FAO Guidelines for Soil Description (2006)

I.

Site Information

Site information refers to the data on the bio-physical characteristics of the site where the soil
to be examined is located including the name of the person doing the soil examination and the
date of examination.
a)

Profile number

It is necessary to assign a profile number to each soil examined to allow easy and simple
retrieval of profile descriptions from computerised data storage systems.
b)

Author(s)

The person who performs the description needs to be properly acknowledged in future uses of
the soil data and he or she holds responsibility for the quality of the data.
c)

Date of description

The date of description is an important information and should be given as yymmdd (6 digits).
d)

Location

This should include the distance (in meters or kilometers) and direction to the site from
permanent features which are recognizable in the field and on the topographic map.
e)

Elevation

The elevation (in meters) of the site relative to sea level should be obtained from detailed
contour or topographic maps or by altimeter readings. At present determination of elevation
by a Global Positioning System (GPS) unit is inaccurate and unacceptable.
f)

Map sheet number and Coordinates

The number of the topographic map sheet, preferably at 1 : 25 000 or 1 : 50 000 scale, on
which the soil observation occurs should be given. The latitude and longitude of the site (in
degrees, minutes, seconds and decimal seconds) can be derived directly from topographic
maps or a Global Positioning System (GPS) unit.
g)

Atmospheric climate and weather conditions

Present weather conditions

Sunny/clear
Rain

Partly cloudy
Sleet

Overcast
Snow

Past weather conditions

No rain during the last month
No rain during the last week
No rain during the last 24 hours
Small rain during the last 24 hours
Stronger rain since some days or rainstorm during the last 24 hours
Extremely rainy time or snow melting

h)

Soil climate

Soil temperature regime

Pergelic
Cryic
Frigid
Mesic
Thermic
Hyperthermic

i)

Isofrigid
Isomesic
Isothermic
Isohyperthermic

Soil moisture regime

Aquic
Peraquic
Aridic
Udic
Perudic
Ustic
Xeric and Torric

Landform and topography (relief)

Major landform
Landforms should be described by their morphology and not by their genetic origin, or
processes responsible for their shape.
1st Level

2nd Level

Level land

plain
plateau
depression
valley floor

Sloping land

medium-gradient mountain
medium-gradient hill
medium-grad. escarpment zone
medium-gradient valley
dissected plain

Steep land

high-gradient mountain
high-gradient hill
high-gradient escarpment zone
high gradient valleys

Gradient
[%]
<10
<10
<10
<10

Relief Intensity
(m km-1)
<50
<50
<50
<50

15-30
10-30
10-30
10-30
10-30

150-300
100-150
50-100
100-150
50-100

>30
>30
>30
>30

>300
150-130
150-130
>150

Slope position
Slope positions in undulating and mountainous terrain (redrawn from Schoeneberger et al.
1998)
CR = Crest (summit)
UP = Upper slope (shoulder)
MS = Middle slope (backslope)
LS = Lower slope (footslope)
TS = Toeslope
BO = Bottom (flat)

Slope form
Straight
Concave
Convex
Terraced
Complex (Irregular)

Slope gradient and orientation

Flat
Level
Nearly level
Very gently sloping
Gently sloping

0
0.2
0.5
1.0
2

- 0.2 %
- 0.5 %
- 1.0 %
-2 %
-5 %

Sloping
Strongly sloping
Moderately steep
Steep
Very steep

5 - 10 %
10 - 15 %
15 - 30 %
30 - 60 %
>60 %

The orientation which a slope is facing is coded with N for north, E for east, S for south and
W for west. SSW e.g. means south south-west.
j)

Land use and vegetation

Land use
Settlement, industry
Residential use
Industrial use
Transport
Recreational use
Excavations
Crop Agriculture
Annual field cropping
Shifting cultivation
Fallow system cultivation
Ley system cultivation
Rainfed arable cultivation
Wet rice cultivation
Irrigated cultivation
Perennial field cropping
Non-irrigated cultivation
Irrigated cultivation
Tree and shrub cropping
Non-irrigated tree crop cultivation
Irrigated tree crop cultivation
Non-irrigated shrub crop cultivation
Irrigated shrub crop cultivation
Animal Husbandry
Extensive grazing
Nomadism
Semi-nomadism
Ranching
Intensive Grazing
Animal production
Dairying

Forestry
Natural forest and woodland
Selective felling
Clear felling
Plantation forestry
Mixed farming
Agro-forestry
Agro-pastoralism
Extraction and collection
Exploitation of natural vegetation
Hunting and fishing
Nature Protection
Nature a. game preservation
Reserves
Parks
Wildlife management
Degradation control
Without interference
With interference
Not used and not managed

Additional codes may be used to further

specify the land utilization type. For
example:
Rainfed arable cultivation
Traditional
Improved traditional
Mechanized traditional
Commercial
Unspecified
For arable land use, the dominant crops which are grown should be mentioned, and as much
information as possible given on soil management, use of fertilizers, duration of fallow period,
rotation systems and yields.
Crops
Crops are plants that are cultivated for their economic value.

