Politics and Society in LA (2015)

POLITICS & SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA
PUZZLE-UL LATINO
PERIOADA: AL 2LEA SEMESTRU 2014/2015
TITULAR : LECTOR DR. CATERINA PREDA

(CATERINA.PREDA@FSPUB.UNIBUC.RO)
FISA CURSULUI / COURSE OUTLINE / FICHE DU COURS

2013/2014
Titlul cursului / Course title / Intitul du cours : POLITICS AND SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA.
The Latin American puzzle
Tipul cursului / Course type / Type du cours :
obligatoriu / compulsory / obligatoire

opional / elective / optionnel
facultativ / voluntary / facultatif
Numele i prenumele responsabilului de curs / Name of the person in charge of the class / Nom et
prnom du responsable de cours : Caterina Preda
Gradul didactic / Academic title / Titre acadmique : Lector Dr.
Semestrul / Semester / Semestrul
II
Descriere sintetic a cursului / Brief description of the course / Description synthtique

du cours
nd
This is an introductory class for 2 year students meant to present the political study of Latin
America. So as to comprehend current events and trends of Latin American politics one has
to first have a comprehensive view of modern political history of Latin America. How else
could one understand the election of Daniel Ortega at the presidency of Nicaragua in 2006 if
not by a return on the Sandinist revolution? The current debate on neo-populism can also be
understood solely by knowing the history of populisms in Latin America. This type of
questions will find an answer at the end of this introductory class.
Bibliografie general / References / Bibliographie gnrale
Skidmore, Thomas E. and Peter H. Smith, Modern Latin America. Oxford: Oxford University
th
Press, 2010 (7 edition)
+ the texts for each weekly discussion by email or online on my professor page
(fspub.unibuc.ro)
Forme i criterii de evaluare / Requirements and evaluation / Formes et critres
dvaluation
1. Attending the classes is mandatory.
2. The final examination consists of a written exam of 20 to 24 very specific questions
evaluating the information presented during the classes and seminars.
NOTA :
Studenii sunt obligai s cunoasc politica de probitate intelectual a Facultii: plagiatul,
copiatul, neltoria, multipla utilizare a unui referat, recursul nemrturisit la surse bibliografice
sau la internet vor conduce la anularea notei i a creditelor alocate cursului.
Students should be aware of the Departments policy of academic integrity: cheating,
falsification, forgery, multiple submission, plagiarism, complicity and computer misuse will
result in the invalidation of both grade and credits
Les tudiants sont tenus connatre la politique de la Facult en matire dhonntet
intellectuelle : le plagiat, la contrefaon, le dpt multiple des travaux, la falsification, le
recours inavou aux sources bibliographiques et lInternet entranent lannulation des
crdits et de la note du cours.
Programul cursurilor / Courses outline / Programme des sances :

1.
-
Introduction to the study of Latin America: terminology and approaches

Territorial divisions (Central America, Caribbean, South Cone) and temporal
The concept of Latin America the Latin Americas
LA today the essential problems: a very diverse map
The Latin American panorama between stereotypes and realities (extreme inequalities,
dictatorships and militaries)
The cultural Latin American model
Refer to: Skidmore, Thomas E. and Peter H. Smith, Modern Latin America. Oxford: Oxford
th
University Press, 2005 (6 edition), Prologue. Why Latin America? pp. 1-12.
2. Discovery, conquest and colonial administration (XVI-XVIII c.)
Independence(s): 1810-1830
- The Hispanic and Portuguese colonial models
- The other colonies: English (Jamaica, Belize), French (Guyana and Antilles) and Dutch
(Suriname and Antilles)
th
- The independence models and the recent 20 c. independences (Cuba, Panama)
Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter One pp. 13-34.
Discussion: the dream of Latin American unity the permanent utopia (from Bolivar to
Chvez)
Simon Bolivar: Letter of Jamaica (1815), Angostura Address (1819) and Cartagena Manifest
(1812);
The Bolivarian revolution of Hugo Chavez: Jennifer McCoy, Venezuela: Leading a New
Trend
in
Latin
America?,
ReVista
(2008)
http://www.drclas.harvard.edu/revista/articles/view/1105
th
3. 19 century Latin America: from independence to the construction of new states

- After the independence until the 1850s conservatory caudillos; after 1850 the Liberals
Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter One pp. 34-42.
Discussion: the caudillos, dictators, etc. the land of strongmen
William H. Beezley, Caudillismo: An Interpretive Note, Journal of Inter-American Studies, 11:
3 (1969): 345-352
Eric R. Wolf and Edward C. Hansen, Caudillo Politics: A Structural, Comparative Studies in
Society and History, 9:2 (1967): 168-179
Roger M. Haigh, The Creation and Control of a Caudillo, The Hispanic American Historical
Review, 44:4 (1964): 481-490
+ John Lynch, Bolivar and the Caudillos, The Hispanic American Historical Review, 63:1
(1983): 3-35
4. The end of the XIX c. and the beginning of the XX c. (1870-1910); Mexico
- The crisis of the end of the century the wars (of Paraguay 1864-1870 and of the Pacific
1879-1883)
- Positivism and American imperialism - North-American interventions in Central America
and the Caribbean
- The Mexican revolution (1910-1920)
Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter One pp. 42-51; Chapter Eight. pp. 254-295.
Discussion: Mexico after the revolution
Alan Knight, The peculiarities of Mexican History: Mexico compared to Latin America 18211992, Journal of Latin American Studies 24 (1992): 99-144
Chris Gilbreth and Gerardo Otero, Democratization in Mexico. The Zapatista uprising and
civil society, Latin American Perspectives 28:119 (2001): 7-29.
Enrique Krauze, Furthering Democracy in Mexico, Foreign Affairs, January/February 2006
5 . The years of prosperity (1914-1930); the Southern Cone

- The First World War
- reformism (Argentina, Uruguay, Chile)
- American imperialism consolidated (North American policies)
Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Three pp. 69-82; Chapter Four. pp.110-122.
Discussion: presidentialism in LA
Scott Mainwaring and Matthew S. Shugart, Juan Linz, Presidentialism, and Democracy: A
Critical Appraisal, Comparative Politics, 29:4 (1997): 449-471
Scott Mainwaring, Presidentialism in Latin America, Latin American Research Review, 25:1
(1990): 157-179
Arturo Valenzuela, Latin American presidencies interrupted, Journal of Democracy 15:4
(2004): 5-19
6. Populism and neo-populism: from Vargas and Peron to Chavez and Fujimori
From the crisis to the search of new solutions (1930-1960)
- The 1929 economic crisis; the imports substitution model and the industrial takeoff
- The political crisis: military governments and populisms (Argentina, Brazil)
Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Three pp. 82-98; Chapter Five. pp. 157-164.
Discussion: Populism of ancients and moderns neopopulism: Hugo Chvez/Fujimori
Steve Ellner, The Contrasting Variants of the Populism of Hugo Chvez and Alberto
Fujimori, Journal of Latin American Studies, 35:1 (2003): 139-162
Kurt Weyland, Neopopulism and Neoliberalism in Latin America: How Much Affinity?, Third
World Quarterly, 24:6 (2003): 1095-1115
Kurt Weyland, Neoliberal Populism in Latin America and Eastern Europe, Comparative
Politics, 31:4 (1999):379-401
7. Cuba: a portrait since independence
- The Cuban revolution (1959) and the Castro system
- The failure of continental revolution; the Nicaraguan revolution (1979-1990)
- Rural (Central America) and urban (Southern Cone) guerillas: differences and
specificities
Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Nine pp. 296-355.
Discussion: Cuba and the after Fidel a new model?
Mark P. Sullivan, Cuba after Fidel Castro: issues for US policy, CRS Report for Congress
(2005)
Daniel P. Erikson, Charting Castros possible successors, SAIS Review XXV:1 (2005): 89103.
Tim Anderson, Contesting Transition The US plan for a Free Cuba, Latin American
Perspectives 32:6 (2005): 28-46
8. State terrorism in the Southern Cone (Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay)
- the role of the military in LA politics; the National Security doctrine and authoritarian
regimes
Discussion: Latin American originality: terrorist states and The Condor Operation (Brazil,
Chile, Argentina, Uruguay)
J. Patrice Mc Sherry, Tracking the Origins of a State Terror Network Operation Condor,
Latin American Perspectives 29:1 (2002): 38-60.
9. Democratic transition in Latin America; Brazil
- The lost decade: 1980s
- 1989 in Latin America (Panama, Stroessner, Pinochet); consolidated democracies?
Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Five. pp. 139-180.
Discussion: Truth commissions in Latin America transitional justice

10. Under [American] influence: Central America and the Caribbean
- Central America: between common history and specificities
- The Caribbean: Haiti and the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and the micro-states
Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Ten pp. 328-355; Chapter Eleven. pp. 356-395.
Discussion: North American forms of intervention in Latin America Caribbean and Central
America
Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Twelve, pp. 396-439.
11. Formal democracies: Colombia (drug democracy) and Venezuela (from corrupted
democracy to Chavez)
Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Seven pp. 221-253; Jennifer L. McCoy and William C.
Smith, Democratic Disequilibrium in Venezuela, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World
Affairs, 37:2 (1995):113-179; Ronald D. Sylvia and Constantine P. Danopoulos, The Chvez
Phenomenon: Political Change in Venezuela, Third World Quarterly, 24:1 (2003): 63-76
Discussion: Colombia or the absence of a state (guerilla, paramilitary movements and drugs)
W. John Green, Review: Guerrillas, Soldiers, Paramilitaries, Assassins, Narcos, and
Gringos: The Unhappy Prospects for Peace and Democracy in Colombia, Latin American
Research Review, 40:2 (2005): 137-149
Siddhartha Baviskar, Drugs and Democracy, Economic and Political Weekly, 31:11 (1996):
654-655
Cynthia A. Watson, Political Violence in Colombia: Another Argentina?, Third World
Quarterly, 12: 3/4 (1990 - 1991): 25-39
12. The Indian states (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia): Political drifting and political instability
- The Indian question reappears: Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru
Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Six pp. 181-220;
Discussion: economic regional integration the European Union as a model? UNASUR
(2008)
th
st
- The end of the 20 c. and the beginning of the 21 c: neoliberalism and the Washington
consensus
- new regional alliances: the American model (TLCs) versus the Bolivarian model (ALBA)
Victor Bulmer-Thomas, Debate. Regional integration in Latin America and the Caribbean,
Bulletin of Latin American Research 20:3 (2001): 360-369.
13. The Cultural Latin American model
Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter 14, pp. 403-437.
Additional bibliographical references:
1. Almond, Gabriel A., Powell Bingham Jr., Strm Kaare & Dalton Russell J., Comparative Politics
th
Today. A World View. 8 Edition, New York: Pearson Longman, 2004
2. Bethell, Leslie (ed.), Historia de Amrica Latina. El Cono Sur desde 1930, Barcelona: Crtica,
2002
3. Bethell, Leslie (ed.), Historia de Amrica Latina. Amrica del sur 1870-1930, Barcelona: Crtica,
2000
4. Diamond, Larry et al. (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries. Latin America, Second Edition,
London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999 [Chap. 1, Larry Diamond et al, Introduction: Politics,
Society, and Democracy in Latin America, pp. 1-65.]
5. Di Tella, Torcuato, History of Political Parties in Twentieth-Century Latin America, New Brunswick,
New Jersey : Transaction Publishers, 2004
6. Galeano, Eduardo, Las venas abiertas de America Latina, Madrid: Siglo Veintuno de Espaa
me
Editores, 2004 (21
dition)
7. Higley, John & Gunther Richard, Elites in Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and
Southern Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992
8. Linz, Juan & Stepan Alfred, The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Crisis, Breakdown and
Reequilibration, Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 1978
9. Linz, Juan, Totalitarian and Authoritarian regimes, Boulder & London: Lynne Rienner Publishers,
2000
10. Mainwaring, Scott & Valenzuela Arturo, Politics, society and Democracy: Latin America, Boulder,
Colorado: Westview Press, 1998
11. Mainwaring, Scott and Prez-Lin Anbal, Level of Development and Democracy. Latin
American Exceptionalism, 1945-1996, Comparative Political Studies 36:9 (2003): 1031-1067
12. ODonnell, Guillermo & Schmitter Philippe C., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule. Tentative
Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies, Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University
Press, 1986
13. Prez-Lin, Anbal, Democratization and Constitutional Crises in Presidential Regime. Toward
Constitutional Supremacy?, Comparative Political Studies 38:1 (2005): 51-74
14. Valenzuela, Arturo, Latin American presidencies interrupted, Journal of Democracy 15:4 (2004):
5-19
Websites
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17.
Latin American Database http://pdba.georgetown.edu/

