Periodic

Table

Early Periodic Table

NEWLANDS:

Built on Daltons Law of

Octaves ( every 8th element
had similar properties)
Arranged by atomic mass
Two elements in same box

MENDELEEV:
Arranged by atomic mass
Similar properties
Left gaps for elements yet
to be discovered

Periodic
Table

Modern Periodic Table

Metals/Non-metals
Arranged by proton
number
Groups number of
electrons on outer
shell
Periods number of
shells

Periodic
Table

Group 1 Alkali Metals

Stored in oil,
as reacts with
oxygen in air

Group 1 metals 1+ ion

Li, Na, K less dense than water
Reaction with water --> make H2
Alkali metals.metal hydroxide
Universal indicator purple
Down group lower mpt/bpt

Reactivity INCREASES down the group

Larger atom
Outer electron further away from +ve nucleus
EASIER to lose due to SHIELDING effect of
other electrons
Less electrostatic force

Periodic
Table

Group 7 Halogens

Group 7 non-metals 1- ion

Coloured vapours
Diatomic molecules
Down the group higher mpt/bpt
Forms ionic compounds with Grp1

HALOGEN
DISPLACEMENT
A more reactive
halogen will
displace a less
reactive one from a
compound

Reactivity DECREASES down the group

Larger atom
Outer shell further away from +ve
nucleus
HARDER to gain an electron due to
SHIELDING effect of other electrons
Less electrostatic force to attract
electron

Periodic
Table

Transition Metals

Compared with Group 1

Higher mpt
Higher density
Stronger/harder
Much less reactive
Used for catalysts
Form coloured compounds
Ions with different charges

Similar properties because they fill

an inner 3rd shell ( 3d shell). This
can hold 18 electrons, once 2
electrons fill the 4th energy level.
Usually have same number of
electrons on outer shell

Water
Water
evaporates due
to Suns thermal
energy.
Condenses to
form clouds
Precipitation (
rain/snow/sleet)
occurs.

Water Cycle
Ionic compounds are soluble, but
covalent ones are not.

Water

Hard Water

Soft water easy lather

Hard water less lather

Contains Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions, dissolved

when water passes through rocks

SCUM
When hard water
reacts with soap.

SCALE
When hard water
is heated.
SCALE is basically limescale which is Calcium
Carbonate which is a solid ppt and forms on
metal appliances reducing efficiency.

+ve
- Ca for
bones/teeth
-ve
- Kettles furrow up
less efficient

Water

Removing Hard Water

Use
washing
soda

Add Sodium Carbonate

Precipitates out the Ca and
Mg ions to form insoluble
carbonates

Ion
Exchange
(water
softener)
Filled with resin.
Contain Sodium/Hydrogen Ions
As the water is passed through
the resin, the Na/H ions are
EXCHANGED with the Ca/Mg
ions.
Needs to be topped up with Na
ions so NaCl is poured in to
replenish.

Water

Water Treatment
Made safe to drink by removing
solids and micro-organisms

Water source Filter solids

Sedimentation of small particles using
Aluminium sulphate

Filter of fine sand

Chlorine used to disinfect

Distillation =
PURE WATER

Carbon reduces Cl levels

Ion exchange resin
Silver discourage bacterial
growth on filter

Periodic
Table

Analysis

Water

C3
Energy

Acids &
Alkalis

Acids
&
Alkalis

Strong/Weak Acids/Alkalis
TESTING whether strong or weakuse Universal Indicator

STRONG ACIDS fully

dissociate into their ions
HCl H+ + ClWEAK ACIDS partially
dissociate into their ions
CH3COOH H+ + CH3COO-

Same for alkalis, just OH- ions

Acids
&
Alkalis

NEUTRAL pH7

Titration

Used to determine accurately how much alkali is needed to

react completely with a known volume of acid ( or vice-versa)

END POINT
Unknown
volume

Acid-base
reaction is
complete
Phenolphthalein STRONG
ALKALI and WEAK ACID

Known
volume
and conc

Methyl Orange STRONG ACID

and WEAK Alkali

Acids
Energy
&
Alkalis

Energy from fuels

Calorimeter
Think
HSW!

4.2J raises
temp of 1 g
of water by
1 degree

A+BC
If 0.1 mole of reactants. Total mass of A and B is
100g.
Temp start is 19.6, temp max is 26.1
Work out diff.6.5
Energy change = mass x 4.2 x temp change

Bomb
calorimeter

(Dont need to learn this, you would get this)

So for 0.1 moles = 2730J
For 1 mole 2730 x 10 27300J (27.3kJ)
..exothermic reaction ( as temp rise) = -27.3kJ/mol

Food high in carbs and fats have

lots of energy!! more than
body needs obesity

Acids
Energy
&
Alkalis

Energy changes
Reaction = bond breaking ( endo) and bond making ( exo)
ENDOTHERMIC

EXOTHERMIC

Energy required to break

bonds in less than energy
released when new bonds
are formed

CATALYST.
Lowers activation
energy

Energy required to break

bonds in greater than
energy released when new
bonds are formed
H = + ve

H = - ve

Acids
Energy
&
Alkalis

Bond energies
Identify the bonds..stick diagrams!

CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
Bond

Bond energy
kJ/mol

H-H

436

Cl-Cl

242

H-Cl

431

O-H

464

C-C

347

C-O

335

O=O

498

2H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Add up on the bonds in the reactants.
This is bond energy needed to break the bonds
Add up on the bonds in the products.
This is bond energy needed to make new bonds.
REMEMBER making new bonds is an exothermic
reactionso it is always a ve number

H = bond breaking + (- bond making)

Acids
Analysis
Energy
&
Alkalis

Positive Ions
Add
Sodium
Hydroxide
Fe 3+

FLAME TESTS
metal

flame test colour

barium

apple green

calcium

brick red

potassium

lilac

lithium

bright red

sodium

orange

Fe 2+

Cu 2+

Add NaOH, gently warm.

Ammonium gas turn red litmus
paper blue

Acids
Energy
&
Analysis
Alkalis

Negative Ions

Carbonates add acid

bubbles if they
turn limewater cloudy

SULPHATES
( add HCl to removes
any carbonate ions)
Add Barium Chloride
white ppt

Halides Add nitric

acid and silver nitrate
Cl

Br

White Cream Yellow

NITRATES

Copper Carbonate Copper Oxide

Zinc Carbonate Copper Oxide

Test for ammonia first negative result

Add ALUMINIUM ( this reduces the
nitrate ion to Ammonium ions)
Test again for ammonia gas positive
result

Write what you know from the question.

Analysis

Titration Calculations
2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O
V = 30cm3 Conc = ?

1. Convert vol into

dm3 by dividing
by 1000.
2. Calculate moles
of substance of
known vol and
conc

V = 20cm3 Conc = 0.5

3. Look at the
equation for the
ratio. Here, it is 2:1

4. Now rearrange the formula

to allow you to work out the
unknown

So we calculate
moles of acid here
and then multiply
this by 2

If they want you to work

out the g/mol

Moles = Concentration Volume

All you do is multiply the

RFM ( they give you
this!) by the
concentration you
calculated

What is ammonia?
Ammonia is an important compound
in the manufacture of fertilizer and
other chemicals such as cleaning
fluids and floor waxes.
It is made industrially by reacting
nitrogen with hydrogen in the Haber
process. It is a reversible reaction,
so it never goes to completion.
Why is this a problem for companies
making ammonia?

nitrogen

hydrogen

ammonia

N2 (g)

3H2 (g)

2NH3 (g)

What is yield?
The amount of product made in a reaction is called the
yield and is usually expressed as a percentage.

ammonia yield (%)

The yield of ammonia produced by the Haber process

depends on the temperature and pressure of the reaction.

pressure (atm)

What is the Haber compromise?

The highest yield of ammonia
is theoretically produced by
using a low temperature and
a high pressure.
In practice, though, these
conditions are not used. Why?
Lowering the temperature slows down the rate of reaction.
This means it takes longer for ammonia to be produced.
Increasing the pressure means stronger, more expensive
equipment is needed. This increases the cost of producing
the ammonia.

A compromise is reached to make an acceptable yield in

a reasonable timeframe while keeping costs down.

The Haber compromise

To produce a high yield of ammonia, but with a fast rate
of reaction and without the need for overly expensive
equipment, the Haber process is carried out at 450 C
and 200 atmospheres.
The most important factor in
deciding what conditions to use is
therefore not yield, but total cost.
What costs are involved in
the industrial production of
ammonia?
raw materials

energy

equipment

wages

Maximizing productivity
What else can be done to maximise productivity in the
manufacture of ammonia?
An iron catalyst is used to increase the rate of
reaction. It speeds up both the forward and backward
reaction, so the position of equilibrium is not affected.

The ammonia is cooled, liquefied and then removed

as it is produced. This causes the equilibrium to shift to
the right to produce more ammonia.
Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled and
given another chance to react.

What is dynamic equilibrium?

In some reversible reactions, the forward and backward
reactions largely occur in the same conditions and at the
same rate.
These reactions are said to be in dynamic equilibrium
there is no overall change in the amount of products and
reactants, even though the reactions are ongoing.
reactant A

reactant B

product

+
Dynamic equilibrium can only take place in a closed system,
otherwise the products would escape.

Setting dynamic equilibrium

The position of dynamic
equilibrium is not always at a
half-way point, i.e. when there are
equal amounts of products and
reactants. It may be at a position
where there are mainly reactants
with a little product, or vice versa.
The position of equilibrium is influenced by two main factors:
temperature
concentration (or pressure for reactions involving gases)
Adding a catalyst speeds up the time it takes to reach
equilibrium, but does not change the position of equilibrium.

