Chapter 1

Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

Chapter 1
REVIEW OF FIELDS AND MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
1.1 A Short Review of Vector Calculus
a. Field

lectromagnetic theory is essentially a study of some particular field. We define a field

as a function which specifies a particular quantity everywhere in a region. If the
quantity is a scalar (or vector), the field is said to be scalar (or vector) field. Examples of
scalar fields include temperature distribution in a building, sound intensity in a theater and
electric potential in a region. The gravitational force on a body in space, the velocity of
raindrops in the atmosphere and the velocity of fluid particles in a fluid motion are
examples of vector fields. The field may change with time (time-varying field) or remains
the same (static/ stationary field).

b. Line, Surface and Volume Integrals

Given a vector field A and a curve L, the integral
b
L

1.1

A cos dl

A dl =
a

is called the line integral of A around L (fig. 1.1).

It is the integral of the tangential component of A along the curve L. If the path of
b
A

dl

fig. 1.1
integration is a closed curve, such as abca, Eq. 1.1 becomes a closed contour integral

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Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

1.2

A dl

which is called the circulation of A around L.

Exercise 1
If B = x 2 y a x + xy 2 a y , find the circulation of B around the path L shown below. (Answer: 0)
y

1
2
1

Exercise 2
Given that F = x 2 a x xz a y y 2 a z , calculate the circulation of F around the closed path shown
below. (Answer: 16 )
z

1
3

4
1

1
x

Given a vector field A, continuous in a region containing the smooth surface S, the surface
integral or flux of A through S (fig. 1.2) is defined as
= A ds
S

A a n ds =

A cos ds

1.3

where at any point on S, an is the unit normal to S. For a closed surface (defining a
volume), Eq.1.3 becomes

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Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

= A ds

1.4

which is referred to as the net outward flux of A from S. Notice that a closed surface
defines an open surface while a closed surface defines a volume.

A
an

fig 1.2
The integral
V

v dv =

v dv

1.5

is defined as the volume integral of the scalar v over the volume V.

The physical meaning of a line, surface or volume integral depends on the nature of the
physical quantities represented by A or v.
Note that in Cartesian coordinates:
dl = dx a x + dy a y + dz a z
ds = dydza x + dxdz a y + dxdy a z
dv = dxdydz

c. The Del Operator (

)
The del operator,, is the vector differential operator. In Cartesian coordinates:

ax + ay + az
x
y
z

1.6

The operator is useful in defining:

i.

The gradient of a scalar V, written as V

ii. The divergence of a vector A, written as A

iii. The curl of a vector A, written as A , and

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Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

iv. The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as 2V .

i. The Gradient of a scalar

The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents both the magnitude and
directions of the maximum space rate of increase of V.
Let V1, V2, and V3 be surfaces on which V, say temperature, is constant.
Let dV be the difference in the field between points P1 and P2 (fig. 1.3). We want to know
how V changes over the infinitesimal distance dl.

V3
V 2 = V 1 + V

V1

P1

P2

fig. 1.3

dV =
=

V
V
V
dx +
dy +
dz
x
y
z

V
V
V
ax +
ay +
a z dx a x + dy a y + dz a z
x
y
z

V
V
V
ax +
ay +
az ,
x
y
z

Let

G=

then

dV = G dl = G cos dl , or
dV
= G cos
dl

where dl is the differential displacement from P1 to P2 and is the angle between G and dl.
dV
is maximum when = 0, i.e., when dl is in the direction of G, hence:
dl

dV
dl

=G
max

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Chapter 1

Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

Thus G has its magnitude and direction as that of the maximum rate of change of V. By
definition, G is the gradient of V. Therefore,
grad V V =

V
V
V
ax +
ay +
az
x
y
z

1.7

Fundamental Properties of the gradient of a scalar field V:

1. The magnitude of V equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit distance.
2. V points in the direction of maximum rate of change in V.
3. V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface which passes through that
point.( dV = V dl = 0

V dl )

4. The projection (or component) of V in the direction of a unit vector a is V a

and is called the directional derivative of V along a.
Example 1
A metal plate occupies the region 0 x 1, 0 y 1 of the xy plane. The temperature of the plate
is known to be T = xy (1 x)(1 y ) . In what direction should an insect at the point (,

) move in

order to cool off as quickly as possible?

Exercise 3
1. Prove:
i. (U + V ) = U + V
ii. (UV ) = UV + VU
iii.

