AGITATION

III. AGITATION OF LIQUIDS

Though often confused, agitation and mixing are not synonymous. Agitation refers to
the induced motion of a material in a specified way, usually in a circulatory pattern inside some
sort of container. Mixing is the random distribution, into and through one another, of two or
more initially separate phases. A single homogeneous material, such as a tankful of cold water,
can be agitated, but it can not be mixed until some other material (such as a quantity of hot
water or some powdered solid) is added to it.

Purposes of agitation
Liquids are agitated for a number of purposes, depending on the objectives of the
processing step.
So why do we agitate liquids?
-

for purpose of homogenization (temperature, components concentration)

to mix liquids with

o gases (dispersing a gas through the liquid in the form of small
bubbles)
o solid particles (suspending solid particles to get a suspension, or to
dissolve solid particles in the liquid)
o miscible liquids (blending miscible liquids, for example methyl
alcohol and water)
o immiscible liquids (dispersing a second liquid, immiscible with the
first, to form an emulsion or a suspension of fine drops)

promoting heat transfer between the liquid and a coil or jacket (to get forced
convection instead of free convection) (Fig.1.)

Often one agitator serves several purposes at the same time, as in the catalytic
hydrogenation of a liquid. In a hydrogenation vessel, the hydrogen gas is dispersed through the
liquid in which solid particles of catalyst are suspended, promoting mass transfer between the
liquid and suspended particles. The heat of reaction is simultaneously removed by a cooling coil
or jacket.

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AGITATION

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AGITATION
Agitated vessels
Liquids are most often agitated in some kind of tank or vessel, usually cylindrical in
form with a vertical axis. (Streaming liquid can be mixed in pipeline as well with special
insets: inline-mixers now we dont discuss it.) The top of the vessel may be open to the air;
more usually it is closed. The proportions of the tank vary widely, depending on the nature of
the agitation problem. A standardized design such as that shown in Fig.2., however, is
applicable in many situations. The tank bottom is rounded, not flat, to eliminate sharp corners or
regions into which fluid currents would not penetrate. The liquid depth is approximately equal
to the diameter of the tank. An impeller is mounted on an overhung shaft, that is, a shaft
supported from above. The shaft is driven by a motor, sometimes directly connected to the shaft
but more often connected to it through a speed-reducing gearbox. Accessories such as inlet and
outlet lines, coils, jackets, and wells for thermometers or other temperature-measuring devices
are usually included.

Fig.2a. Agitated vessel

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AGITATION

Fig.2b. Photo of an agitated vessel

Impellers
There is a very big choice in agitators and impellers. Two basic factors are influencing
the choice:
-

flow properties of the fluid, first of all viscosity () and density (r)

process requirements

On the basis of viscosity the following groups can be distinguished:

-

for low- to moderate-viscosity liquids (10-4 Pas < < 10 Pas) non-proximity
agitators are used

for very viscous liquids (20 Pas < ) proximity agitators are used

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AGITATION

Some non-proximity agitators

Some non-proximity agitators are propellers, turbines and high-efficiency
impellers. Each type includes many variations and subtypes. Non-proximity agitators are
high velocity agitators (vtangent = 8-12 m/s). In case of non-proximity agitators the
proportion of the geometry is:

D
3 4 , where D is the diameter of the vessel, d is
d

the diameter of the agitator.

Propellers
Typical propellers are illustrated in Fig.3.
- A propeller is a high-speed impeller for liquids of low viscosity. Small
propellers turn at full motor speed, either 1150 or 1750 rpm (revolutions per minute);
larger ones turn at 400 to 800 rpm. The direction of rotation is usually chosen to force
the liquid downward.
- They are not ordinarily used when the viscosity of the liquid is greater than
about 5 Pas.
- Because of the persistence of the flow currents, propeller agitators are effective
in very large vessels. Propellers rarely exceed 460 mm in diameter regardless of the size
of the vessel. In a deep tank two or more propellers may be mounted on the same shaft,
usually directing the liquid in the same direction.