Latin American Network Information Center http://lanic.utexas.edu/
Amrica Latina. Portal Europeo http://www.red-redial.net/
El portal sociopoltico de Iberoamrica http://www.nuevamayoria.com/ES/
Internet Resources for Latin America http://lib.nmsu.edu/subject/bord/laguia/
The World Fact book http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html
Maps http://www.worldatlas.com
Elections in AL 2006 http://www.observatorio2006.org/
BBC http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/default.stm
http://www.amelatine.com/
http://www.latinreporters.com/
http://www.americas-fr.com/actualites/actualites.html
Analysis (Spanish and English) www.nuevamayoria.com/ES/
Reuters LA http://lta.today.reuters.com/news/default.aspx
Angus Reid analyses http://www.angus-reid.com/
http://www.latinnews.com
Project Syndicate http://www.project-syndicate.org/
Argentina (Repblica Argentina/Nacin Argentina)

Capital: Buenos Aires
Surface: 2.8 millions km
Population: 40.3 million (Indians 3%)
Independence: 9 July 1816
Federal presidential republic: 23 provinces and the federal district of Buenos Aires (24 districts).
Voting system: Presidency: double tour majority (TRS) 4 years mandate1 ;
Congress: PR closed lists (perfect bicameralism)
Constitution: 1853 (reformed in 1860, 1898, 1957 and 1994)
Suffrage: universal and mandatory since 18 years
Executive: President (4 years) Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner (2007) http://www.presidencia.gov.ar
Vice-president: Amado Boudou
Legislative: Senate 72 members elected for 6 years (one third renewable every 2 years)2
Chamber of Deputies 257 members elected for 4 years (half renewable every 2 years) according
to the DHondt formula with a threshold of 3%. 3
Last presidential election results (2011)
Cristina Kirchner (Frente para la Victoria)/PJ
Hermes Binner (Frente Amplio Progresista)/PS
Ricardo Alfonsin (Union para el Desarrollo Social)/UCR
Alberto Rodriguez Sa (Compromiso Federal) /PJ 7.98
53.96
16.87
11.5
Legislativ (Congreso Nacional) are dou camere: Camera Deputailor (257) i Senat (72 senatori din
provincii & Buenos Aires).
Main political parties

1. Alianza Frente Para la Victoria (electoral coalition of the justicialists)
www.frenteparalavictoria.org
2. PJ Partido Justicialista www.pj.org.ar
3. UCR Unin Civica Radical www.ucr.org.ar
4. FrePaSo Frente Pas Solidario
5. AR Accin por la Repblica www.ar-partido.com.ar
6. ARI Afirmacin para una Republica Igualitaria www.ari.org.ar
7. Recrear Recrear para el crecimiento www.recrearargentina.org
8. Partido Socialista www.partidosocialista.com.ar
9. Movimiento Libres del Sur www.libresdelsur.org.ar
The president and the vice-president are elected together. They can only exert two successive mandates.
Since 2001 they are elected directly and not anymore through provincial legislatures. The mandate has been
shortened also from 9 to 5 years and the number of senators grew from 48 to 72 (Constitutional reform of
1994, enacted for the 2001 elections).
3
http://www.congreso.gov.ar
2
10
Argentina - Chiefs of state

Presidente de las Provincias Unidas del Ro de la Plata
Bernardino Rivadavia (1826-1827)
Director Provisorio a cargo de las Relaciones Exteriores
Justo Jos de Urquiza - 1852
Presidente de la Confederacin Argentina elegido por la Constitucin de 1853
Justo Jos de Urquiza (1854-1860)
Presidente de la Confederacin Argentina elegido por la Constitucin de 1853.
1. Santiago Derqui (1860-1861)
2. Bartolom Mitre (1861-1862)
3. Bartolom Mitre (1862-1868)
4. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1868-1874)
5. Nicols Avellaneda (1874-1880)
6. Julio Argentino Roca (1880-1886) 1st mandate
7. Miguel Jurez Celman (1886-1890)
8. Carlos Pellegrini (1890-1892)
9. Luis Senz Pea (1892-1895)
10. Jos Evaristo Uriburu (1895-1898)
11. Julio Argentino Roca (1898-1904) 2nd mandate
12. Manuel Quintana (1904-1906)
13. Jos Figueroa Alcorta (1906-1910)
14. Roque Senz Pea (1910-1914)
15. Victorino de la Plaza (1914-1916)
16. Hiplito Yrigoyen (1916-1922) 1st mandate
17. Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear (1922-1928)
18. Hiplito Yrigoyen (1928-1930) 2nd mandate
19. Jos Flix Uriburu (1930-1932)
20. Agustn Pedro Justo (1932-1938)
21. Roberto Marcelino Ortiz (1938-1942)
22. Ramn S. Castillo (1942-1943)
23. Pedro Pablo Ramirez (June 1943-Feb 1944)
24. Edelmiro Julin Farrell (1944-1946)
25. Juan Domingo Pern (1946-1952) 1st mandate
26. Juan Domingo Pern (1952-1955) 2nd mandate
27. Eduardo Lonardi (20 sept 13 nov 1955)
28. Pedro Eugenio Aramburu (1955-1958)
29. Arturo Frondizi (1958-1962)
30. Jos Mara Guido (1962-1963)
31. Arturo Umberto Illia (1963-1966)
32. Juan Carlos Ongana (1966-1970)
33. Roberto Marcelo Levingston (1970-1971)
34. Alejandro Agustn Lanusse (1971-1973)
35. Hctor Jos Cmpora (25 May 12 July 1973)
36. Ral Alberto Lastiri (12 July-12 October 1973)
37. Juan Domingo Pern (12 Oct. 1973 -1 July 1974) 3rd mandate
38. Mara Estela Martnez de Pern (1974-1976)
Military dictatorship
1. Jorge Rafael Videla (24 March 1976-1981)
2. Roberto Eduardo Viola (29 March 22 Dec 1981)
3. Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri (22 Dec 1981 -1 July 1982 )
4. Reynaldo Benito Bignone (1 July 1982-10 Dec 1983)
Democracy
1. Ral Ricardo Alfonsn (1983 -1989)
2. Carlos Sal Menem (1989-1995) 1st mandate
3. Carlos Sal Menem (1995-1999) 2nd mandate
4. Fernando De La Ra (10 Dec 199-20 Dec 2001)
5. Federico Ramn Puerta (20-23 Dec 2001)
6. Adolfo Rodriguez Sa (23-30 Dec 2001)
7. Eduardo Oscar Camao (30 Dec 2001-1 Jan 2002)
8. Eduardo Alberto Duhalde (1 Jan 2002 22 May 2003)
9. Nstor Carlos Kirchner (25 mai 2003-2007)
11
Bolivia (Repblica de Bolivia)

Capital: La Paz seat of government (Sucre capital)
Surface: 1.084.390 km
Population: 9.1 million (62% Indians4)
Independence: 6 August 1825
Presidential republic divided in 9 departments.
Constitution: 2009
Voting System: president & vice-president elected together for 5 years;
Legislative: Chamber of Deputies: 68 deputies elected in departmental circumscriptions and 62 in
uninominal circumscriptions for 5 years; Senate: 36 senators elected in departmental
circumscriptions for 5 years.
Executive President: Evo Morales (2006) - MAS
Vice-president: lvaro Garca Linera
Last elections (12 October 2014)
%
Evo Morales (Micarea ctre socialism MAS) 61.3%
Samuel Doria Medina (Unitatea naiona)
24.23%
Jorge Quiroga (Partidul Cretin Democrat)
9.04%
previous elections (6 December 2009)
Evo Morales5 (Alianza para la Refundacin de Bolivia MAS IPSP) 64.22
Manfred Reyes Villa (Plan Progreso para Bolivia Convergencia Nacional)
Samuel Doria Menida (Alianza para el consenso y la unidad nacional)
Ren Joaquino Carlos (Alianza Social)
Previous elections (18 December 2005)
Evo Morales (Movimiento al Socialismo-MAS)6
Jorge Quiroga (Poder Democrtico y Social PODEMOS)
%
26.46
5.65
2.31
%
53.7
28.5
Legislative: National Congress: Chamber of Deputies (Cmara de Diputados) 130 5 years &
Chamber of Senators (Cmara de Senadores) 36 5 years (PR)
Last elections (12 october 2014)
MAS
Democratic Unity
Christian Democratic Party
Senate
Deputies
25
9
2
88
25
10
(6 December 2009)
Deputies Senate
Alianza para la Refundacin de Bolivia MAS IPSP
88
26
Plan Progreso para Bolivia Convergencia Nacional
37
10
Alianza para el consenso y la unidad nacional
3
Alianza Social
2
25 January 2009 Constitutional referndum: Yes 61%, No 39 %
Presidents since the transition
Hernn Siles Zuazo (UDP)
Victor Paz Estenssoro
Jaime Paz Zamora
Gonzalo Snchez de Lozada (MIR)
Hugo Banzer Suarez7
Jorge Quiroga Ramrez
Gonzalo Snchez de Lozada
Carlos Mesa Gisbert
Eduardo Rodrguez Veltz
1982-1985 3rd mandate

1985-1989 4th mandate
1989-1993
1993-1997
1997-2001
2001-2002
2002-2003
2003-2005
June 2005-January 2006
In a 2001 census, 62% of the population of more than 15 years identified itself with one of the Indian peoples
www.evomorales.net
5
Evo Morales had participated to the preceding elections (2002) and had won: 20,9% of the votes (1,6% behind
the victorious Snchez de Lozada). At the legislative elections of 2002 MAS had won 11.9% (27 deputies and 8
senators).
6
Movimiento Al Socialismo (Evo Morales) http://www.masbolivia.org
7
Ex dictator 1971-1978
12
Brazil (Repblica Federativa do Brasil)

Capital: Brasilia
Surface: 8 514 877 km (35 times Romania)
Population: 201 millions8
Independence: 7 September 1822 (of Portugal)
Presidential federal republic9: 26 states and the federal district of Brasilia (27 federal unities)
Constitution: 1988 (reformed several times)
Voting system (mandatory)
President: uninominal majoritarian in two rounds
Senators (Federal Senate): uninominal majoritarian in two rounds.
Federal deputies (Federal Chamber of deputies): proportional with open lists
Governors: uninominal majoritarian in two rounds
State deputies (Legislative Assembly of the federated states): proportional with open lists
Mayors: uninominal majoritarian in two rounds.
Members of the Municipal Chambers (vereadores): proportional with open lists
Executive
President & Vice-president (4 years)10: Dilma Roussef (2011) PT; Michel Temer
Results of last presidential elections
Dilma Roussef (PT/PMDB)
Aecio Neves (PSDB)
(5/26 October 2014)

51.64 %
48.36%
Previous elections (October 2nd/ 31st 2010)

