero were swept away or drowned in the
few minutes it took for the swiftly moving mud to cover the town.
Rosita and her family are fictitious characters, but the deaths and destruction in Armero really happened.
Note: Good would come from this disaster. The U.S. Geological Survey organized a team with a
portable volcano observatory that could be quickly sent to an awakening volcano anywhere in the
world. They realized the eruption history of a volcano is very important. If we know when the volcano
last erupted, how often eruptions occur, and what areas were affected by past eruptions we can develop
better hazard maps and warnings. The impact of future disasters will be lessened because of what was
learned here.
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19
20
Notable Statistic:
National Geophysical Data Center
New Zealand
39.15 S, 175.63 E
2,291 m (7,515 ft)
Stratovolcano
7750 BP
1839
1977
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1972 VEI = 3, 1975 VEI = 3
Pyroclastic flows: 1892, 1949, 1954, 1972,
1975, Fire fountains, Strombolian activity: 1954,
Lava flows: 1870, 1949, 1954
One of the most active volcanoes in the 20th
Century.
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Igneous processes are important in the formation of many of the worlds ore deposits. Within magma,
several processes may occur to produce an ore deposit. Liquids separate within the magma and are
crystallized. These deposits contain minerals rich in iron, chromium, titanium, copper and sulfur.
Contact metamorphism, which occurs when a body of magma intrudes into existing rock, also forms
ores. Ores may also precipitate from fluids, in which case they are called hydrothermal deposits. Hot
springs and geysers are often associated with nearby intrusive bodies.
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a small amount of steam still escaped from waters heated deep underground. Based on the temperature
and seismicity data Upoto collected over the last twenty years, scientists decided the volcano was
dormant. It had gone back to sleep and while still a threat, did not need extensive monitoring anymore.
Upoto and Tupo took the last readings, carefully recording them in the logbook. Then they took
apart the aging instruments and packed them on the back of the mule. Upoto looked proudly at his son.
Tupo would leave soon to head a rapid response team monitoring active volcanoes worldwide.
Lamington had given them much. The desire to learn was set aflame by its fire clouds.
Upoto and Tupo are fictitious characters, but the discription of the eruption and subsequent decline in
activity at Lamington are accurate.
Note: Aerial and ground inspections of the summit at Lamington in 1991 showed a dense canopy of
vegetation; with only a few scattered thermal areas. Temperatures from one of the larger thermal areas
had dropped from 362C in 1973 to 93C by 1991. Based on the temperature decrease, the vegetation,
and lack of volcanic seismicity, scientists reduced Lamington's threat status and decreased surveillance.
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into glowing rock particles and gases that speed down slope. Other types of pyroclastic flows include
those in which the vent is open and a part of the ascending ash cloud collapses and flows down the sides
of the volcano. In yet a third type of pyroclastic flow, a dome may occupy the vent but gases may escape
past the dome plug and push out and down the side of the volcano.
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Galunggung, Indonesia
Facts and Figures
Java, Indonesia
7.25 S, 108.05 E
2,168 m (7,154 ft)
Stratovolcano
1822, VEI = 5
1822, VEI = 5
1984, VEI = 2
3
1822, VEI = 5; 1982, VEI = 4; 35 deaths
Volcanic lightning
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Galunggung volcano. It was flying150 km (90 mi) west of Galunggung at 11 km altitude. The ash
caused all four of its engines to stall. It also scratched and pitted the windshield so badly the pilots could
not see to steer the plane to the terminal gate. As the jet flew through the ash cloud St. Elmos Fire (ball
lightning) filled the cockpit. The aircraft plunged 7,500 meters before the engines were restarted and it
was able to land safely in Jakarta, Indonesia.
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Luzon, Philippines
15.13 N, 120.35 E
1,485 m 4,900 ft
Stratovolcano
6100 BP
1315
1992
2
1991, VEI = 6
Ash cloud, lahars.
Second largest eruption of the 20th Century in
terms of amount of material blown out of the
vent. Affect on global weather. 722 deaths.
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out in evacuation camps and the continuing mud flows in the area caused additional deaths, bringing the
total death toll to 722 people. The event left more than 200,000 people homeless. Before the eruption,
more than 30,000 people lived in small villages on the volcano.