Fig.3. Typical propellers

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AGITATION

Turbines
Four types of turbine impeller are illustrated in Fig.4. b) e).
The simple straight-blade turbines (Fig.4.b) are sometimes called paddles. In
process vessels they typically run at 20 to 150 rpm.
The disk turbine, with multiple straight blades mounted on a horizontal disk
(Fig.4.c) is especially useful for dispersing a gas in a liquid (because at moderate speeds
the gas is forced to flow radially to the blade tips, where it is dispersed by the high
shear).
Also widely used for gas dispersion is the concave-blade CD-6 disk turbine
(Fig.4.d)
A pitched-blade turbine (Fig.4.e) is used when good overall circulation is
important, because it provides some axial flow in addition to the radial flow.
Fig.5. shows two types of turbines where blades are not free, but they are in a
casing.
At a standard turbine design the number of impeller blades ranges from 4 to 16
but it is generally 6 or 8.

Fig4. Impellers for liquids of moderate viscosity: (a) three-blade marine propoeller;
(b) simple straight-blade turbine; (c) disk turbine; (d) concave-blade CD-6 impeller;
(e) pitched-blade turbine

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AGITATION

Fig.5. Turbines in houses

High-efficiency impellers
Variations of the pitched-blade turbine have been developed to provide more
uniform axial flow and better mixing, as well as to reduce the power required for a given
flow rate. The A310 fluid-foil impeller (Fig.6.) uses airfoil-shaped blades which taper so
that they are narrower at the tip than at their base. These impellers are widely used to
mix low- or moderate-viscosity liquids, but they are not recommended for very viscous
liquids or for dispersing gases.

Fig.6. A310 fluid-foil impeller

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AGITATION
Some proximity agitators
These are impellers for highly viscous liquids used at low velocity: vtangent = 2-3
m/s . In case of proximity-agitators the proportion of the geometry is:

D
1.06 , where
d

D is the diameter of the vessel, d is the diameter of the agitator.

Well designed turbine impeller systems can be used with viscosities up to about
50 Pas. For viscosities above 20 Pas, however, the helical-ribbon impeller (Fig.7.a,
Fig.8.) is often more effective. The diameter of the helix is very close to the inside
diameter of the tank, guaranteeing liquid motion all the way to the tank wall even with
very viscous materials.
To provide good agitation near the floor of the tank, an anchor impeller (Fig.7.b)
may be used. Because it creats no vertical motion, it is a less effective mixer than a
hekical ribbon, but it promotes good heat transfer to or from the vessel wall. For this
purpose both anchors and helical ribbons may be equipped with scarpers that physically
remove liquid from the wall.

Fig.7. Impellers for high-viscosity liquids: (a) double-flight helical-ribbon impeller;

(b) anchor impeller

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AGITATION

Fig.8. Helical mixer for high-viscosity fluid

Liquid movement (flow patterns) in agitated vessels

The way a liquid moves in an agitated vessel depends on many things:
-

the type of impeller;

the characteristics of the liquid, especially its viscosity;

and the size and proportions of the tank, baffles, and impeller.

Regarding to the generated currents impellers can be devided into two classes:
-

those that generate currents parallel with the axis of the impeller shaft are
called axial-flow impellers (for example propellers);

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AGITATION
Propeller agitators usually drive the liquid down to
the bottom of the tank, where the stream spreads
radially in all directions toward the wall, flows
upward along the wall, and returns to the suction
of the propeller from the top.

Propellers are used where strong vertical currents are desired, for
example, when heavy solid particles are to be kept in suspension.
Pitched-blade turbines with 45 down-thrusting blades are also used to
provide strong axial flow for suspension of solids.

those that generate currents in a radial or tangential direction are called

radial-flow impellers (for example simple straight-blade turbine it pushes
the liquid radially and tangentially with almost no vertical motion at the
impeller).