Dilma ROUSSEFF (PT)
Jose SERRA (PSDB)
56.01%
43.99%
Legislative: National Congress: Chamber of deputies (Cmara dos Deputados) & Federal Senate
(Senado Federal)
Federal Senate (81 representatives) 8 years (elections every 4 years for alternatively 1/3 and 2/3 of
the seats); 2/3 renewed (or 54 senators) .
Chamber of Deputies (513 repr. ) 4 years 4 years
Coalition of government power to the people
PT Workers' Party
PMDB Brazilian Democratic Movement Party
PSD Social Democrat Party
PDT Democratic Labor Party
PP Progressive Party
PRB Republican Party
PROS Republican Party of social order
PCdoB Comunist Party
Coalition Change Brazil
Coalition United for Brazil
others
304
70
66
37
19
36
21
11
10
128
53
28
Senate (81)
53
19
7
2
2000 census: 6%-Blacks and 39% - parda or mulata (black and white blood), mestica or mameluca (white and
Indian blood), cafuza (black and Indian blood) or simply Indians.
9
Except for the period 1961-1963 when a parliamentary system was imposed.
10
Through a constitutional amendment in 1997, the president and vice-president can be reelected for a successive
mandate for the first time.
13
Brazil - Heads of state

Monarchy
United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarve: 18151822
First Empire (don Pedro): 1822-1831
Second Empire: Regency Counsel: 1831-1840
Pedro II: 1841-1889
Old Republic (1889-1930)
1. Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca (Nov 15 1889-Nov 23 1891)
2. Marshal Floriano Peixoto (1891- 1894)
3. Prudente de Morais (1894- 1898)
4. Campos Sales (1898- 1902)
5. Rodrigues Alves (1902- 1906)
6. Afonso Pena (1906- 1909)
7. Nilo Peanha (1909- 1910)
8. Marshal Hermes da Fonseca (1910-1914)
9. Rodrigues Alves (died before inauguration)
10. Delfim Moreira (1918- 1919)
11. Epitacio Pessoa (1919- 1922)
12. Artur Bernardes (1922- 1926)
13. Washington Luiz (1926- 1930)
14. Julio Prestes elected but was not inaugurated
Vargas dictatorship (1930-1945)
1. Provisionary junta (24 oct 1930 3 nov 1930) : General Augusto Fragoso, General Menna
Barreto, Admiral Isaas de Noronha
2. Getlio Vargas (3 nov 1930 29 oct 1945)
3. Jos Linhares (29 oct 1945-31 jan 1946)
The 1946 republic (1945-1964)
1. Marshal Gaspar Dutra 91946-1951)
2. Getlio Vargas (1951-1954) elected
3. Caf Filho (1954-1955)
4. Carlos Luz (9-11 nov 1955)
5. Nereu Ramos (1955-1956)
6. Juscelino Kubitschek (1956-1961)
7. Jnio Quadros (31 jan-25 aug 1961)
8. Jnio Quadros (25 aug-7 sept 1961)
9. Joo Goulart (1961-1964)
Military dictatorship (1964-1985)
1. Ranieri Mazzilli (2-15 april 1964) President of the Chamber of Deputies provisionary
president
2. Marshal Castelo Branco (1964-1967) military dictator elected by the Electoral College
formally as all the others
3. Marshal Costa e Silva (1967-1969) military dictator
4. Junta militaire (31 aug-30 oct 1969): Admiral Augusto Rademaker, General Aurlio Lyra,
Brigadier Mrcio de Souza e Mello
5. General Garrastaz Medici (1969-1974) military dictator
6. General Ernesto Geisel (1974-1979)
7. General Joo Figueiredo (1979-1985)
The new republic (since 1985)
1. Tancredo Neves (died before inauguration)
2. Jos Sarney (1985-1990)
3. Fernando Collor (1990-1992)
4. Itamar Franco (1992-1995)
5. Fernando Henrqiue Cardoso (1995-2003)
6. Luiz Incio Lula da Silva (2003-2007; 2007-2011)
14
Chile (Repblica de Chile)

Capital: Santiago
Surface: 748.800 km
Population: 16 million
Independence: 18 September 1810
Presidential republic: 15 regions with Easter Island overseas territory
Constitution: 198011
Voting system
President: majoritarian with two rounds mandate of 4 years12
Congress: binominal - Chamber of Deputies: plurinominal vote in binominal circumscriptions &
Senate: binominal circumscriptions with a dHondt system; half of the representatives are renewed
every 4 years.
Executive: Prsident : Michelle Bachelet (2014) Partido Socialista
Last presidential elections
1st (17 Nov 2013) %
Michelle Bachelet (Nueva Mayoria)

Evelyn Matthei (Alianza)
46.7%
25.03
Previous presidential elections

1st round (11 Dec 2005) %
Michelle Bachelet (Concertacin)
45.95
Sebastian Piera (RN)
25.41
Joaquin Lavin (UDI)
23.22
2nd (15 Dec 2013) %
62.1%
37.8
2nd round (15 Jan 2006) %
53.50
46.50
Legislative: National Congress (Congreso Nacional): Chamber of deputies (Cmara de Diputados)

and Senate of the Republic (Senado de la Repblica)
Chamber of deputies
Nueva Mayoria
Alianza
Independeni
Si tu quieres Chile cambia
Senate of the Republic
Nueva Mayoria
Alianza
Independeni
(120)
67
49
3
1
(38)
21
16
1
Presidents since the transition (all from Concertacion)

Patricio Aylwin
1990-1994
Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle
1994-2000
Ricardo Lagos
2000-2006
Michelle Bachelet
2006-2010
Sebastian Pinera
2010-2014
11
Reformed in 1989, 1991, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2003, and 2005.

Through the electoral reform, the presidential mandate was reduced from 6 to 4 years. Reelection for
a successive mandate is forbidden.
12
15
Colombia (Repblica de Colombia)

Capital: Bogot
Population: 44.3 million
Independence: 20 July 1810 (until 1830 part of Grand Colombia with Venezuela and Ecuador)
Presidential republic: 32 departments and 1 capital district
Constitution : 1991
Voting system
President: majoritarian with two rounds (since 1991)13.
Legislative: proportional system
Executive: President: Juan Manuel Santos (2010) 4 years mandate.
Vice President Angelino Garzon
Last presidential elections (25 May/15 June 2014)
Juan Manuel Santos (Partido de la U)
Oscar Ivan Zuluaga (Centro Democratico)
50.9%
45%
Previous elections (30 May/20 June 2010)

Juan Manuel Santos
(U Party)
Antanas Mockus (Green Party)
%
69.06%
27.52
Previous presidential elections (21 May 2006)

Alvaro Uribe Velez (Primero Colombia)
Carlos Gaviria Daz (Polo Democrtico Alternartivo)
Horacio Serpe Uribe (Partido Liberal Colombiano)
%
62
22
11
Legislative: Bicameral Congress (Congreso) elected for 4 years: Chamber of representatives

(Cmara de Representantes) and Senate of the Republic (Senado de la Repblica)
Last elections (14 March 2010)
Senate (102) Chamber of Representatives (163)
U Party (Social National Unity Party)
21
39
Democratic Center
20
12
PC (Partido Conservador Colombiano)
18
27
PL (Partido Liberal de Colombia )
17
37
PCR (PRadical Change)
9
16
Green Party
5
6
Citizenship Option
6
PDA (Alternative Democratic Pole)
3
Pour un Huila Mejor
1
Movimiento Independiente de Renovacion Absoluta Green Party
3
other parties
13
List of the presidents since the end of the National Front in 1974
Alfonso Lpez Michelsen (PL)

Julio Cesar Turbay Ayala (PL)
Belisario Betancur (PC)
Virgilio Barco Vargas (PL)
Csar Gaviria Trujillo (PL)
Ernesto Samper Pizano (PL)
Andrs Pastrana Arango (NFD)
Alvaro Uribe (Primero Columbia)
1974-1978
1978-1982
1982-1986
1986-1990
1990-1994
1994-1998
1998-2002
2002-2010
FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) http://www.farcep.org

13
Until 2006 when the president Uribe modified the Constitution so that he can be reelected for a 2nd mandate,
immediate reelection was forbidden.
16
Costa Rica (Repblica de Costa Rica)

Capital: San Jos
Surface: 50.660 km
Population: 4 million14
Independence: 15 September 1821.
Presidential republic divided in 7 provinces
Constitution: 1949 (modified)
Voting system: Presidential TRS; if one of the candidates gets 40% he wins from 1st round
Legislative: PR with blocked lists and a minimum of 40% women candidates (from 1999)
Executive: President: Luis Guillermo Solis (2014) (PAC); 2 vice-presidents.
They are elected together for 4 years15.
Last elections (2 Feb/6 April 2014)
Luis Guillermo Solis (PAC)
77%
Johnny Araya (PLN)
22%
Previous election (7 February 2010) %
Laura Chinchilla (PLN)
46.76
Otto Solis (PAC)
25.16
Otto Guevara Guth (PML)
20.8
Legislative: Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Lgislativa) has 57 members elected for 4 years.
Last Elections 7 February 2010 no preliminary results yet
Previous elections (2 February 2014)
57
Partido Liberacin Nacional PLN
18
Partido Accin Ciudadana PAC
13
Movimiento Libertario
4
Partido de Unidad Socialcristiana PUSC 8
Partido Frente Amplio

Partido Restauracin Nacional
Partido Accesibilidad sin Exclusion
Alianza Democrata Cristiana
Renovaccion Costarricense
R
9
1
1
1
2
14 electoral cycles since the Ulate-Figueres pacts of 1948

Luis Rafael Otilio Ulate Blanco
1949-1953
Jos Figueres Ferrer
1953-1958
Mario Echandi Bolmarcich (PLN)
1962-1966
Jos Joaqun Trejos Fernandez (PLN)
1966-1970
Jos Figueres Ferrer (PLN)
1970-1974
Daniel Oduber Quirs (PLN)
1974-1978
Rodrigo Alberto Carazi Odio (PUSC)
1978-1982
Luis Alberto Monge Alvarez (PLN)
1982-1986
Oscar Arias Snchez (PLN)
1986-1990
Rafael Angel Caldern Fournier (PUSC)
1990-1994
Jos Mara Figueres Olsen16 (PLN)
1994-1998
Miguel Angel Rodrguez Echeverria (PUSC) 1998-2002
Abel Pacheco de la Espriella (PUSC)
2002-2006
Oscar Arias (PLN) 2006-2010
14
Indigenous population: 1% of the total population.

Between 1969 and 2003 the constitution forbade the candidacy of an ex-president or vice-president
(art. 132). The article was modified April 4th, 2003 so as to allow the candidacy of Oscar Arias for a
new presidential mandate. Still no possibility to run for a successive mandate.
16
The son of Jos Figueres Ferrer.
15
17
Cuba (Repblica de Cuba)

Capital: Havana
Surface: 110. 860 km
Population: 11.4 million
Independence: 20 May 1902 (from Spain in 1898 and administered by US 1898-1902)
Republic divided in 14 provinces and a municipality (Havana).
Constitution: 1976 (reforms: 1992 and 2002)17
Suffrage: universal (16 years)
Executive18 (http://www.cubagob.cu)
President of the Council of State (Consejo de Estado) and of the Council of ministers:
Ral Castro (2006)19
First vice-president of the Council of State and of the Council of ministers: Miguel
Diaz-Canel Bermudez
Council of Ministers proposed by the president of the Council of State and nominated
by the National assembly or by the Council of State of 31 members.
Elections: the president and the vice-president elected by the National Assembly for 5
years. Only two mandates allowed.
Last elections February 2013: Raul Castro elected president 100%
Legislative (http://www.parlamentocubano.cu)
National Assembly of Popular Power (Asamblea Nacional de Poder Popular) has
614 members elected for 5 years through a list of municipal delegates of the
Communist Party of Cuba (PCC)
Legislative elections in Cuba
1993 elected deputies 589
2008 - elected deputies - 614
2013 elected deputies - 612
Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) http://www.pcc.cu/pccweb/
Youth Communist Union (Union de jovenes comunistas UJC)
Defense committees of the revolution (Comits de Defensa de la Revolucin CDR)
17
http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Cuba/cuba2002.html
http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Executive/Cuba/cabinet.html
19
Fidel Castro transfered power to his brother Raul, July 31, 2006. Before that date Fidel had held
power since 1959.
20
http://www.parlamentocubano.cu/
18
18
Dominican Republic (Repblica Dominicana)