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Alaska, USA
5610'N, 15923'W
2,507 m, (8,273 ft)
Stratovolcano
3700 BP
1830
1993
9
3700 BP, VEI = 6 - 1750 VEI = 6
Caldera, lava flow in 1983 and 1993 eruptions
The largest eruptions ever recorded include the
3,700 BP and 1750 eruptions of Veniaminof.
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A Fictional Story Little Bird and the Mountain She Could Not See
Little Bird tugged at the sleeves of her otter skin parka. She would get a new one, and this one
would go to her sister. She hoped it would be soon, because the wind was strong, and her arms were
always cold.
It was a beautiful autumn day at her village. Little Bird lived near the shore, which looked out
toward other nearby islands. She could see many mountains far in the distance. They sparkled like ice,
floating in the sea. Little Bird was one of the Unagan, living in the Aleutian Islands, 3,500 years ago.
The families of the village were busy preparing for winter. Already the first snows had come, but
in between were sunny days like today. The People could work outside of their long lodges that were
built partly under the surface of the ground. It was a good day for repairing the sod roofs, and mending
clothing. It was also a good day to get things ready for the upcoming winter ceremonies.
Suddenly the ground began to rumble. The villagers paused, then whispered among themselves.
When the mountains came alive, the earth shook. The People knew that these events could be serious.
Lately, the earth was shaking more often.
Little Bird had relatives a half day away who could see a different group of mountains from their
village. Messengers traveled by sea in skin covered kayaks, back and forth among the villages, to pass
along the latest news about family, weather, and what they could see in the distance. The latest word was
that there was smoke rising from the mountain that Little Bird could not see.
Look, the Uncles are coming! someone shouted.
Messengers in a two-man kayak pulled ashore. These were Little Birds uncles, who lived at the
next village. The People gathered around.
Its getting worse, one messenger said. Last night the sky was glowing. We think that the
mountain will explode soon.
And the villages beyond?
Yes, they think the same.
Are your people staying or leaving? Father asked the Uncles. The villagers could stay in their
subterranean houses, or go out in boats some distance from shore. Either choice was a gamble.
When we left this morning, The People had no intention of moving. They were going inside. The
smoke was covering our lodges like a fog.
And what do you think now that youve seen the mountain from the sea?
Sir, we think that it would be better if we all go out to sea.
This was the message. Little Bird felt her heart pound.
Two young men from Little Birds village were assigned to take the kayak down the coast. The
message must be passed to the next village right away. The Uncles stayed to confer with the grown-ups.
Each lodge family was to assemble enough stored food and water for three days. The earth continued to
shake.
Near sunset, The People gathered at the large, open skin boats with their supplies. Strong women
and men were given oars. It was time to go.
Look, said Little Bird, pointing to the ridgeline. The sky!
National Geophysical Data Center
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A black cloud was creeping over the ridge. The People heard an explosion from the mountain
they could not see.
The People rowed their boats into the darkening twilight as quickly as possible. The women and
men paddled hard to escape the rapidly descending smoke. The ash was thickening, and made a sizzling
sound as it struck the water in the bay. The villagers covered their noses and mouths to keep out the
choking ash.
When they got out far enough in the water to see the mountain, Father ordered The People to pull
their boats close together. A long fiber cable was passed from boat to boat, until they were loosely
connected to each other. From there, The People would wait. All was now dark except for the spectacle
before them.
Little Bird could see smoke and fire coming from many vents around the mountain. Flames shot
up from its top, and fiery clouds tumbled down its sides. Lightning flashed in the clouds over the mountain.
The mountain exploded again. Huge rafts of pumice fell into the water and onto the islands
nearby. The whole ridgeline behind her village was on fire. A great wave rolled out from the shore,
rocking the boats. Little Bird held on to Father. She watched in horror as the waves washed up on the
shore where their village was located. When the waters receded, the land was flat! The trees were gone!
If they had stayed, The People would have drowned.
After a night of terror, the sun shone weakly through the ash clouds, which seemed to melt into
the sea. Little Bird could see the mountain and was amazed to see that its top was gone!