U
VU UV
=
V
V2

iv. U n = nU n 1U
2. Find the gradient of the following scalar fields:
b. U = e z sin 2 x cosh y
c. V = x 2 y + xyz
3. Given W = x 2 y 2 + xyz , compute W and the directional derivative

3a x + 4a y + 12a z at (2,-1,0). (Answer:

44
13

dW
in the direction
dl

).

4. Given = xy + yz + xz , find the gradient of at point (1,2,3) and the directional derivative at
the same point in the direction toward (3,4,4). (Answer: 5a x + 4a y + 3a z ,7)

ii. Divergence of a Vector Field and the Divergence Theorem

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Chapter 1

Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

The net outflow of the flux of a vector field A from a closed surface S is obtained
from the integral = A ds (Eq. 1.4.) The divergence of A is defined as the net
S

outward flow of flux per unit volume over a closed incremental surface. In other
words, the divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as
the volume shrinks about P. Hence:
div A = A = lim

V 0

A ds

1.8a

In Cartesian coordinates:
A =

Ax A y Az
+
+
x
y
z

1.8b

The divergence of a vector field can be viewed as simply the limit of the fields
source strength per unit volume (or source density). It is positive at a source point
and negative at a sink point in the field, or zero where there is neither sink nor
source.

Positive Divergence

Negative Divergence

Zero Divergence

fig 1.4

The Divergence Theorem: From Eq. 1.8, one can derive the relation
A ds =

A dv

1.9

It is called the divergence theorem. It states that the total outward flux of a vector field A
through a closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.

iii. Curl of a Vector Field and Stokess Theorem

We defined the circulation of a vector field A around a closed path L as the integral
A dl (Eq. 1.2). The curl of A is defined as an axial (or rotational) vector whose

magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero and

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Chapter 1

Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

whose direction is the normal direction of the area where the area is oriented so as to make
the circulation maximum. That is:
curl A = A =

lim

S 0

A dl

1.10

an
max

where the are S is bounded by the curve L; an is the unit vector normal to the surface S
and is determined using the right-hand rule.
In Cartesian coordinates
ax

A =
x
Ax

ay

y
Ay

az

z
Az

The physical significance of the curl of a vector field provides the maximum value of the
circulation of the field per unit area (or circulation density) and indicates the direction in
which this maximum value occurs. It can also be considered as a measure of the circulation
or how much the field curls around a point P (fig. 1.5).

Curl at point P out

of the page

Curl at point P into

of the page

Curl at point P is zero

fig 1.5

Stokess Theorem: From Eq. 1.10 we can derive:

A dl =

1.11

( A ) ds

It is called Stokess theorem. It states that the circulation of A around a closed path L is
equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L (fig 1.6)
ds

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Fig 1.6

dl

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Chapter 1

Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

iv. Laplacian of a Scalar

The Laplacian of a scalar field V, 2V , is defined as the divergence of the gradient of V.
Thus, in Cartesian
Laplacian V = V 2V
=

2V
x

2V
y

1.12

2V
z

A scalar field is said to be harmonic in a given region if its Laplacian vanishes in that
region, i.e.,
2V = 0

1.13

The solution for V in Eq. 1.13 is harmonic (it is of the form of sine or cosine).
The Laplacian of a vector A is defined as the gradient of the divergence of A minus the
curl of the curl of A. i.e.,
2 A = ( A ) A

1.14

In Cartesian
2 A = 2 A x a x + 2 A y a y + 2 Az a z
=

2 Ax
x 2

2 Ax
y 2

2 Ax
z 2

ax +

2 Ay
x 2

2 Ay
y 2

2 Ay
z 2

ay +

2 Az
x 2

2 Az
y 2

2 Az
z 2

1.15

d. Classification of Vector Fields

For a given vector field A, if A = 0 , then A is said to be solenoidal or divergenceless.
Such a field has neither source nor sink of flux. From the divergence theorem
A ds =

A dv = 0

hence, flux lines of A entering any closed surface must also leave it. Examples of
solenoidal fields are incompressible fluid, magnetic fields, and conduction current density
under steady state conditions.
Since for any vector F, ( F) = 0 , a solenoidal field A can always be expressed in
terms of another vector F, i.e.,
if A = 0 , then
A = F

1.16

A vector field is said to be irrotational or potential if curl-free, i.e., A = 0 .

From Stokess theorem
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az

Chapter 1

Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

A dl =

( A ) ds = 0

hence, in an irrotational field A, the circulation of A around a closed path is identically

zero. This implies that the line integral of A is independent of the path chosen. Therefore,
an irrotational field is also known as a conservative field. Examples of irrotational fields
include electrostatic fields and gravitational fields.
Since (V ) = 0 , an irrotational field A can always be expressed in terms of a scalar
field V; i.e.,
if A = 0 , then
1.17

A = V

(the negative sign is inserted for physical reason.)