Capital: Santo Domingo
Surface: 48.380 km
Population: 9.3 million (Mulattoes 73%, White 16%, Blacks 11%)
Independence: 27 February 1844 (of Haiti)
Presidential Republic divided in 31 provinces and 1 district.
Constitution: 1966 (reformed in 2002)21
Universal mandatory suffrage
22
Executive: - President: Danilo Medina (2012) PLD

Vice-president: Margarita Cedeno de Fernandez (2012) PLD
President and vice-president are elected together for 4 years. They can be reelected for
a successive mandate.
Last elections (20 May 2012)
Danilo Medina - Partido de la Liberacin Dominicana

Hipolito Mejia - Partido Revolucionario Dominicana
51.21%
46.95
Legislative: Bicameral congress: Chamber of deputies (Cmara de Diputados)23

with 178 members, elected for 4 years (PR in each province) and Senate (Senado)24
with 32 members, elected for 4 years.
Chamber of deputies and Senate
Dominican Liberation Party (PLD)
Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD)
Social Christian Reformist Party (PRSC)
178 32
105 31
75
3 1
21
http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/DomRep/domrep02.html
http://www.presidencia.gov.do
23
http://www.camaradediputados.gov.do/portalsilcamara
24
http://www.senado.gov.do/PortalSILSenado
22
19
Ecuador (Repblica del Ecuador)

Capital: Quito
Surface: 276.840 km
Population: 13.7 million (mestizo : 65% Indians : 25%)
Independence: 24 May 1822 (until 1830, part of Grand Colombia with Colombia and Venezuela)
Presidential republic divided in 22 provinces
Constitution: 2008
Voting system:
President & vice-president elected for 4 years majoritarian vote with two rounds.
Legislative: the most complicated voting system in the world which mixes list voting and uninominal. The
reform of the voting system is debated.
Mandatory vote (+ 18 years, facultative for illiterate persons and +65 years) (art. 27.Constitution of 1998)
Executive - President: Rafael Correa (2007) 4 years & Vice-president: Lenn Moreno.
Since the 2008 constitutional amendment the president can seek immediate reelection.
Last presidential elections 17 februarie 2013
Rafael Correa (Alianza Pas)
Guillermo Lasso (CREO)
Lucio Gutierrez (Partido Sociedad Patritica 21 de Enero)
%
57.17
22.68
6.73
Legislative: National Assembly of Ecuador (2009) 137 members for 4 years

Last legislative elections (17 Feb 2013)
137
Alianza PAIS
100
CREO
11
Partido Sociedad Patritica 21 de Enero
5
Partido Social Cristiano
6
Unidad Plurinacinal de las Izquierdas
5
Renovador Ecuatoriano
Institucional de Accin Nacional
Partido Roldosista
1
SUMA
1
Movimiento
Popular Democrtico
Partido
Avanza
5
Accion regional por la Equidad
1
Integracion democratica de Carchi
1
MPC
MPCNG
1
NG
Constitutional reform
15 April 2007 referendum on the organization of a Constituent Assembly
29 November 2007 the Constituent Assembly dissolves Congress and assumes legislative power
29 September 2008 - the new constitution was approved by referendum (Yes 64%)
Presidents since 197925: Jaime Roldos (1979-1981)26 Osvaldo Hurtado (1981-1984) Len Febres Cordero
(1984-1988) Rodrigo Borja (1988-1992) Sixto Alfonso Durn-Balln (1992-1996) Abdal Jaime Bucaram
Ortiz27 (1996-Feb. 1997) Fabian Alarcon (6-9 Feb 1997) Rosalia Arteaga Serrano (9-11 Feb 1997) Fabian
Alarcon (11 Feb 1997 10 Aug. 1998) Jamil Mahuad28 (1998-2000) Coup detat in Jan 2000: Junta de
salvacion nacional 21-22 Jan. 2000; Gustavo Noboa29 (22 Jan 2000 Jan 2003) Lucio Gutierrez (2003-2005)
April 2005 coup dtat Alfredo Palacio (2005-2006)
25
Military regime: 1972-1979 (General Rodriguez Lara 1972-6). Since 1996, 7 presidents succeeded. The 3 presidents
elected: Abdala Bucaram, Jamil Mahuad and Lucio Gutirrez did not finish their mandates. To Abdal Bucaram succeeded
his vice president revoked in ten days by a Constitutive assembly led by Fabin Alarcn. Gustavo Noboa, as vice
president, succeeded to Mahuad in January 2000 following the coup dtat of January 21st led by the colonel Lucio
Gutirrez, elected in 2002 to the presidency. www.observatorio2006.org
26
Mort dans un accident davion: son vice-prsident Hurtado assuma le mandat.
27
Deposed by Congress in 1997 for mental incapacity.
28
Deposed by an alliance of Indian organizations and army 21 January 2000.
29
The vice-president of Mahuad.
20
El Salvador (Repblica de El Salvador)

Capital: San Salvador
Surface: 20.720 km
Population: 6.8 million (mestizo 90%, White 9%, Indian 1%)
Independence: 1821 (of Spain); 1839 (of the Central-American Federation)
Presidential Republic divided in 14 departments.
Constitution: 1983
Executive: President: Sanchez Ceren (FMLN) (2014-2019)
Vice president: Oscar Ortiz
Last elections (2 feb/9 March 2014)
Sanchez Ceren (FMLN)
50%
Norman Quijano (ARENA) 49.8%
Previous elections (15 March 2009)
Mauricio Funes (FMLN)
Rodrigo Avila (ARENA)
51.3
48.6
Previous elections (21 March 2004)

Antonio Elas "Tony" Saca - ARENA
Schafik Jorge Handal FMLN
Hctor Silva Argello CDU-PDU
Jos Rafael Machuca Zelaya PCN
57.7
35.6
3.9
2.7
Legislative: Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Legislativa) 84 members elected for 3

years
Last elections (10 March January 2012)
Partido Farabundo Marti para la Liberacion NacionalAlianza
FMLN Republicana Nacionalista- ARENA
Grande Alianza por Unidad Nacional - GRAN
Concertacion Nacional
Partido de la Esperanza
Cambio Democratico - CD
84
31
33
11
7
1
1
Historical reminder
Since the 1930s the military were in power
Between 1979 and 1990 civil war interrupted by brief returns to electoral
competitions. The FMLN, now in Parliament, was the main guerilla formation in the
80s.
21
Guatemala (Repblica de Guatemala)

Capital: Ciudad de Guatemala
Surface: 108.430 km
Population: 12.7 million (mestizo & European 59.4%; K'iche 9.1%, Kaqchikel 8.4%, Mam
7.9%, Q'eqchi 6.3%, other Maya 8.6%, Indians non-Mayas 0.2%)30
Presidential republic divided in 22 departments
Constitution: 1985 (reforms in 1993)
Executive: President Otto Perez Molina (2011) PP (Partido Patriota) and Vice-president
Roxana Baldetti.
Elected together for a 4 year mandate. The president cannot have two successive mandates.
Last elections (1st tour, 11 September 2011 and 2nd tour, 6 November 2011)
Otto Perez Molina (PP Partido Patriota) 36.1% 53.74%
Manuel Baldizon (Lider)
22.68 46.2 %
Legislative: Republic Congress (Congreso de la Repblica) 158 members elected for 4 years.
Last legislative elections (11 septembrie 2011)
Partido Patriota (PP)
Unidad Nacional de la Esperanza (UNE)
Lider
Frente Republicano Guatemalteco (FRG)
Viva
seats
56
32
14
9
3
Encuentro por Guatemala (EG)
Partido Unionista (PU)
Centro de Accin Social (CASA)

Partido de Avanzada Nacional (PAN)
Union del Cambio Nacionalista (UCN)

Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca (URNG) -MAIZ
Unin Democrtica (UD)
4.8
4.5
4
3.2
1.4
5
3
5
2
1
End of the civil war of 30 years in 1996 (1960-1996) through the Peace Agreements
between the government and URNG.
30
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gt.html
22
Haiti (Rpublique d'Hati/Republik dAyti)

Capital: Port-au-Prince
Surface: 27.560 km
Population: 8.7 million (Black 95%, White and mestizo 5%)
Independence: 1 January 1804 (of France)
Official languages: French & Creole French
Constitution: 1987 abrogated several times: return to constitutional order in 2006.
Voting system: President: majoritarian for 5 years (cannot be reelected); Legislative: majoritarian in two rounds.
Executive: President (5 years): Ren Prval (2006-2011)
Last presidential elections (1st tour 28 November 2010; 2nd tour 20 March 2011)31
Mirlande Manigat (Rassemblement des Dmocrates Nationaux Progressistes d'Hati)
Michel Martelly (Reponz Peyizan)
Jude Celestine (INITE)
Previous presidential elections (2nd tour 19 March 2006)
Ren Prval (Front de lEspoir/Plate-forme LESPWA)
Francois Leslie Manigat (Rassemblement des Dmocrats Nationaux Progressistes RDNP)
Baker Charles Hanry Jean Marie (Respect/Resp)
Jeune Jean Chavaunes (Union Nationale Chrtienne pour la Reconstruction dHati UNION)
51.21%
12.40%
8.24%
5.59%
Legislative: National Assembly: Chamber of Deputies (99) 4 years; Senate (30) 6 years, 1/3 renewable
every 2 years
Last elections32 Chamber of Deputies
(1st round: 28 Nov 2010 2nd round 16 Jan 2011)
Alternativ
Inite
Lavni
Pont
Solidarit
Results Senate
(1st round: 28 Nov 2010 2nd round 16 Jan 2011)
Historical reminder
1957 -1986 Duvalier dynasty: Francois (1957-71) and Jean-Claude (Baby Doc) 1971-86
1990 democratic regime inaugurated
1990 1991 Jean Bertrand Aristide, ousted
1994 occupation force of the US
1994-6 Aristide back in office
1996-2000 Ren Prval
2000-2004 Aristide
2004-2006 US Marines
2006-2011 Ren Prval; certain restabilization
January 2010 earthquake (316.000 dead, over 1 mln homeless)
31
32
No definitive results yet (February 2011), just the positions of the first two candidates.
No definitive results yet (February 2011)
23
Honduras (Repblica de Honduras)

Capital: Tegucigalpa
Surface: 111.890 km.
Population: 7.4 million (mestizo 90%, Indian 7%, Black 1%)
Presidential republic: 18 departments
Constitution: 1982
Mandatory universal suffrage for over 18 years old
Voting system: President: simple majority; Legislative: PR
Executive: President: Juan Orlando Hernandez (PN) - 4 years mandate
Vice Presidents (3): Ricardo Antonio Alvarez Arias Ana Rossana Guevara Pintos
Lorena Enriqueta Herrera Estevez.
Last elections (24 November 2013)
Juan Orlando Hernandez (Partido Nacional)
Xiomara Castro de Zelaya (LIBRE)
36.89%
28.76%
Legislative: Unicameral national congress (128 members elected for 4 years - PR).
Partido Nacional de Honduras - PN
128
48
Partido Liberal de Honduras PL

Libertad y Refundacion PLR
Partido Anti Corupcion PAC
Partido Innovacin y Unidad PINU
Partido de Unificacin Democrtica UD
Partido Demcrata Cristiano de Honduras DC
27
37
13
1
1
1
Presidents democratically elected since the transition of 1981

Roberto Suazo Cordoba (PL)
1982-1986
Jos Azcona Hoyo (PL)
1986-1990
Rafael Leonardo Callejas (PN)
1990-1994
Carlos Roberto Reina (PL)
1994-1998
Carlos Roberto Flores Facusse (PL) 1998-2002
Ricardo Maduro Joest (PN)
2002-2006
Manuel Zelaya Rosales (PL)
2006-2009
Porfirio Lobo (PN)
2009-2013
The former president, Manuel Zelaya Rosales (2006-2009) PL was ousted in a coup 28
June 2009 led by the Congress. The President of Congress, Roberto Micheletti assumed
the interim presidency.
24
Mexico (Estados Unidos Mexicanos)