The People had survived the eruption and the tsunami, but now faced the challenge of surviving
winter with all their preparations lost. There was nothing left except for what they had in their boats, and
winter was coming quickly. They would find a new, suitable location and rebuild. And many years from
that day, Little Bird would thrill her grandchildren with stories of the night the great mountain exploded.
Little Bird and her family are fictitious, but a caldera collapse similar to the one described here occurred
at Mt. Veniaminof in the Aleutian Islands about 3,500 years ago. It was one of the greatest eruptions that
occurred on Earth.
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southern Oregon, exploded 6,500 years ago it lost two miles of its height and formed the caldera that
now holds Crater Lake. Kilauea, in Hawaii, and Katmai in Alaskas Aleutian Islands, are calderas
resulting from the collapse of volcanoes. The 80 km (50 mi) Lake Balaton in Hungary is a water-filled
caldera formed when a magma chamber collapsed.
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Glossary
Active: a volcano which is currently erupting or has erupted in recorded history
Aerosol: A mass of tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in air or another gas (see volcanic gas).
Aleutian Island Arc: Islands in western Alaska extending in an arc 1200 miles southwest from the
Alaska peninsula.
Ash: Volcanic ash consists of tiny jagged particles of rock and natural glass blasted into the air by a
volcano. Ash may be solid or molten when first erupted.
Ash Cloud: A cloud formed from tiny ash particles and gases blasted from the volcano. Wind can carry
ash thousands of miles, affecting far greater areas and many more people than other volcano hazards
Avalanches: Debris avalanches (volcanic landslides) are rapid downslope movements of rock, snow,
and ice. Landslides range in size from small movements of loose debris on the surface of a volcano to
massive failures of the entire summit or flanks of a volcano. Volcanic avalanches and landslides can occur
even when the volcano is not erupting. Excessive rainfall and/or earthquakes may start the material
moving down hill.
Blast: An explosive eruption producing clouds of hot ash and/or other volcanic material.
Blocks: A solid rock fragment greater than 64 mm in diameter ejected from a volcano during an
explosive eruption. Blocks commonly consist of solidified pieces of old lava flows that were part of a
volcano's cone.
Bombs: Hot lava thrown out in twisted chunks that may change shape during flight from the volcano or
on impact with Earth.
BP: Years (approximate) before present time.
Caldera: A large, basin-shaped depression formed by the inward collapse of a volcano after or during an
eruption.
Cinder cone: A steep-sided small cone composed of cinders, ash and bombs.
Cone-shaped: Shaped like an upside down ice cream cone.
Contact metamorphism: Contact metamorphism occurs when the heat from an intruding magma
changes the mineralogy and texture of the surrounding pre-existing rock. Heat, rather than pressure, is
National Geophysical Data Center
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the primary cause of the metamorphism. Contact metamorphism is usually restricted to relatively shallow
depths (low pressure) in Earth. This is because as depth increases, so do pressure and temperature. At
depth, there will not be a large contrast in temperature between the intruding magma and the surrounding
rock.
Crater: A small funnel-shaped depression in the summit of a volcano at the top of the conduit or pipe
through which the magma reaches the surface.
Crust: The thin outermost layer of Earth including the continents and the ocean floors.
Earth's Interior Divisions
Layer Name
Outer
Radius, km
Approximate
Temperature, C
Composition
Inner Core
Outer Core
Lower Mantle
Upper Mantle
Crust
7000
5000
2000
500
0
Solid Iron
Liquid Iron
Iron-rich Rock
Iron-rich Rock
Basalt, Granite
1229
3484
5700
6360
6371
Crystallization: The process through which crystals separate from the fluid (magma) state.
Debris avalanches, debris flows : See Avalanche.
Density: A measure of how heavy or light an object is for its size.
Dome: See Lava Dome.
Dormant: An active volcano which is quiet, not presently erupting, but is expected to erupt in the future.
Most of the major Cascade volcanoes are believed to be dormant rather than extinct.
Earthquake: The shaking of the ground caused by an abrupt shift of rock along a fault. Within seconds,
an earthquake releases stress that has slowly accumulated within the rock, sometimes over hundreds of
years.