For this reason, A may be called a potential field and V the scalar potential of A.
A vector field A is uniquely prescribed within a region by its divergence and its curl. If we
let
A = v
(source density), and
1.18a
A =

(circulation density)

1.18b

any vector A satisfying Eq. 1.18 with v and s vanishing at infinity can be written as the
sum of two vectors: one irrotational and the other solenoidal. This is called Helmholtzs
theorem. Thus
A = V + B

1.19

If we let A i = V and A s = B , then A i = 0 , A s = 0 , showing that Ai is

irrotational and As is solenoidal.
Exercise 4
Prove the following identities.

1. ( A + B) = A + B
2. ( A + B) = A + B
3. (VA ) = V A + A V
4. ( A) = 0
5. (V ) = 0
6. (VA) = V A + V ( A )
7. ( A) = ( A) - 2 A

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Chapter 1

Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

1.2 Field Quantities

Generally, the electromagnetic phenomenon in a region can be described using six major
field quantities (E, H, D, B, v, and J) and other derived quantities. Each field quantity is
in general a function of position and time.
Field Quantity

Symbol

SI Unit

1. Electric Field Intensity

Volt/m, Newton/Coulomb

2. Magnetic Field Intensity

Ampers/m

3. Electric Flux Density

Coulomb/m2

4. Magnetic Flux Density

Webers/m2

5. Electric Charge Density

Coulomb/m3

6. Electric Current Density

Ampers/m2

Given any medium, its electromagnetic characteristics are specified or determines by three
parameters:

- Conductivity of medium (mhos/m)

- Permittivity of medium (Farads/m)
- Permeability of medium (Henry/m).
In general, the parameters are dependent on time, frequency and temperature. But we
consider only linear and time-invariant characteristics.
Based on, , and , media can be classified into a number of categories:
Table 1.1 - Classification of media.
Medium

Parameters

0 (no conduction current)

1. Free Space

= o = 8.8542 x 10-12 F/m

1/36 x 10-9 F/m

= o = 4 x 10-7 H/m
0
2. Dielectric (e.g., paraffin)

o
>> 0
3. Conductors (e.g., copper)

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Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

4. Ferromagnets (e.g., iron, nickel)

>> o

1.3 Maxwells Equations

Maxwell summarized the laws of electromagnetics based on previous works. These are:

i. Gausss Law for Free Charges

It relates the electric flux density D to the charge density inside a volume:
S

D ds =

v dv = Qtotal ,

or using Stokess theorem

S

D ds = Ddv =
V

v dv

D = ( E ) = v

1.20

ii. Gausss Law for Magnetic Flux

It states that the magnetic flux density B has no flux source, i.e., there are no magnetic
charges (solenoidal filed.)
B ds = 0, or

1.21

B = 0

iii. Faradays Induction Law

It states that a changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in a path surrounding it.
Voltage = E dl =
L

=
t
t

B ds

Using Stokess theorem

E dl =

E =

( E ) ds =

B
H
=
t
t

B ds

1.22

iv. Amperes Circuital Law

It states that the line integral of the tangential component of H around a closed path is the
same as the total current flowing outwards from the surface enclosed by the path.
H dl = J ds +

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ds
t

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Chapter 1

Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

where J = E is conduction current density, and

is defined as displacement current

t

(Maxwells major contribution.)

Using Stokess theorem:

H = J +
t


1.23

v. Equation of Continuity
When there is a current flow from a closed surface, then there must be a negative rate of
decrease of the charge inside the closed volume.
J ds =

v dv

By divergence theorem:
J ds =

J = J +

J dv

v
, or
t

v
=0
t

1.24

Table 1.2 - Maxwells Equations in Final Form

Differential Form
1.

D = v

2.

B = 0

3.

E =

4.

Integral Form
S

D ds =

Remarks

v dv

Gausss law
Non-existence of isolated
magnetic charges

B ds = 0

B
t

H = J +

E dl =

t


H dl =

t
S

B ds

Faradays law

J+

t


ds

Amperes circuital law.