Capital: Ciudad de Mxico
Population: 108.7 million (mestizo 60%, Indian 30%, White 9%)
Independence: 16 September 1810 (of Spain) recognized in 1821
Presidential federal republic divided in 31 States and 1 federal district
Constitution: 1917
Voting system33
President: elected with simple majority (1 round)
Chamber of Deputies: 300 representatives in uninominal circumscriptions and 200 members
elected by PR in plurinominal circumscriptions
Chamber of Senators: 96 in trinominal circumscriptions and 32 through PR
Executive: President (6 years34): Enrique Pena Nieto (2012) PRI
Legislative: Union Congress (Congreso de la Unin):
Chamber of Deputies (Cmara Federal de Diputados) 500 members for 3 years
Chamber of Senators (Cmara de Senadores) 128 members elected for 6 years
Last presidential elections (1 July 2012)

Enrique Pea Nieto (PRI)
Josefina Vazquez Mota (PAN)
Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (PRD)
Last legislative elections (1 July 2012)36
PRI
PAN
PRD
PVEM
PT
Nueva Alianza
Movimiento Ciudadano
38.2 %
25.4 %
31.535 %
Chamber of Deputies
207
114
101
33
19
10
16
Main political parties

Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI)
Partido Accin Nacional (PAN)
Partido de la Revolucin Democrtica (PRD)
Chamber of Senators
52
38
22
9
4
1
2
1929-2000 in government
33
Voting is mandatory
The president cannot be reelected. Senators and deputies cannot be reelected for a successive
mandate.
35
La alegerile precedente, diferena ntre cei 2 candidai, Caldern i Obrador a fost de 0.56 (sau
233.831 de voturi). Vezi decizia Tribunal Electoral del Poder Judicial de la Federacin du 5
septembre 2006 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/142535.html
36
Mandate
34
25
26
Mexico Chiefs of state

Mexican Empire
1821-1823 Agustin de Iturbide
The republic (1823-1864)
1823 Pedro Celestino Negrete; Mariano Michelena; Nicols Bravo; Miguel Domnguez
1823-1824 Vicente Guerrero; Miguel Domnguez; Mariano Michelena
1824 Nicols Bravo; Guadalupe Victoria; Vicente Guerrero; Miguel Domnguez
1824-1829 Guadalupe Victoria
1829 Lucas Alamn; Luis Quintanar ; Jos Mara Bocanegra; Vicente Guerrero; Pedro Vlez
1830 - 1832 Anastasio Bustamante
1832 Melchor Mzquiz
1832-1833 Manuel Gmez Pedraza
1833 Valentn Gmez Faras; Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna
1833 - 1834 Valentn Gmez Faras
1834 - 1835 Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna
1835 - 1836 Miguel Barragn
1836 - 1837 Jos Justo Corro
1839 Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna ; Nicols Bravo
1841 - 1841 Francisco Javier Echeverra
1842 - 1843 Nicols Bravo
1843 Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna
1843 - 1844 Valentn Canalizo
1844 Valentn Canalizo; Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna; Jos Joaqun de Herrera
1844 - 1845 Jos Joaqun de Herrera
1845 - 1846 Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga
1846 Nicols Bravo; Jos Mariano Salas
1846 - 1847 Valentn Gmez Faras
1847 Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna; Pedro Mara Anaya; Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna;
Manuel de la Pea y Pea
1847 - 1848 Pedro Mara Anaya
1848 Manuel de la Pea y Pea
1848 - 1851 Jos Joaqun de Herrera
1851 - 1853 Mariano Arista
1853 Juan Bautista Ceballos; Manuel Mara Lombardini;
1855 Martn Carrera; Rmulo Diaz de la Vega; Juan Alvarez
1855-1857 Ignacio Comonfort
1857 - 1861 Benito Jurez
1858 Flix Mara Zuloaga
1858 - 1859 Manuel Robles Pezuela
1859 Jos Mariano Salas
1859-1860 Miguel Miramn
1860 Jos Ignacio Pavn; Miguel Miramn
1861 - 1865 Benito Jurez
1863 Pelagio Antonio de Labastida; Juan N. Almonte; Jos Mariano Salas
1863-1864 Jos Mariano Salas; Pelagio Antonio de Labastida; Juan N. Almonte
Empire
1864-1867 Maximilien I de Habsburg (empereur)
The republic (1867-today)
1865-1872 Benito Jurez
27
1872-1876 Sebastin Lerdo de Tejada

1876 Porfirio Diaz
1876-1877 Jos Mara Iglesias
1876-1877 Juan N. Mndez
1877-1880 Porfirio Diaz
1880-1884 Manuel Gonzlez
Porfiriato
1884-1910 Porfirio Diaz37
During the Mexican revolution
1911 Francisco Len de la Barra
1911-1913 Francisco Madero
1913 Pedro Lascurain
1913-1914 Victoriano Huerta
1913-1917 Venustiano Carranza
1914 Francisco Carvajal
1914-1915 Eulalio Gutirrez
1915 Roque Gonzlez Garza
1915 Francisco Lagos Chzaro
After the constitution of 1917
1917-1920 Venustiano Carranza
1920 Adolfo de la Huerta
1920-1924 Alvaro Obregn
PNR (Revolutionary National Party)
1924-1928 Plutarco Elas Calles
1928-1930 Emilio Portes Gil
1930-1932 Pascual Ortiz Rubio
1932-1934 Abelardo L. Rodrguez
PRM (Mexican Revolution Party)
1934-1940 Lzaro Crdenas
PRI (Revolutionary Institutional Party)
1940-1946 Manuel vila Camacho
1946 - 1952 Miguel Alemn Valds
1952 - 1958 Adolfo Ruiz Cortines
1958 - 1964 Adolfo Lpez Mateos
1964 - 1970 Gustavo Daz Ordaz
1970 - 1976 Luis Echeverra
1976 - 1982 Jos Lpez Portillo
1982 - 1988 Miguel de la Madrid
1988 - 1994 Carlos Salinas de Gortari
1994 - 2000 Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Len
Democracy
2000-2006 Vicente Fox - PAN
2006- present Felipe Caldern PAN
37
1876-1880, 1884-1888, 1888-1892, 1892-1896, 1896-1900, 1904-1910, 1910-1911.
28
Nicaragua (Repblica de Nicaragua)

Capital: Managua
Surface: 120.254 km
Population: 5.6 million (Mestizo 69%, White 17%, Black 9%, Indian 5%)
Presidential republic divided in 15 departments and 2 autonomous regions (Atlantico
Nord and Atlantico Sur).
Voting system: president & vice-president elected together for 5 years (one round, the
candidate that obtains 45% or at least 35% with a difference of 5% of the following
candidate); legislative: vote proportional (PR). Since 2014 the president can be
elected without any term limits.
Constitution: 1987
Executive - President: Daniel Ortega (2007-2012)
Vice-president: Jaime Rene Morales Carazo
Daniel Ortega FSLN
Fabio Gadea Partido Liberal Independiente
Arnold Aleman PLC
62%
31.1%
5.6%
Preceding elections (5 November 2006)

Daniel Ortega FSLN
Eduardo Montealegre Rivas ALN
Jos Rizo Castellon PLC
Edmundo Jarquin Calderon MRS
Eden Atanacio Pastora Gomez AC
38%
29%
26%
6.4%
0.2%
Legislative: National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional) 9438 members for 5 years

Frente Sandinista de Liberacin Nacional FSLN
62
Alianza Liberal Independiente
26
Partido Liberal Constitucionalista PLC
2
Historical reminder
1936 1979 Somoza dynasty 39
1979 1990 FSLN40 government (Sandinist Front of National Liberation)
Presidents since the transition in 1990
Violeta Barrios Torres de Chamorro (UNO)
Jos Arnoldo Alemn Lacayo (PLC)
Enrique Bolaos Geyer (PLC)
Daniel Ortega (FSLN)
1990-1997
1997-2002
2002-2007
2007-2012
38
20 deputies elected in national circumscriptions and 70 in departmental circumscriptions and autonomous

regions. Are part of the Assembly the ex-president and ex-vice-president as well as the candidates for the
posts of president and vice-president that came second at the last elections http://www.asamblea.gob.ni
39
Anastasio Somoza Garca 1937-1947, 1950-1951 et 1951-1956 (assassinated). Luis A. Somoza
Debayle 1956-1957 after the death of his father and then elected : 1957-1963 et Anastasio Somoza
Debayle 1967-1972 ; 1974-1979.
40
www.fsln-nicaragua.com/
29
Panama (Repblica de Panam)

Capital: Ciudad de Panam
Surface: 75.990 km
Population: 3.2 million (mestizo 70%, Indian 20%, White, 10%)
Independence: 1903 (of Colombia)41
Presidential republic divided in 9 provinces and 1 territory
Constitution: 1972 (reformed in 1978, 1983, 1994, and 2004)
Voting system: President: majority. Legislative: mixed (majority and PR)
Executive: President: Juan Carlos Varela (2014) PAN
1st vice-president: Isabel Saint Malo
Elected together for 5 years and cannot be reelected immediately (must wait 10 years).
%
39.1
Juan Carlos Varela (Partido Panamenista)
Jose Domingo Arias (Cambio Democratico) 31.4
Juan Carlos Navaroo (PRevolucionario Democratico) 28.1
Previous elections (3 May 2009)
Ricardo Martinelli (Alianza por el cambio)
Balbina Herrera (Un pas para todos)
Previous elections (2 May 2004)
Martn Erasto Torrijos Espino42 (PRD)
Guilleromo Endara- Solidaridad
Jos Miguel Alman - Partido Arnulfista
59.97%
37.7
%
47
30
10
Legislative: Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Legislativa) 71 members elected for 5 years

Last elections (2014)
71
Partido Revolucionario Democrtica PRD

Cambio Democrtico CD
Partido Panameista PAN
Movimiento Liberal Republicano Nacionalista Molirena
Partido Popular PP
Independeni
25
20
12
2
1
1
Presidents since the fall of Noriega in december 1989

Guillermo Endara Galimany (ADOC43) 1989-1994
Ernesto Prez Balladares (PRD) 1994-1999
Mireya Moscoso (PA)
1999-2004
Martn Torrijos Espino (PRD)
2004-2008
The Panama Channel
15 aug 1914: Inauguration of the Panama channel
20 dec 1989: the US invades the country and deposes the general Manuel Noriega.
31 dec 1999: the channel is given to Panama. During this time, the US reserves the right to
intervene militarily any time so as to guarantee the neutrality of the Channel.
+ since the 1994 constitutional reform (Art 305) Panama has no army
41
Panama won its independence from Spain and joined in 1822 Grand Colombia de Simn Bolvar.
Son of the ex dictator Omar Torrijos (1968-1981)
43
Elected in may 1989 from the ADOC - Alianza de Partidos Polticos de Oposicin.
42
30
Paraguay (Repblica de Paraguay/Tet Paraguay)

Capital: Asuncin
Surface: 397.300 km
Population: 6.6 million (mestizo 95%, others 5%)
Official languages: Spanish & Guaran
Independence: 14 May 1811 (of Spain)
Presidential republic divided in 17 departments and the capital
Constitution: 1992
Voting system: President: majoritarian in two rounds; Legislative: PR with lists
Suffrage: 18 years, universal and mandatory (until75 years)
Executive: President (5 years): Horacio Cartes (2013) PC , Vice-president: Juan Afara
Elected together for only one mandate of 5 years
Last presidential elections (21 April 2013)
Horacio Cartes (Partido Colorado)

Fernando
Lugo(Alianza
(Alianza
Patritica para el Cambio - APC)
Efrain
Alegre
Paraguay)
Mario Ferrero (Avanza Pais)
Anibal Carrillo (Frente Guasu)
45.83
%
36.9
5.8
3.3
Legislative National Congress (Congreso Nacional) :