Eject: To throw out, forcefully discharge.
Electrical Discharges: Release of electricity (a form of energy caused by the motion of electrons).
Eruption: The expelling of material including gases, ash, volcanic fragments and lava on Earth's surface
due to volcanic activity. Eruptions may be explosive, or quiet lava flows.
Extinct: A volcano that is not expected to erupt again.
National Geophysical Data Center
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Fire fountain: Lava that is shot into the air like a geyser by the pressure of trapped gases within the
magma.
Fissure : A fissure is an elongate fracture or crack at the surface from which lava erupts.
Geothermal energy: The word "geothermal" literally means "Earth" plus "heat". To produce electric
power from geothermal resources, underground reservoirs of steam or hot water are tapped by wells and
the steam rotates turbines that generate electricity.
Geysers: Most geysers are hot springs that episodically erupt fountains of hot water and steam. Such
eruptions occur as a consequence of groundwater being heated to boiling temperature in a confined space
(underground).
Glacier: A large mass of ice formed by compressed snow, which moves slowly under its own weight.
Glaciers exist where, over a period of years, snow remains after summer's end and accumulates year after
year.
Glowing avalanche: Hot ash and larger particles erupted from the volcano that flow down the sides of
the volcano. Glowing avalanches are heavier than nues ardentes and typically follow canyons and
drainage patterns.
Hot spot: A hotspot is a stationary, long-lived (tens of millions of years) source of basaltic magma
coming up through the mantle to the Earth's surface.
Hot spring: A spring whose water temperature is above 36.6 C (98 F).
Igneous : Rocks solidified from molten magma at or below the surface of Earth.
Lahars: Debris flows and/or mudflows produced by loose soil and rock flowing down the sides of the
volcano.
Lateral Blast: A relatively rare explosion of hot, low-density mixture of rock debris, ash, and gases that
moves at high speed out the side of the vent (laterally) rather than up from the vent (vertically).
Lava: Molten rock erupted from a volcano. Lava can occur in flows, domes, fragments and as pillows
formed under water.
Lava Dome: Lava which is forced from the vent much like toothpaste from a tube, forming a half-ball
shape over the vent. A lava dome forms when the lava is too viscous to flow far from the vent. It
continues to grow upward until it collapses.
Lithosphere: The solid outer shell of Earth composed of the crust and the solid outermost layer of the
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mantle. The lithosphere lies above the asthenosphere (soft layer of the mantle) and is broken into crustal
plates.
Magma: Molten rock below the surface of Earth that rises in volcanic vents. Lava is the term for magma
after it erupts from a volcano.
Magma Chamber: A space beneath the surface of Earth surrounded by solid rock and containing
magma.
Mana: Maori term signifying a sense of identity, pride and strength of spirit.
Mantle: The area within Earth that is below the crust and above the core of Earth.
Mudflows: The downhill movement, often rapid, of soft wet earth and debris, made fluid by rain or the
rapid melting of snow.
Nues ardentes: A French term applied to a highly heated mass of gas-charged ash which is expelled
with explosive force and moves with hurricane speed down the mountainside. Nues ardentes reach
temperatures between 300 to 800 C, are lighter than glowing avalanches, and often jump ridges when
moving down the flank of a volcano.
Ozone: A form of oxygen that has a pale blue color and a strong smell. This gas is formed when an
electrical discharge passes through the air. It can be poisonous in large quantities. The ozone layer high
above Earths surface blocks out some of the harmful rays of the sun.
Plinian Eruption: Plinian eruptions are one of the most explosive types of eruptions, forming enormous
dark columns of tephra and gas high into the stratosphere (>11 km). They often produce nues ardentes,
lahars, and caldera collapse. Plinian eruptions are named for Pliny the Younger (Gaius Plinius Caecilius
Secundus), a Roman statesman who carefully described the disastrous eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D.
which killed his father as well as about 2,000 other people.
Plume: A long, feather-shaped cloud of steam or gases.