Opposing change
Whenever a change is made to a reversible reaction in
dynamic equilibrium, the equilibrium will shift to try and
oppose the change.
Condition

Effect

Temperature

Increasing the temperature shifts the

equilibrium in the direction that takes in heat.

Concentration Increasing the concentration of a substance

shifts the equilibrium in the direction that
produces less of that substance.
Pressure

Increasing the pressure shifts the equilibrium

in the direction that produces less gas.

Exothermic and endothermic reactions

All reactions are exothermic (give out heat) in one direction
and endothermic (take in heat) in the other.
If the temperature is increased:
equilibrium shifts to decrease the temperature
equilibrium shifts in the endothermic direction

If the temperature is decreased:

equilibrium shifts to increase the temperature
equilibrium shifts in the exothermic direction

Concentration and equilibrium

Changing the concentration of a substance affects the
equilibrium of reversible reactions involving solutions.
increasing the
concentration of
substance A

decreasing the
concentration of
substance A

equilibrium shifts to
decrease the amount of
substance A

equilibrium shifts to
increase the amount of
substance A

Pressure and equilibrium

Changing the pressure has an effect on the equilibrium of
reversible reactions involving gases.

If the pressure is increased:

equilibrium shifts to decrease the pressure
equilibrium shifts in the direction of fewest
molecules
If the pressure is decreased:
equilibrium shifts to increase the pressure
equilibrium shifts in the direction of most
molecules

Alcohols
What Are Alcohols?
Alcohols are organic chemical compounds which form
a homologous series.
They are compounds in which one or more hydrogen
atoms in an alkane (saturated hydrocarbon) are
replaced by hydroxyl (OH) groups.
The hydroxyl group (OH) is the part of the molecule
that is responsible for the characteristic reactions and
chemical properties of the alcohol. This is otherwise
known as the 'functional group'

Ethanol
Ethanol is an alcohol.
Ethanol can be represented in a number of
different forms:
C2H5OH
CH3CH2OH

Facts about Ethanol

Ethanol can:
Dissolve in water to form a neutral solution.
React with sodium to from hydrogen.
Burn in air.
Be used as fuels and solvents, and is the main
alcohol in alcoholic drinks.
Ethanol can be oxidised to ethanoic acid (by
chemical oxidising agents or microbial action).

So what does Ethanol look like?

The molecular structure of ethanol looks like
this:

The OH part of Ethanol is

sometimes referred to as
the functional group

Methanol
Methanol is another alcohol, which as we
know, is also a member of the homologous
series.
Methanol can be represented as a formula:
CH3OH

Methanol
The molecular structure of methanol look like
this:

The OH part of methanol is sometimes

referred to as the functional group!

Facts about Methanol

Methanol can:
Dissolve in water to form a neutral solution.
React with sodium to from hydrogen.
Burn in air.
Be used as fuels and solvents, and is the main
alcohol in alcoholic drinks.

Carboxylic acid
A carboxylic acid is an organic acid that
contains one or more carboxyl groups. They
usually have higher boiling points than water
and are usually quite weak acids. These longer
chain acids tend to be rather soluble in lesspolar solvents such as ethers and alcohols.

Ethanoic Acid
Ethanoic acid can be found in your kitchen,
any ideas? Yes, its vinegar! Ethanoic acid is
one of the simplest carboxylic acids.
The COOH part of ethanoic acid is sometimes
referred to as the functional group

Facts about Carboxylic acids

Carboxylic acids:
Dissolve in water to produce acidic solutions.
React with carbonates to produce carbon dioxide.
React with alcohols in the presence of an acid
catalyst to produce esters.
Do not ionise completely when dissolved in water
and so are weak acids.
Aqueous solutions of weak acids have a higher
pH value than aqueous solutions of stronger acids
with the same concentration.

Esters
Esters are chemical compounds made by
condensing acids with alcohols. Esters with
low molecular weight are commonly used as
fragrances and found in essential oils and
pheromones.

Making an Ester
Ethyl ethanoate is synthesized in industry mainly via the
classic Fischer esterification reaction of an ethanol (alcohol)
and a ethanoic acid (carboxylic acid). This mixture converts to
the ester in about 65% yield at room temperature:
CH3CH2OH + CH3COOH CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O

The reaction can be accelerated by acid catalysis and the

equilibrium can be shifted to the right by removal of water.

What do esters look like?

-Ethyl ethanoate Ethyl ethanoate is the organic compound with the
formula CH3COOCH2CH3. This colourless liquid has a
characteristic sweet smell and is used in glues, nail
polish removers, decaffeinating tea and coffee, and
cigarettes.

The COO part of ethyl ethanoate is

sometimes referred to as the functional group!