Chamber of Deputies (Cmara de Diputados) - 80 for 5 years (PR)
Chamber of Senators (Cmara de Senadores) 45 for 5 years (PR)
Last legislative elections (21 April 2013)
Asociacin Nacional Republicana/Partido Colorado (ANR)
Partido Liberal Radical Autntico (PLRA)
Unin Nacional de Ciudadanos ticos (UNACE)
Frente Guasu
80
45
26
2
1
45
19
13
2
5
Avanza Pais
Partido Encuentro Nacional
Pasion Chaquena Alliance
Patria Querida PPQ
2
2
1
1
2
1
-
Partido Democratico Progresista
Presidents elected since the fall of Stroessner (1954-1989)

Gnral Andrs Rodrguez Pedotti44 (PC)
Juan Carlos Wasmosy Monti (PC)
Ral Cubas Grau (ANR-PC)
Luis Angel Gonzlez Macchi45 (ANR-PC)
Nicanor Duarte Frutos (ANR-PC)
Fernando Lugo
1989-1993
1993-1998
1998-1999
1999-2003
2003-2008
2008-2012 evicted from power by the
Parliament in a coup.
44
Stroessners son in law he takes power after the coup dtat of February 3 1989 and is elected 1 may
1989.
45
The president of the Chamber of Senators who assumed power after president Cubas left.
31
Peru (Repblica del Per)

Capital: Lima
Population: 28.6 million (Indian 45%, White 15%, Black, Japanese, Chinese and other 3%)
Official languages: Spanish & Quechua
Independence: 28 July 1821 (of Spain)
Presidential republic divided in 25 regions and a province Lima.
Constitution: 1993
Voting system: president: majoritarian in two rounds + 2 vice-presidents elected together for
a mandate of 5 years and can be reelected but not immediately; legislative preferential vote
one national circumscription, dHondt formula
Suffrage: 18 years universal and mandatory (until 70 years)
Executive: President: Ollanta Humala (2011) - 5 years
Vice-presidents: Marisol Espinoza; Omar Chehade Moya
Last presidential elections (10 April & 5 June 2011)
Ollanta Humala (Alianza Gana Peru)
Keiko Fujimori (Fuerza 2011)
1st %
2nd %
31
51
23
48
Legislative: Congress of the Republic (Congreso de la Repblica) 120 members for 5 years
(PR).
Last legislative elections (10 April 2011)
Gana Per
Fuerza 2011
Alianza Electoral Per Posible
Alianza por el Gran Cambio
Alianza Solidaridad Nacional
Partido Aprista Peruano
Presidents since 198046
Fernando Belaunde Terry
Alan Garca Prez
Alberto Fujimori48
Valentn Paniagua
Alejandro Toledo
Alan Garca Prez
seats
47
37
21
12
9
4
1980-198547
1985-1990
1990-2000
2000-2001
2001-2006
2006-2011
46
1968-1980 military government

First mandate 1963-1968
48
At the 1990 elections Fujimori won face to the writer Mario Vargas Llosa.
47
32
Uruguay (Repblica Oriental del Uruguay)

Capital: Montevideo
Surface: 173.620 km
Population: 3.4 million (White 88%, mestizo 8%, and black 4%)
Independence: 25 August 1825 (of Brazil)
Languages: Spanish and Portunol (Spanish with Portuguese spoken at the Brazilian frontier)
Constitution: 1966 (reforms in 1989 and 1997)
Voting system
President: majoritarian in two rounds (since 1996)
Legislative: PR with blocked lists using Double Simultaneous Vote
Suffrage: 18 years, universal and mandatory
Executive: President: Tabare Vazquez (March 2015) FA
Vice-president: - Raul Sendic. Elected together for 5 years
Last presidential elections (2014)
Tabar Vzquez (Broad Front - FA)
49
56
Louis Alberto Lacalle Pou (PN)
31
43
Previous elections (1st: 25 Oct 2009 2nd: 29 Nov 2009)

Jos Mujica (Frente Amplio)
Luis Alberto Lacalle (PN)
Pedro Bordaberry49 (PC)
%
47.9
29
17
Previous presidential elections (31 October 2004)
%
52.3
43
%
Tabar Ramn Vzquez Rosas (FA-EP-NM)

Jorge Larraaga (Partido Nacional-Blancos)
Jorge Luis Batlle Ibez (Partido Colorado)
50.5
35.1
10.3
Legislative: General Assembly (Asamblea General): Chamber of Deputies (Cmara de

Diputados) and Chamber of Senators (Cmara de Senadores)
Chamber of Deputies (99) 5 years PR
Chamber of Senators (31) 5 years PR 30 senators + the vice-president who presides
Last legislative elections (25 October 2009)
Frente Amplio 50
Partido Nacional-Blancos PN
Partido Colorado PC
Partido Independiente PI
Presidents since the transition

Julio Mara Sanguinetti (Colorado)
Luis Alberto Lacalle (Blanco)
Julio Mara Sanguinetti (Colorado)
Jorge Batlle (Colorado)
Tabar Vzquez (Frente Amplio)
99 31
50 16
30 9
17 5
2
1985-1990
1990-1995
1995-2000
2000-2005
2005-2010
49
Son of former dictator Juan Maria Bordaberry (1973-1976)

FA is formed of: Asamblea Uruguay AU; Confluencia Frenteamplio CFA; Corriente 78 C78;
Movimiento de Participacin Popular MPP; Partido Demcrata; Cristiano del Uruguay PDCU;
Partido Comunista del Uruguay PCU; Partido de los Comunes PdlC; Partido Socialista del Uruguay
PSU; Vertiente Artiguista - VA
50
33
Venezuela (Repblica Bolivariana de Venezuela)

Capital: Caracas
Surface: 882.050 km
Population: 26 million
Independence: 5 July 1811 (until 1830 part of Grand Colombia with Columbia and Ecuador)
Presidential federal republic: 23 states and a federal district with a federal dependency
Constitution: 1999
Voting system: president (6 years, can be reelected once) majoritarian with 1 round; legislative: PR, 5
years (renewable twice)
Executive: President - Nicolas Maduro (2013)
Vice-president: Jorge Alberto Arreaza (2013) named by the president.6 year term with no limitations to
reelection.
Last elections (14 April 2013)
Nicolas Maduro (PSUV)
Henrique Capriles (MUD)
%
50.6%
49.1
Last election of Chavez (7 October 2012)

Hugo Rafael Chvez Fraz (Gran Polo Patriotico)
Henrique Capriles (MUD)
%
55
44
Legislative: National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional) 16751 members with a 5 years mandate
Last elections (September 2010)
167
PSUV (Partido Socialista Unido de Venezuela)
96
MUD (Mesa de la Unidad democratica)

PPT (Patria Para Todos)
64
2
Previous elections (4 December 2005)
167
Movimiento Quinta Repblica MVR

116
Por la Democracia Social Podemos
18
Patria para Todos PPT
9
Partido Comunista de Venezuela PCV
7
Consejo Nacional Indio de Venezuela CONIVE
2
MiGente
2
Other
10
Chronology Hugo Chavez
4 Feb. 1992 missed coup of Chavez
6 Dec. 1998 he is elected president
15 Dec. 1999 - referendum on the new Constitution
30 July 2000 - reelected
12 April 2002 missed coup against him
15 August 2004 - Referendum for his revocation (59% against)
3 Dec. 2006 reelected for a new mandate of 6 years
December 2007 referendum for the Constitutional reform (eliminate term limits) 51 % No
15 February 2009 the same referendum was approved (54% Yes)
51
3 seats reserved to Indians.
34
The most important regional organizations
ALBA
Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas
CAN Andean Community of Nations
(Andean Pact 1969-1996)
MERCOSUR
Southern Common Market
2004
1996
1991
5/10
Planned
for 2005
replaced
by FTAs
1994
34
Cuba, Venezuela, Bolivia, Nicaragua, Honduras

and Dominica.
Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru
(until recently also Venezuela)
Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Venezuela
(associated countries: Bolivia, Chile, Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru)
The same as OAS without Cuba
Canada, United States, Mexico
2004
UNASUR
Union of South American Nations
(project not yet approved by all countries )
OAS
Organization of American States
2008
12
1948
35
SICA
Central American system of integration
1991
CARICOM
Caribbean Community
1973
15
Costa Rica, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Guatemala,

Honduras, Dominican Republic
The member countries of MERCOSUR and CAN
with Chile, Guyana and Suriname (=the 12
countries of South America)
(1948) Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
Costa Rica, Cuba, Chile, Ecuador, El Salvador,
United States, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras,
Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru,
Dominican Republic, Uruguay, Venezuela.
Have also joined: Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago,
Jamaica, Grenada, Suriname, Dominica, St Lucia,
Antigua and Barbuda, St Vincent and Grenadines,
Bahamas, St Kitts and Nevis, Canada, Belize and
Guyana.
Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras,
Nicaragua, Panama and Belize (Dominican
Republic is an associated state and Mexico has the
statute of regional observer)
Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados,
Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti,
Jamaica, Montserrat, St Lucia, St. Kitts and
Nevis, St. Vincent and Grenadine, Suriname,
Trinidad and Tobago. (associated states: Anguilla,
Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands,
Turks and Caicos Islands)
FTAA
Free Trade Area of the Americas
(project to extend NAFTA)
NAFTA
North American Free Trade Agreement
CAFTA DR - US
35
36
The discovery of Latin America52

The discovery voyages of Christopher Columbus
1. The first journey 3 august 1492: the discovery of America: October 12 149253
(Columbus is admiral and vice-king & perpetual governor of the lands he
discovers accordingly to the capitulaciones signed with the Kings in Santa Fe)
- He discovers Bahamas, Cuba and Santo-Domingo
- He is ennobled and is officially named Admiral of the Oceanic Sea and Viceking General Governor of the Indies.
nd
2. 2 journey of confirmation (25 October 1493)
Treaty of Tordesillas (7 June 1494): draw a line between the two poles (a
parallel was changed for a meridian saving thus the localization of what
Columbus already discovered: Portugal had thus open road to the Indies and
for Castile this guaranteed that what Columbus discovered remained under its
property). The line of demarcation was fixed at 370 leagues west from the Cap
Vert between the lands attributable to the two countries. The Portuguese
colonize then Africa, China and India whereas the Spanish seize the Americas.
3. the 3rd journey (30 May - 31 August 1498) the letter narration of Columbus of
this voyage is among the most important as it includes among others: a new vision
of the Earth, a new geodesic order replacing that of Ptolemy, the explanation and
placement of terrestrial paradise (on the coast of Venezuela)54.
Francisco de Bobadilla is appointed replacing governor (21 May 1499) and
arrives in Santo Domingo 23 August 1500. Columbus returns in Spain and is
imprisoned and then liberated by the kings; follows a period of two years of
processes with the Crown before the last voyage of 1502.
4. 4th and last journey of Columbus: 1502. He leaves as an explorer and docks in
Panama where he finds gold.
Juan de Fonseca was responsible of the discoveries (1499-1509) after the dishonor of
Columbus following his 3rd voyage. He will be in charge of the discoveries of the
terra firma (Isthmus of Panama).55
1. The voyage of Alonso de Ojeda, Juan de la Cosa and Amrico Vespucio (30
May 1499).
2. The voyage of Cristbal Guerra et Alonso Nio (June 1499)
3. The voyage of Vicente and Aez Pinzn (December 1499): discover Brazil
which they called el Rostro Hermoso (The beautiful face) (24 January 1500)56.
4. The voyage of Diego de Lepe (January 1500) who discovers a part of the
Brazilian coast.
52
Sources: Jess Varela Marcos, Los descubrimientos espaoles en el Nuevo Mundo in Juan B.
Amores Carredano (ed.), Histora de Amrica (Barcelona: Ariel, 2006), pp.165-215.
53
At that date Columbus and his people dock on the island of Guanahami in the Bahamas, which they
call San Salvador (the sacred flavor).
54
He calls Indians slaves and Queen Isabel imprisons him, he loses then his title as Vice-king but keeps
that of Admiral.
55
The discovery of the new continent was represented in the painting of the map of Juan de la Casa of
1500. In 1507 a first book called for the first time the New World based on the book Mondus Novus
of Amrico Vespucio.
56
Varela Marcos, p. 193
37
5. The voyage of Pedro Alvarez Cabral (March 1500) the history of the
Brazilian nation begins with the expedition of Cabral who discovers the new
land of Vera Cruz
6. The voyage of Alonso Vlez de Mendoza and Luis Guerra (September 1500)
is marked politically by the Portuguese discovery of Cabral.
7. The voyage of Rodrigo de Bastidas and Juan de la Cosa (July 1501).
8. The high voyage of Christopher Columbus (9 May 1502). His mission was
to make the tour of the world and his legal situation was similar with that of
the discoverers with a contract or capitulaciones.
9. The voyage of de Juan Daz de Sols-Vicente and Aez Pinzn (1508-1509).
This expedition had magnificent geographic and cartographic results
prolonging with 300 leagues to the north what was known but was disastrous
from a geopolitical point of view.
The great conquests: from the Caribbean to the Pacific57
1. The first nucleus of expansion: from the Caribbean islands and more precisely
La Espaola (Santo Domingo): between 1492-1528 the expeditions are
directed to the islands (Puerto Rico, Jamaica and Cuba) and after to the Terra
Firma where is founded Santa Mara la Antigua del Darin, creating the
Government of Castilla del Oro from where will follow the expansion to
Mexico and the north of Venezuela.
2. A second nucleus of expansion is constituted of Panam between 1509 and
1519. From here the Spanish influence extends to the north to the close
territories of Central America; the South Sea was discovered and they arrived
to Peru.
3. Once conquered the capital (Tenochtitlan) of the Aztec empire (Mexico) it
became the capital of the first vice-royalty (New Spain). From here they leave
for Central America and the rest of the northern territory of Mexico as well as
most part of the South of the US.
4. Once submitted the Inca Empire, Peru 1532-1535 constituted the 4th nucleus
of continental expansion. From there they arrived to the north, to the kingdom
of Quito and the New Grenade and, to the south, is covered what will be the
High Peru and most part of the nowadays Chile (up to the frontier of the river
Bio-Bio).
5. Other expansive secondary centers58: the island of Cuba (to Florida), Quito (to
the Amazon), Asuncin (to Ro de la Plata and all the South-East coast of the
Andes).
The great conquerors
Mexico Hernando Corts (1519-1521)
Peru Francisco Pizarro (1524-1532)
Chile Pedro de Valdivia (1535-1540)
[Aztec - Tenochtitlan Montezuma]

