Theoretical background

1.1 Charpy Impact test

The Charpy impact test measures the energy absorbed by a standard notched
specimen while breaking under an impact load. The Charpy impact test continues to be
used as an economical quality control method to determine the notch sensitivity and
impact toughness of engineering materials. The Charpy Impact Test is commonly used
on metals, but is also applied to composites, ceramics and polymers. With the Charpy
impact test one most commonly evaluates the relative toughness of a material, and as
such, it is used as a quick and economical quality control device. The Charpy Impact
Test consist of striking a suitable specimen with a hammer on a pendulum arm while the
specimen is held securely at each end. The hammer strikes opposite the notch. The
energy absorbed by the specimen is determined by precisely measuring the decrease in
motion of the pendulum arm.
Figure 1-1 illustrates the operation of a Charpy impact test

FIGURE 1-1 Operation of a Charpy impact test

Destructive mechanical test in which a pendulum hammer (swinging through a

fixed distance) fractures a standard size notched piece of material with one blow. It
indicates how the material will respond to suddenly applied shock (stress) by measuring
the energy absorbed in breaking the piece. The test results are expressed in footpounds or kilojoules.
Various types of notched-bar impact tests are used to determine the tendency
of a material to behave in a brittle manner. This type of test will detect differences
between materials which are not observable in a tension test. The results obtained from
notched-bar tests are not readily expressed in terms of design requirements, since it is
not possible to measure the components of the triaxial stress condition at the notch.
1-2 Notch Impact Energy
Impact energy is a measure of the work done to fracture a test specimen.
When the striker impacts the specimen, the specimen will absorb energy until it yields.
At this point, the specimen will begin to undergo plastic deformation at the notch. The
test specimen continues to absorb energy and work hardens at the plastic zone at the
notch. When the specimen can absorb no more energy, fracture occurs.
The amount of energy absorbed in fracturing the test-piece is measured and
this gives an indication of the notch toughness of the test material. The pendulum
swings through during the test, the height of the swing being a measure of the amount
of energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen. Conventionally, three specimens are
tested at any one temperature and the results averaged.
Charpy tests show whether a metal can be classified as being either brittle or
ductile. This is particularly useful for ferritic steels that show a ductile to brittle transition
with decreasing temperature. A brittle metal will absorb a small amount of energy when
impact tested, a tough ductile metal absorbs a large amount of energy. The appearance
of a fracture surface also gives information about the type of fracture that has occurred;
a brittle fracture is bright and crystalline, a ductile fracture is dull and fibrous. The
percentage crystallinity is determined by making a judgement of the amount of
crystalline or brittle fracture on the surface of the broken specimen, and is a measure of
the amount of brittle fracture.

1-3 Plastic Deformation

When a sufficient load is applied to a metal or other structural material, it will

cause the material to change shape. This change in shape is called
deformation. A temporary shape change that is self-reversing after the force is
removed, so that the object returns to its original shape, is called elastic
deformation. In other words, elastic deformation is a change in shape of a
material at low stress that is recoverable after the stress is removed. This type
of deformation involves stretching of the bonds, but the atoms do not slip past
each other.
When the stress is sufficient to permanently deform the metal, it is called
plastic deformation. As discussed in the section on crystal defects, plastic
deformation involves the breaking of a limited number of atomic bonds by the
movement of dislocations.