1.4 Boundary Conditions

If a field exists in region consisting of two different media, the conditions that the field
must satisfy at the interface separating the media are called boundary conditions. These
conditions are helpful in determining the field on one side of the boundary if the field on
the other side is known.
In n is a unit vector directed from medium 2 to medium 1, s and ks are the surface charge
density and surface current density, respectively, then electromagnetic fields must satisfy:
a. Tangential Components:

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Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

n (E1 E 2 ) = 0

1.25

n (H 1 H 2 ) = k s

1.26

or, E1t = E 2t (continuous)

H 1t H 2t = k s (discontinuous)

b. Normal Components:
n (B1 B 2 ) = 0

1.27

n (D1 D 2 ) = s

1.28

or, B1n = B 2 n (continuous)

D1n D 2 n = s (discontinuous)

E1, H1, B1, D1,

1, 1, 1,

E2, H2, B2, D2,

2, 2, 2,

medium 2

ks

medium 1
Fig. 1.7

Exercise 5
Prove Eqs 1.25 1.28.
Exercise 6
Two extensive homogeneous isotropic dielectrics meet on plane z = 0. For z

0, r1 = 4 and for z

0, r1 = 3. A uniform electric field E1 = 5a x 2a y + 3a z kV/m exists for z

0. Find E2 for z

0.

(Answer: E 2 = 5a x 2a y + 4a z kV/m)

1.5 Time-Harmonic Fields

Though the time dependence of EM fields can be arbitrary, in practice we generally deal
with steady-state sinusoidal time-varying fields. By time-harmonic quantities we mean
quantities which vary periodically or sinusoidally with time. Besides their practical value,
sinusoidal analysis can be extended to most waveforms by Fourier and Laplace transform
techniques. Sinusoids are easily expressed in phasors, which are more convenient to work
with. Before applying phasors to EM fields, it is worthwhile to have a brief review of the
concept of phasors.
A phasor z is a complex number that can be written as (in rectangular form):
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Chapter 1

Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

1.29

z = x+ jy

or in polar form as:

z = re j = r (cos + j sin ) r

1.30

where j = 1, r = z = x 2 + y 2 , = tan 1 ( y x )
To introduce the time element, we let
= t +

1.31

where may be a function of time or space coordinates or a constant. Thus the real (Re)
and imaginary (Im) parts of z = re j = re j e jt are:
Re(re j ) = r cos(t + )

1.32

Im(re j ) = r sin(t + )

1.33

Thus a sinusoidal current i (t ) = I o cos(t + ) , for example, equals the real part of I o e j e jt .
The complex term I o e j , which results from dropping the time factor e jt in i(t), is called
the phasor current and denoted by bold-face letter I; i.e.,
I = I o e j = I o

1.34

Thus i (t ) = I o cos(t + ) , the instantaneous form, can be expressed as

i (t ) = Re Ie jt

In general, a phasor could be a scalar or vector. If a vector A( x, y, z, t ) is time-harmonic

field, the phasor form of A is A( x, y, z ) ; they are related as:

A = Re Ae jt

1.35

Note that from Eq. 1.35,

A

= Re A e jt
t
t

= Re j Ae jt

A = j A

Thus showing that taking the time derivative of the instantaneous quantity is equivalent to
multiplying its phasor form by j. That is
A
j A
t

Similarly,
At

A
j

Example 2

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Chapter 1

Class Notes on Applied EM Fields & Waves ECEg 435

j
20
Given that A = 10 cos(10 t 10 x + 60 )a z and B =
a x + 10e
j

2
x
3 a

y,

express A in phasor

form and B in instantaneous form.

Exercise 7
If P = 2 sin(10 8 t + x 4 )a y and Q = e jx (a x a z ) sin y , determine the phasor form of P and

the instantaneous form of Q.

Answer: 2e

j x 34

)a

y,

sin y cos(t + x)(a x a z )

Time-Harmonic Maxwells Equations Assuming Time Factor ejt

Differential Form

Integral Form

D ds =

1.

D = v

2.

B = 0

3.

E = j B

4.

H = J + j D

v dv

B ds = 0
E dl = j B ds
S

H dl =

(J + jD) ds

Note: Maxwells equations in phasor form result in time-independent equations. Herein is

the justification for using phasors; the time factor can be suppressed in our analysis of
time-harmonic fields and inserted when necessary.
Exercise 8
Show that the above equations are correct.
Example 3
In a medium characterized by = 0, = o , = 4 o ,

E = 20 sin 10 8 t z a y V/m
determine and H.
Exercise 9

A medium is characterized by = 0, = 2 o , = 5 o . If H = 2 cos(t 3 y )a z A/m, calculate

and E.

Answer: 2.846 x 108 rad/s, 476.8 cos 2.846 10 8 t 3 y a x V/m.

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