[Inca - Tawantinsuyu Atahualpa]
57
Ibid., p. 215
Mexico (1519-1521), Santo Domingo (1492-1528), Cuba (1511), Peru (1532-1535), Asuncin
(1537), Central America (1523-1525), Venezuela (1520), Bogota (1538), Quito (1534), Santiago
(1541), Buenos Aires (1536-1580), Rio de Janeiro (1555), Santa Fe (1609).
58
38
Colonial administration of Latin America59

During the 16th and 17th c. two viceroyalties were created: New Spain (Nueva Espaa 1535)
and Peru (1543) included all the territories South of Panam. They were rejoined at the
administrative level by the Audiencia of Hispaniola (Santo Domingo).
Garca-Gallo established the following stages (juridical-institutional nature):
1. viceroyalty of Christopher Columbus (1492-1499)
2. system of provinces and governments (gobernaciones) (1500-1511)
3. reestablishment of the Columbian viceroyalty (1511-1523)
4. return to the system of gobernaciones (1524-1535)
5. the great districts (1535-1565): the viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru and the
Audiencias: Santo Domingo, Guatemala, Santa Fe & Manilla.
6. the consolidation of the system (1565-1750)
Territorial restructuration in the 18th c.
1. viceroyalty of New Spain (1535)
2. viceroyalty of Peru (1543)
3. viceroyalty of New Grenade (1739) Santa Fe (audiencias of Santa Fe, Panam and
Quito with the gobernaciones of Venezuela, Margarita and Nueva Andaluca or
Cuman)
4. viceroyalty of Ro de la Plata (1776) (gobernaciones of Charcas, Tucumn, Cuyo,
Paraguay and Buenos Aires)
5. The general commandment of the North interior provinces of New Spain (1776)
6. Capitana General of Caracas (1777) gobernaciones of Caracas, Maracaibo,
Cuman, Guayana, Margarita, Guayana and Trinidad (later forming the Venezuelan
nationality).
7. Capitana General of Chile 1778 (independent from the viceroyalty of Peru)
1. Metropolitan institutions of government (16th - 18th c.)
Casa de Contratacin (The House of Trade) trade and immigration
(Decrees of 1503 revised in 1510, 1531, 1539 and 1552)
Having as a reference the Portuguese Casa de India, the Catholic kings established in
1503 the Casa de Contratacin with the headquarters in Seville. The new institution was
born with the clear purpose of dealing with the organization of the Indian trade and of all
that was related to it. It was an organism destined to the control, inspection, register and
tax of all that affected the relations and contracts with the New World.
The competences of the Casa de Contratacin covered 4 domains: control and tax of the
trade with the Indies, control of the passengers (control of the population that immigrated
each year in the Indies), civil and criminal jurisdiction (acted as an independent tribunal
from the Audiencia of Seville) and diffusion of knowledge on navigation (1552 the first
school of navigation of Europe).
Council of the Indies (El Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias)60
In 1524 was nominated its first president Garca de Loaysa, bishop of Osma and
confessor of Charles V. The Council was since its creation the superior organism in
charge of the universal government of Indian affairs, distinct and independent of the other
Councils of the Peninsula. Together with the creation of the Real Audiencia of Hispaniola
it confirmed the character of kingdom of the new lands. A kingdom incorporated to the
Crown of Castile as another part of the Hispanic Monarchy. Until its creation, all the
questions regarding the New World were dealt with by the Council of Castile.
The faculties of the Council extended to all that was relative to the administration,
government and direction of the affairs concerning the Indies, always establishing itself
as a supreme instance. The Council was formed initially of a president, three councilors, a
59
Miguel Molina Martnez, La organizacin administrativa de las Indias in Juan. B. Amores

Carredano, Historia de Amrica (Madrid: Ariel, 2006), pp. 261-283.
60
La normativa plasmada en la Recopilacin de Leyes de los Reinos de Indias de 1680.
39
secretary, a prosecutor (the defense of the royal jurisdiction, of the patronage of the
monarch of the Indian Church and the Real Hacienda as of the Indians), a lawyer, a
relator, an accountant and a guardian. In 1528 was created the post of great chancellor
and in 1571 the one of cosmographer and major chronicler (in charge of writing the
official history of the New World).
2. Institutions of government in the Indies
The Vice-King
Personal representative of the monarch, this post was the pillar on which stood since the
mid 16th c. the foundation and consolidation of the Kingdom of the Indies. In what
concerns the government, the vice-king acted as the maxim executive power to administer
the viceroyalty in all its issues except those that the monarch reserved for himself.
The presidents-governors & governors (gobernadores)
An important figure in the Indies, the governor was nominated by the king and exerted
the political government at the territorial level of gobernaciones or provinces. Major
provinces were those that had the same district as that of a Real Audiencia and that had
the capital in the headquarters of the gobernacion. Those that were not conforming to this
model were minor provinces or simply gobernaciones, generally situated in the most
remote zones. In the first case, the holders were presidents-governors and in the second,
simply governors. The presidents-governors exerted their jurisdiction on all the district of
the Audiencia and were invested by the same superior government as the vice-kings of
the New Spain or Peru.
Major Mayors (alcaldes mayores) (New Spain) & corregidores (Peru)
Representatives of the government at the local level (mayors)
Alcaldes mayores prevailed the juridical aspect & corregidores major weight of the
political
Cabildos (municipal council)
The local level of the Indian political-administrative structure was represented by the
Cabildos. The Cabildo appeared as the manifestation of the political power of the cities
recently founded and as spoke-person of the demands and aspirations of their inhabitants.
Those responsible were the alcaldes/mayors (justice) and regidores/counselors
(regiments). The regidores constituted the city administration. When, at the beginning of
the 17th c. the selling of the posts was generalized and the institution lost grand part of its
representative character and facilitated the access of pressure groups or families that
controlled them.
The Cabildo abierto (open) consisted of the reunion of neighbors to debate the problems
and adopt agreements that concerned them.
The Cabildo de indios (of Indians) base of the political organization of the Indian
people. Its structure was a true reflection of the castellan model and was composed of two
mayors and other 2 or 4 regidores, all Indian.
Audiencias justice (civil and criminal jurisdiction)
Their creation was the answer to the necessity of give justice between vassals, to its
defense face to the abuses of the governors and, in the same time, to the imperative of
protecting its own rights to what was linked to the Real Patronato or to the Real
Hacienda. From the beginning the juridical competences in the Indies were in the hands
of Christopher Columbus and the first tribunal was created in Hispaniola in 1511. The
territorial delimitations of the districts of the Audiencias were always imprecise because
of the geographical ignorance that the Council of the Indies itself had at the time of its
creation.
In the 17th c. there were 3 types:
1) Viceroyal audiencias were those presided by the viceroy and that had their
headquarters in the capital of the viceroyalty (Mexico and Lima)
40
2) Audiencias pretoriales corresponded to those controlled by the presidents-governors of

the province (Santo Domingo, Santa Fe, Guatemala, Buenos Aires and Manila);
3) Subordinated audiencias those that had as president none of the authorities
(Guadalajara, Qito, Charcas, Chile).
They were formed of: a president, oidores (magistrates next to the king that judged the
causes) and the prosecutors (especially what was related to the church patronage), to
those was added in the 18th c. the figure of the regent.
Real Hacienda (Treasury)
Since their discovery, the Indies were considered the royal patrimony of the Catholic Kings as
well as of their successors that possessed them as their own goods and could establish thus
any type of privilege and tributary imposition. 61 Four functions since 1501: treasurer,
accountant, factor (control of the selling and distribution) and veedor (taxes). In 1605,
through the creation of the Tribunals of Accounts of Mexico, Lima and Santa Fe, this
structure was modified; the latter begun to be responsible for the taxation of the work of royal
officials. In fact, they acted as true Audiencias in what regards treasury.
War (defense of the new lands & protection of the maritime traffic)
This branch of government depended of the council of the Indies and since the beginning of
the 17th c of the Junta of War. Even if this can seem strange, the defense of the Indies was not
in the hands of a regular army. Nonetheless, the prolonged war in Chile with the Araucanos
(Indian people from the South) led to the creation of a professional army in 1602.
v Spanish defensive system

Three echelons: the defense of Atlantic routes, of the maritime routes of the
Caribbean and the Pacific and the terrestrial population nucleus established there.
v American piracy62
Lasted almost two centuries and ended with the peace of Ryswick of 1697.
Manuel Lucena Salmoral divided piracy in 5 periods:
1521-1568 French piracy dominates
1569-1621 the continuation of the English sea dogs and the beginning of
Dutch piracy
1622-1655 the great Dutch offensive and Libertarian: buccaneers and beginning
of the filibusters; ends with the take of Jamaica in 1655
1656-1671 apogee of filibusters and ends with the take of Panama by Morgan
1672-1697 the agony of filibusters that chased by England is used only by
France as a support of its crews in the Caribbean.
September 30 1697, France, Spain, England and Holland signed the peace of
Ryswick that also meant the reconnaissance of the French sovereignty on the
western part of Hispaniola and the end of the filibusters. Piracy disappeared when
it ceased to be functional.
Visits & residence judgments controls of functionaries and institutions.
The 18th c. reforms
The arrival of the Bourbons on the Spanish throne supposed the beginning of a period of
significant and prolonged changes for the Indies. Even if it is commonly considered that the
reforms that affected Latin America happened essentially in the 2nd half of the 18th c., it is
from the beginning of the century that the Spanish Crown was looking for new formulas to
61
El quinto real tax on the fifth part of the minerals extracted.