Portable volcano observatory: A collection of hardware and software, which is easiliy moved and
installed, to monitor restless volcanoes. Key components for data gathering, storage, and analysis include
(but are not limited to):
Personal Computer (PC),
up to 128 seismometers for measuring earthquake locations and magnitudes,
electronic distance meters (EDMs), theodolites, reflectors, and Global Positioning System (GPS)
receivers to detect surface deformation,
correlation spectrometer (COSPEC) to measure sulfur dioxide emission rates, and
low-data-rate, radio-telemetry system to transmit monitoring data from remote field sites to the
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portable observatory.
Precipitate: A percipitate is formed when a slightly soluble substance becomes insoluble and separates
from a solution due to heat or a chemical reaction. The term is used to indicate the act of forming a solid
and for the substance that is precipitated out of a solution.
Pumice: Light rock froth produced by the violent separation of gas from lava. Because of the many gas
bubbles, some of this froth is so light that it floats on water.
Pyroclastic flows: A high-density mass of gases, hot ash, and larger material that flows rapidly down the
sides of the volcano. Flows tend to be confined to valleys. Because of the speed at which they travel
and the intense heat, pyroclastic flows and surges are one of the most dangerous hazards posed by
volcanoes.
Pyroclastic surge: A turbulent, low-density cloud of hot rock debris and gases that moves at extremely
high speeds. Because surges are low density, they tend to spread over large areas and jump ridge crests
easily.
Quiescent: A volcano that is not active, but is still registering seismic activity. When there is no more
seismicity, the volcano is dormant, but still capable of erupting (see dormant, extinct).
Reservoir: A place where a large supply of magma collects.
Ring of Fire: A zone around the perimeter of the Pacific Ocean containing about two-thirds of the
worlds active volcanoes.
Seismograph: An instrument used to measure the shaking caused by an earthquake.
Shield Volcano: Volcanoes with broad, gentle slopes built by the eruption of fluid basalt lava.
Spreading Zone: An area of the surface of Earth where the plates are moving away from one another.
St. Elmos Fire: An electrical discharge, like that found in a neon sign, occuring in nature on pointed
objects during electrical storms. Such phenomenon occasionally occur in the ash cloud of a volcano.
Steam (Phreatic) eruption: An explosive volcanic eruption caused when water and heated volcanic
rocks interact to produce a violent expulsion of steam and pulverized rocks. Magma is not involved.
Stratosphere: The layer of Earths atmosphere that begins about 11 km (7 mi) above Earth and ends
about 50 km (31 mi) above Earth. Clouds rarely form here and the air is very cold and thin.
Stratovolcano: A large, steep-sided, symmetrical cone built of alternating layers (strata) of lava, ash,
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cinders, blocks, and bombs. Also called composite volcanoes, these stratovolcanoes form some of
Earth's grandest mountains, rising as much as 8,000 feet above their bases.
Strombolian Eruption: Derived from the volcano Stromboli, these eruptions, typically intermittent and of
short duration, throw out blocks, bombs and lava flows. Stromboli is one of the Aeolian Islands north of
Sicily and has been almost continuously in eruption for at least the past 2,400 years.
Summit: The top of a mountain or volcano.
Tapu: Maori word for something that is sacred.
Tectonic plates: A rigid section of Earth's crust that moves relative to other such sections on Earths
surface.
Tephra: The general term used by volcanologists for fragments of volcanic rock and lava of any size
expelled from a volcano.
Tsunami: Term for large, rapidly moving water waves caused by the displacement of water, usually by
earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions. Tsunamis are also referred to as tidal waves, but they
have no relation to tides.
VEI: Volcanic explosivity index measure of the size of eruptions. This measurement takes into account
the height of the eruption cloud, amount of material erupted (ash, tephra, etc.) and distances to which
objects of particular size were thrown.
Vent: Opening in Earth's crust through which volcano expels ash, other volcanic products and gases.
Viscosity: Resistance of a liquid to flow. Thick liquids have high viscosity, thin liquids have low viscosity.
Volcano: A vent in Earths crust through which molten or hot rock, steam, and ash reach the surface,
including the cone built by the eruptions.
Volcanic bombs: See bombs.