Flat-blade turbines give good radial flow in the

plane of the impeller, with the flow dividing at the
wall, to form two separate circulation patterns.
One portion flows downward along the wall and
back to the center of the impeller from below, and
the other flows upward toward the surface and
back to the impeller from above.

In a vertical cylindrical tank, the depth of the liquid should be equal to or somewhat
greather than the diameter of the tank. If greater depth is desired, two or more impellers are
mounted on the same shaft. The lowest impeller is commonly a radial flow unit such as a
straight-blade turbine; the upper ones are usually axial-flow impellers.
Some impellers and their generated currents are shown in Fig.9.

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AGITATION

Fig.9. Impellers and their currents

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AGITATION

Fig.9. Impellers and their currents

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AGITATION

The liquid velocity at any point in the tank has three components, and the overall flow
pattern in the tank depends on the variations in these three velocity components from point to
point. The three velocity components are: radial component (acts in a direction perpendicular to
the shaft); longitudinal velocity component (acts in a direction parallel with the shaft);
tangentional or rotational component (acts in a direction tangent to a circular path around the
shaft). In the usual case of a vertical shaft, the radial and tangential components are in a
horizontal plane, and the longitudinal component is vertical. The radial and longitudinal
components are useful and provide the flow necessary for the mixing action. When the shaft is
vertical and centrally located in the tank, the tangential component is generally disadvantageous.
The tangential flow follows a circular path around the shaft and creates a vortex in the liquid.
Exactly the same flow pattern would be observed with a pitched-blade turbine or a propeller.
If solid particles are present, circulatory currents tend to throw the particles to the
outside by centrifugal force; from there they move downward and to the center of the tank at the
bottom. Instead of mixing, its reverse concentration occurs.
At high impeller speeds the vortex may be so deep that it reaches the impeller, and gas
from above the liquid is drawn down into the charge (air is mixed to the liquid). Generally this
is undiserable. The other effect of the vortex reaching the impeller is that the liquid flow (and
the vortex) becomes instable. So prevention of swirling is absolutely necessary.

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AGITATION
Prevention of the swirling flow
Circulatory flow and swirling can be prevented by any of three methods.

1. In small tanks, the impeller can be mounted off center.

2. In large tanks with vertical agitators, the preferable method of reducing swirling is to
install baffles, which impede rotational flow without interfering with radial or longitudinal flow.
A simple and effective baffling is attained by installing vertical strips perpendicular to the wall
of the tank.

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AGITATION

Except in very large tanks, four baffles are sufficient to prevent swirling and vortex formation.
Even one or two baffles, if more can not be used, have a strong effect on the circulation patterns.
For viscous liquids even narrower baffles are generally used, and baffles are not needed at all
when > 10 Pas. Baffles are also not needed with side-entering, inclined, or off-center
propellers.
3. When the direction and velocity of flow to the suction of the impeller are to be
controlled, draft tubes are used.

These devices may be useful when high shear at the impeller itself is desired, as in the
manufacture of certain emulsions, or where solid particles that tend to float on the surface of the
liquid in the tank are to be dispersed in the liquid. Draft tubes for propellers are mounted around
the impeller, and those for turbines are mounted immediatelly above the impeller. Draft tubes
add to the fluid friction in the system; and for a given power input, they reduce the rate of flow,
so they are not used unless they are required.

Mechanical power consumption

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AGITATION
An important consideration in the design of an agitated vessel is the power required to
drive the impeller. The power consumption of agitation can be deduced from the resistance
force effecting the impeller.
Regarding one rotating plate of a flat blade turbine agitator:

Fr S v 2t S
2

Fr

- the resistance force

- surface resistance coefficient

- surface of one plate

vt

- tangentional component of the velocity of the plate

where v t d n
The mechanical power need of this plate is:

PS Fr v t

PS S v 2t S v t
2

this is the mechanical power need of this special case (one plate
of a flat blade turbine mixer)
In case of geometrically similar systems it can be written, that the surface is linearly
proportional to the agitator-diameter (in case of agitation calculations the basic lengthdimension is always the diameter of the agitator):

S c1 d 2
For the tangentional velocity component of the blade can be written, that:

v t d n c2 d n
So

c c3

PS S (c 22 d 2 n 2 ) (c1 d 2 ) (c 2 d n ) S d 5 n 3 1 2
2
2
Let us write this expression for the whole agitator, and let me write instead of the constants
( S , c1 , c 2 )

N P - the so called agitating resistance coefficient or power number in the

literature. The power number N P is analogous to a friction factor or a drag coefficient.

So the power consumption of agitation is

P NP d5 n 3
where N P N P (Re, Fr) is the power number
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AGITATION
Re and Fr numbers have to be calculated in the following way in case of agitation:

n d2
Re

Fr

n2 d
g

(conventionally Re

v l
)

(conventionally Fr

v2
)
lg

the gravitational effect (the

swirling effect) is taken in consideration by Fr!!

(here n is the rotational speed, reported in revolutions per second in SI units!)
This deduction above is valid only in case of newtonian-liquids!

For standardized vessels and agitators N P - diagrams can be found in handbooks. In

baffled vessel, or in case of proximity agitators swirling effect is negligible, so N P N P (Re) ,
influence of the Fr number can be neglected. Typical plots of N P versus Re for baffled tanks
fitted with centrally located impellers are shown in Fig.10.

In normal vessel (unbaffled) with non proximity agitator researchers have found, that

N P N P (Fr) function can be written in an exponential form to calculate the influence of Frnumber:

N P NP (Re) Fr m , where the exponent m is: m m(Re) .

For illustration, in Fig.11. there can be seen the plots of NP versus Re, and Fig.12. shows the
plots of m versus Re-number. So with the help of this two diagrams N P can be calculated.

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AGITATION

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AGITATION

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AGITATION

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AGITATION
Power consumption in agitation of non-newtonian liquids
We call liquids as newtonian-liquids if the term of the shear stress

dv
dr

where

dv
is the shear rate (velocity gradient),
dr

is valid,

and the viscosity is const. at T = const.

At non-newtonian liquids the apparent viscosity of the fluid varies with the shear rate, and the
shear rate changes considerably from one point to another in the vessel. In this case the shear
stress in the liquid can be described by the next formulas:
dv
c
dr

where c and m are constants,

and m can be m<1 (big-moleculared plastics, cellulose like materials),
or m>1 (suspensions with big concentration)

or

dv
0 c
dr

(for example the toothpaste is a material like this)

We have seen, that in case of mixing-calculations knowledge of the value of the

viscosity is very important to calculate the Reynolds number. In case of non-newtonian liquids,
the Reynolds number is not easily defined, since the viscosity of the fluid is not a constant value.
Succesful correlations have been developed, however, with a Reynolds number using an

dv
average apparent viscosity a , calculated from an average shear rate ( ).
dr av
Researchers have found, that in case of non-newtonian liquids, the power requirement of
m

dv
agitation can be calculated in the following steps (if the formula of c is valid):
dr
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AGITATION
dv
1. Measurement of the function
dr

2. Calculating of the deformation rate -

dv
dv
- with the term:
KM n ,
dr
dr

where n is the rotational speed reported in SI units,

K M 1013 mostly
K M is called Metzner-constant
3. With this calculated

dv
, the shear stress has to be looked up from the measured
dr

diagram.
4. Calculating the average apparent viscosity a : a

dv dr

5. Calculating the Reynolds number using the average apparent viscosity:

Re a

n d2
a

6. From the N Pa N Pa (Re a ) diagram (this should be measured in case of the nonnewtonian liquid) N Pa can be determined, and P can be calculated from the well known
expression of P N P d 5 n 3 .

Literature
W. L. McCabe, J. C. Smith, P. Harriott: Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering

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