Pirate was the maritime attacker that acted on his own which distinguished him from the corsair
who acted at the service of a crown that entrusted a free pass in exchange of a part of the plunder. The
buccaneers were pirates exclusively American that took their name form the Caribbean word, boucan,
which signified to roast meat as well as the artifact that they used for this purpose. Filibusters
appeared as true libertarian pirates but afterwards were used by different European countries in their
colonial pretentions. Ibid., p. 298.
62
41
revitalize and maintain the international power of Spain: modernize and reactivate to obtain a
major economic development capable to generate revenues.
Political-administrative and defense reforms (reaffirm the authority of the monarch)
1714 Secretary of the Marine and the Indies the Council of the Indies remained thus as a
consultative organ and a justice tribunal.
1754 Fernando VI separated the two secretaries and created one more specialized, the
Secretary of Universal Dispatch of the Indies dedicated exclusively to Indian questions
1787 Charles III divided the Secretary and created two new ones: one for ecclesiastic affairs,
grace and justice and another for war, treasury, trading and navigation. They were
coordinated by a Supreme State Junta.
1790 Charles IV suppressed the two Secretaries and distributed the affairs of the Indies in 5
Spanish secretaries centralizing and unifying the administration of the kingdom.
Territorial restructuration:
1717 New Grenada; Audiencias of Quito and Panam suspended until 1720 when they were
reestablished as parts of the viceroyalty of Peru and in 1739 they passed again to New
Grenade
The ministry of the Indies of Jos de Glvez (1776-1787) reinforces the defense and
develops the economy of the great zones until then marginal
1776 Viceroyalty of Ro de la Plata
1776 The general commandment of the Northern Interior Provinces of New Spain with the
purpose of tracing a defensive line that united the territory comprised between California and
the Gulf of Mexico.
1776 Intendencia of Caracas
1777 Capitana General de Venezuela
1778 Capitana General de Chile separated of the viceroyalty of Peru.
Important modifications in the administration of justice
1776 is created the Regente de audiencia control the tribunals. Thus appears a juridical
bureaucracy more efficient and independent. The introduction of the system of intendencias
since 1765 to control more effectively Indian administration. This system encountered the
important opposition of the authorities (as in Cuba in 1764) and of the Council of the Indies
and thus its expansion was suspended. Afterwards, the 1st intendencia was created in Caracas
in 1776. The promulgation of the Ordinance of Army Intendentes and Province of Rio de la
Plata in 1782: creation of 8 provinces. In 1784 the regime of intendencia is applied in Peru:
7 intendencias with a superintendencia in Lima. In Chile 3, in Cuenca in the Audiencia of
Quito and in the Audiencia of Guatemala 4 provinces. The unique territory that remained
outside this project was that of New Grenade. The main success of intendencias must be
situated in the economic field because this brought an augmentation of revenues.
Commercial liberalization
The decree of October 1765 authorized Cuba, Puerto Rico, Santo Domingo, Margarita and
Trinidad to trade directly with other peninsular ports without navigation license and with a
more simple fiscal system. In the years that followed, the new system was extended to
Louisiana, Campeche, Riocacha and Santa Marta in New Grenade, while was authorized
trading inter-regionally between the different American areas (1774).
1778 Free Trade Regulation authorized trade directly between 12 ports and 24 of the Indies
even though reserving them exclusively to the Spanish merchants and products. Initially free
trade was excluded in Venezuela and New Grenade.
Real Hacienda Modifications to the territorial organization were also introduced by
modifying the number, distribution and functioning of the cajas reale (fiscal districts) that
complicated the bureaucratic system. Thus, the fiscal districts were structured departing from
the Ordinance of Intendentes in 4 categories: general cajas (capital of the viceroyalty), main
cajas (Intendencias capitals), foreign cajas (on the territory of the Intendencia) and minor
subordinate treasuries (distant places and with less economic volume).
42
Independence in Latin America 1804-1903
Country
Haiti
Chile
Mexico
Columbia
year
1804
1810
1810
1810
Paraguay
Venezuela
1811
1811
Argentina
Guatemala
Honduras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Salvador
Peru
Ecuador
1816
1821
1821
1821
1821
1821
1821
1822
Brazil
Bolivia
Uruguay
Dominican Republic
Cuba
1825
1825
1825
1844
1902
Panama63
1903
63
of France
until 1830 member of Grand Colombia with

Venezuela , Ecuador
Ecuador , Colombia
1839 of the Central-American Federation

Venezuela , Colombia
of Haiti
of Spain in 1898 and administered by the US 18981902
of Colombia
Panama won its independence from Spain and rejoined in 1822 Grand Colombia of Simn Bolvar.
43
44
North American policies in Latin America 19th c. beginning of the 20th c.64
1823 Monroe Doctrine: America to the Americans the right to intervene and
warning for Europeans. This doctrine couldnt be applied and Spain could intervene
militarily in the Dominican Republic in 1861 and in Peru in 1862, Napoleon III
attempted to annex Mexico and Maximilian was emperor between 1864-7.
Th. Roosevelt had added in 1904 to the Monroe Doctrine a corollary that justified the
policy of Big Stick (intervene to ensure economic stability).
William Howard Taft (1909-1913) inaugurated Dollar diplomacy, more directly
concerned by the defense of economic interests. Numerous countries were converted
in financial protectorates: 1905-1941 the duty rights of the Dominican Republic
passed to the US and for Haiti the same thing happened during 1915-1934.
Woodrow Wilson (1913-) Wilson doctrine refuse to recognize a government that
is not the result of elections (applied in Central America but not in Peru where the
arrival in power of Legua was not contested). Wilsonian diplomacy organize
elections and try to make respected the result when needed by occupation and to
create the public security forces capable of maintaining order once troupes were
withdrawn. This proved counterproductive because the police forces were at the origin
of prolonged dictatorships.
Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in power in the US in 1933 Good Neighbor policy
(1933-1945) with Latin America (approach favored by the fascist advance and the
weakness of American capitalism following the crisis of 1929).
64
Olivier Dabne, LAmrique latine lpoque contemporaine, Paris : Armand Colin, 2005 (5me dition)
45
Truth and reconciliation commissions in Latin America

Argentina
CONADEP (National Commission on the disappearance of persons) 1983
The Report Nunca ms of CONADEP spoke of 9.000 disappeared
The organizations of human rights estimate at 30.000 the number of dead and disappeared
Chile
Rettig Commission (National Commission of Truth and Reconciliation) 1990
3 196 victims (2.905 of the military: 1.720 dead and 1.185 disappeared)
Valech Commission (National Commission on Political prisoners and torture) 2003
28.459 imprisoned and tortured
[In May 2005 a supplementary Report added 1.204 victims more]
Guatemala
CEH (Historical Clarification Commission) 1994
The Report Guatemala: Memory of Silence (1999) documented 42.275 victims (of which 6.159 disappeared)
Human rights organizations estimate at more than 200.000 the number of victims of the civil war of 36 years (19601996).
Salvador Truth Commission 1992 [primary sources: 7.000 victims, secondary sources: 20.000]
Non-official sources: more than 70.000 victims
Peru
Commission of Truth and Reconciliation (2001)
The Report of 2003 documents the victims of the period 1980-2000 speaks of 69.000 dead and disappeared.
Bolivia (1st Truth commission in LA)
National Commission of Investigation of the Disappeared (1982-4): 155 disappeared; no final report
Committee to judge Garcia Meza [in power between 1980-1] non-official
Speaks of 14.000 detainees, 6.000 exiled, 70 disappeared
Ecuador
Truth Commission and justice (1996) [studies the period 1979-1996]: 176 victims
Report "De la Locura a La Esperanza" (From craziness to hope)
Brazil
Proyecto Brasil Nunca ms (1979-1985) coordinated by the archbishop of Sao Paulo, Cardenal Paulo Evaristo Arns:
125 cases of disappeared
In 1995 the government gives the law of reparation to 36 families of disappeared
2007 the Report The right to memory and truth of the Special commission on the political dead and disappeared
(since 1996): 479 disappeared; the report recognizes the state responsibility.
Uruguay
Several non-official commissions as the Commission of Investigation on the situation of the Persons disappeared and
the responsible facts (1985): 164 disappeared
Commission for Peace (2000): Report of 2003 speaks of 38 disappeared (of which 25 dead).
Paraguay Truth and justice commission established in 2000 (about the regime of Stroessner 1954-89)
An anterior commission established by the World Council of churches (1976-1990) documented that 360.000 persons
had been detained (of a population of 3 million) and 1.5 million were in exile.
Panama - in 2001 the president Mireya Moscoso established a commission for the study of crimes of the period 196889 (dictatorships of Torrijos and Noriega) [150 disappeared]
Hati In 1994 was formed the National Commission of truth and justice (Report of 1996)
46
47

Politics and Society in LA (2015)

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POLITICS & SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA

TITULAR : LECTOR DR. CATERINA PREDA

FISA CURSULUI / COURSE OUTLINE / FICHE DU COURS

obligatoriu / compulsory / obligatoire

Descriere sintetic a cursului / Brief description of the course / Description synthtique

Programul cursurilor / Courses outline / Programme des sances :

Introduction to the study of Latin America: terminology and approaches

3. 19 century Latin America: from independence to the construction of new states

5 . The years of prosperity (1914-1930); the Southern Cone

Discussion: Truth commissions in Latin America transitional justice

Latin American Database http://pdba.georgetown.edu/

Argentina (Repblica Argentina/Nacin Argentina)

Main political parties

Argentina - Chiefs of state

Bolivia (Repblica de Bolivia)

1982-1985 3rd mandate

Brazil (Repblica Federativa do Brasil)

(5/26 October 2014)

Previous elections (October 2nd/ 31st 2010)

Brazil - Heads of state

Chile (Repblica de Chile)

1st (17 Nov 2013) %

Michelle Bachelet (Nueva Mayoria)

Previous presidential elections

2nd (15 Dec 2013) %

Legislative: National Congress (Congreso Nacional): Chamber of deputies (Cmara de Diputados)

Presidents since the transition (all from Concertacion)

Reformed in 1989, 1991, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2003, and 2005.

Colombia (Repblica de Colombia)

Previous elections (30 May/20 June 2010)

Previous presidential elections (21 May 2006)

Legislative: Bicameral Congress (Congreso) elected for 4 years: Chamber of representatives

Alfonso Lpez Michelsen (PL)

FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) http://www.farcep.org

Costa Rica (Repblica de Costa Rica)

Partido Frente Amplio

14 electoral cycles since the Ulate-Figueres pacts of 1948

Indigenous population: 1% of the total population.

Cuba (Repblica de Cuba)

Dominican Republic (Repblica Dominicana)

Executive: - President: Danilo Medina (2012) PLD

Danilo Medina - Partido de la Liberacin Dominicana

Legislative: Bicameral congress: Chamber of deputies (Cmara de Diputados)23

Ecuador (Repblica del Ecuador)

Legislative: National Assembly of Ecuador (2009) 137 members for 4 years

El Salvador (Repblica de El Salvador)

Previous elections (21 March 2004)

Legislative: Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Legislativa) 84 members elected for 3

Guatemala (Repblica de Guatemala)

Encuentro por Guatemala (EG)

Partido Unionista (PU)

Centro de Accin Social (CASA)

Union del Cambio Nacionalista (UCN)

Haiti (Rpublique d'Hati/Republik dAyti)

Honduras (Repblica de Honduras)

Partido Liberal de Honduras PL

Presidents democratically elected since the transition of 1981

Mexico (Estados Unidos Mexicanos)

Last presidential elections (1 July 2012)

Main political parties

Mexico Chiefs of state

1872-1876 Sebastin Lerdo de Tejada

1876-1880, 1884-1888, 1888-1892, 1892-1896, 1896-1900, 1904-1910, 1910-1911.

Nicaragua (Repblica de Nicaragua)