Volcanic gas: Dissolved gases contained in the magma are released into the atmosphere during volcanic
eruptions. Gases may also escape continuously from volcanic vents, fumaroles, and hotsprings. The most
common gas released is steam (H2O), followed by CO2 (carbon dioxide), SO2 (sulfur dioxide), (HCl)
hydrogen chloride and other compounds. For more information on volcanic gases, see
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Hazards/What/VolGas/volgas.html
Volcanic lightning: Lightning fomed as a result of electrical charges in the volcano plume due to the
negatively charged falling ash particles and positively charged condensed volcanic gas associated with the
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plume.
Volcanologists: Scientists who study volcanoes.
Vulcanian eruption: Moderate-sized explosive eruption that ejects new lava fragments that do not take
on a rounded shape during their flight through the air. The name comes from Vulcano, one of the Aeolian
Islands north of Sicily, believed to be the home of the Roman god of fire, Vulcan.
55
56
AEROSOL
ASH CLOUD
BOMB
CALDERA
CINDER CONE
CONE
CRATER
DOME
DORMANT
EARTHQUAKE
GEOTHERMAL
LAHAR
LATERAL BLAST
LAVA
MAGMA
NUEE ARDENT
ORE
PLUME
RING OF FIRE
ST ELMOS FIRE
VEI
VENT
VOLCANO
57
CRATER PEAK
GALUNGUNG
KRAKATAU
LAMINGTON
MT. SPURR
STROBMOLI
TAMBORA
VENIAMINOF
VESUVIUS
58
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59
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60
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5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
16
17
ACROSS
4 Maori word signifying pride, identity.
10
11
13
14
16
15
3
4
5
6
8
9
12
13
15
National Geophysical Data Center
DOWN
This eruption affected global weather and closed
an U.S. airbase.
Hazard composed of hot gas, ash, and other
material, flows rapidly down sides of volcano.
Depression formed by inward collapse of volcano.
1980 eruption devasted 596 square km of forest.
Lahar from 1985 eruption killed 20,000+ people.
Java volcano active between 1982-1985, ash cloud
associated with St. Elmo's Fire.
Light-weight, super-heated gases that speed down
volcano flank.
Volcano type characterized by broad, gentle slopes
of basalt lava.
Name of area around Pacific Ocean containing twothirds of active volcanoes.
Measure of how heavy object is for its size.
Molten rock below surface of Earth.
61
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A
6
D
9
L
A
L
E
N
S
R
U
I
Z
D
E
N
T
E
S
N
G
10
S
11
R
A
12
R
I
13
D
E
N
S
I
T
Y
14
G
O
F
F
I
R
16
C
F
L
O
W
M
A
G
M
A
17
ACROSS
4
D
V
O
L
C
A
N
15
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
12
13
15
National Geophysical Data Center
DOWN
This eruption affected global weather and closed
an U.S. airbase.
Hazard composed of hot gas, ash, and other
material, flows rapidly down sides of volcano.
Depression formed by inward collapse of volcano.
1980 eruption devasted 596 square km of forest.
Lahar from 1985 eruption killed 20,000+ people.
Java volcano active between 1982-1985, ash cloud
associated with St. Elmo's Fire.
Light-weight, super-heated gases that speed down
volcano flank.
Volcano type characterized by broad, gentle slopes
of basalt lava.
Name of area around Pacific Ocean containing twothirds of active volcanoes.
Measure of how heavy object is for its size.
Molten rock below surface of Earth.
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Additional References
Crater Peak, Mt. Spurr
Doukas, M.P., and Bauer, C.I., 1992, Observations of the 18 August, 1992 eruption of Mount
Spurr volcano, Alaska, using satellite, seismic and ground ovservation data [abs]: EOS, v. 73,
no. 43, p. 346.
Doukas, M.P., McGimsey, R.G., and Dorava, J.M., 1995, 10 years of volcanic activity in
Alaska: 1983-1992: A video (Pyre Peak, Akutan, Bogoslof, Westdahl, Veniaminof, Augustine,
Redoubt, and Spurr volcanoes): U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 95-61-A, VHS
videotape, 95-61-B, 15 p.
McGimsey, R.G., and Dorava, J.M., 1994, Video of the August 18, 1992, eruption of Crater
Peak vent on Spurr volcano, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 94-614B, 14
p. (Video contains footage taken during observation flights).
McGimsey, Robert G., Neal, Christina A., and Doukas, Michael P., 1995, 1992 Volcanic
activity in Alaska: Summary of events and response of the Alaska Volcano Observatory: U.S.
Geological Survey Open-File Report 95-83, 26 p.
Staff, Geotimes, 1992, Geologic phenomena - Mt. Spurr eruption: Geotimes, v. 37, no. 11,
p.22.
Staff, National Geophysical Data Center, 1992, The Crater Peak (Mt. Spurr), Alaska:
Eruptions of 1992, No. G01228-SLI-A0001, 8 p. with 20 slides.
Wilcox, R.E., 1953, The eruption of Mount Spurr, Alaska: Volcano Letters, no. 521, p. 8.
Mount St. Helens
Foxworthy and Hill, 1982, Volcanic Eruptions of 1980 at Mount St. Helens, The First 100
Days: USGS Professional Paper 1249.
Simplified Eruptive History of Mount St. Helens. Simplified from: Crandell, 1987 Brantley,
1994, Volcanoes of the United States: USGS General Interest Publication.
Tilling, Topinka, and Swanson, 1990, Eruptions of Mount St. Helens: Past, Present, and
Future: USGS Special Interest Publication.
Nevado del Ruiz
Ewert, Murray, Lockhart, and Miller, 1993, Preventing Volcanic Catastrophe: The U.S.
International Volcano Disaster Assistance Program: Earthquakes and Volcanoes, vol. 24, no.
6.
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Ngaurughoe
Gregg, D.R.,1961, Volcanoes of Tongariro National Park, New Zealand Geological Survey
Handbook, Information Series 28.
Greenaway, Rob, The Restless Land, Stories of Tongariro National Park, Tongariro
National Park Board.
Houghton, Bruce and S.D. Weaver, North Island Volcanism Tour Guides, DSIR and New
Zealand Geographical Society.
Lamington
Taylor, G.A.M., 1958, The 1951 eruption of Mount Lamington, Papua: Australia Bureau of
Mineral Resources, Geology & Geophysics, Bulletin 38, 117 p.
Galunggung
Blong, R.J., 1984. Volcanic Hazards. Academic Press Australia. 424 pp.
Mt. Pinatubo
Smithsonian Institution - Global Volcanism Program, 1998, 2 Newhall and Punongbayan (eds.),
Fire and Mud, Eruptions and Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines: Philippine Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology and the University of Washington Press.
Veniaminof
Davidson, G., 1993, The eruption of Volcano Veniaminof: Geographical Society of the
Pacific, Transactions and Proceedings, v. 3, p. 59-63.
Doukas, M.P., McGimsey, R.G., and Dorava, J.M., 1995, 10 years of volcanic activity in
Alaska: 1983-1992: A video (Pyre Peak, Akutan, Bogoslof, Westdahl, Veniaminof, Augustine,
Redoubt, and Spurr volcanoes): U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 95-61-A, VHS
videotape, 95-61-B, 15 p.
Luedke, Robert G., and Smith, Robert L., 1986, Map showing distribution, composition, and
age of late cenozoic volcanic centers in Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey, Miscellaneous
investigations series Map I-1091-F, 3 pl., scale 1:1,000,000.
Major, Jon J., and Newhall, Christopher J., 1989, Snow and ice perturbation during historical
volcanic eruptions and the formation of lahars and floods: Bulletin of volcanology, v. 52, p.
1-27.
McGimsey, R.G., and Miller, T.P., 1995, Quick reference to Alaska's historically active
volcanoes: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 95-520, 13 p.
Yount, M. Elizabeth, 1990, Dana, Veniaminof,and Redoubt volcanoes, in Wood, Charles A.,
and Kienle, Jurgen, eds., Volcanoes of North America: Cambridge University Press, New
York, p. 54-55, 56-58, 81-82. Smithsonian Institution, 1993.
National Geophysical Data Center
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