Barley
Beans
Cassava
Coconut
Coffee
Cashew
Cocoa
Cowpea

Cotton
Fruit trees
Groundnut
Maize
Millet
Oilpalm
Peas
Potato

Rice (flooded)
Rice
Rubber
Rice (upland)
Soyabean
Sugar cane
Sunflower
Sorghum

Sweet potato
Tobacco
Tea
Vegetables
Wheat
Yams

Human influence
This refers to the influence of humans on the site. Examples of human influences are:
No influence
Not known
Vegetation slightly disturbed
Vegetation moderately disturbed
Vegetation strongly disturbed
Vegetation disturbed
Sprinkler irrigation
Furrow irrigation
Flood irrigation
Border irrigation
Irrigation (unspecified)
Artificial drainage
Application of fertilizers

Bunding
Burning
Terracing
Ploughing
Plaggen
Raised beds
Sand additions
Mineral additions (unspecified)
Pollution
Clearing
Surface compaction
Borrow pit

Vegetation
Closed Forest 1)
Evergreen forest
Semi-deciduous forest
Deciduous forest
Xeromorphic forest

Shrub
Evergreen shrub
Semi-deciduous shrub
Deciduous shrub
Xeromorphic shrub

Woodland 2)
Evergreen woodland
Semi-deciduous woodland
Deciduous woodland
Xeromorphic woodland

Dwarf Shrub
Evergreen dwarf shrub
Semi-deciduous dwarf shrub
Deciduous dwarf shrub
Xermomorphic dwarf shrub
Tundra

1)

Continuous tree layer, crowns overlapping,

large number of tree and shrub species in
distinct layers
2)

Continuous tree layer, crowns usually not

touching, understorey may be present

Herbaceous
Tall grassland
Medium grassland
Short grassland
Forb

In addition, other characteristics of the vegetation, such as height of trees or canopy cover,
may be recorded.
k)

Parent material

Hierarchy of lithology
Major Class
Igneous rock

Group
acid igneous

intermediate
igneous
basic igneous

ultrabasic igneous

pyroclastic

Metamorphic
rock

acid metamorphic

basic metamorphic

Sedimentary
clastic sediments
rock (consolidated)

carbonatic, organic

evaporites
Sedimentary (unconsolidated)
fluvial
lacustrine
marine, estuarine
colluvial
eolian

Type
granite
grano-diorite
quartz-diorite
rhyolite
andesite, trachyte, phonolite
diorite-syenite
gabbro
basalt
dolerite
peridotite
pyroxenite
ilmenite, magnetite, ironstone, serpentine
tuff, tuffite
volcanic scoria, breccia
volcanic ash
ignimbrite
quartzite
gneiss, migmatite
slate, phyllite (pelitic rocks)
schist
slate, phyllite (pelitic rocks)
green schist
gneiss rich in Fe-Mg-minerals
metamorphic limestone (marble)
conglomerate, breccia
sandstone, greywacke, arkose
silt-, mud-, claystone
shale
ironstone
limestone, other carbonate rock
marl & other mixtures
coals, bitumen & related rocks
anhydrite, gypsum
halite
sand and gravel
clay, silt and loam
sand
silt and clay
sand
clay and silt
slope deposits
lahar
loess
sand

glacial

kryogenic
organic
anthropogenic/
technogenic
unspecified
deposits

l)

moraine
glacio-fluvial sand
glacio-fluvial gravel
periglacial rock debris
periglacial solifluction layer
rainwater-fed moor peat
groundwater-fed bog peat
redeposited natural material
industrial depsoit
clay
loam and silt
sand
gravelly sand
grave, broken rock

Age of the land surface

Very young (1-10 years) anthropogeomorphic: with complete disturbance of natural surfaces
(and soils) like in urban, industrial and mining areas with very early soil development
from fresh natural or technogenic or mixed materials.
Very young (1-10 years) natural: with erosional loss or deposition of materials like on tidal
flats, of coastal dunes, in river valleys, landslides or desert areas
Young (10-100 years) natural: with erosional loss or deposition of materials like on tidal flats,
of coastal dunes, river valleys, landslides, or desert areas,
Young (10-100 years) anthropogeomorphic: with complete disturbance of any natural
surfaces (and soils) like in urban, industrial and mining areas with early soil
development from fresh natural or technogenic or mixed materials, or restriction of
flooding by dikes
Holocene (100-10,000 years) anthropogeomorphic: man- made relief modifications, like
terracing of forming hills or walls by early civilisations or during Middle Age or
earlier, or restriction of flooding by dikes
Holocene (100-10,000 years) natural: with erosional loss or deposition of materials like on
tidal flats, of coastal dunes, in river valleys, landslides or desert areas,
Late Pleistocene, ice covered, commonly the recent soil formation on fresh materials
Late Pleistocene, periglacial, commonly the recent soil formation on preweathered materials
Late Pleistocene; without periglacial influence
Older Pleistocene, ice covered, commonly the recent soil formation on younger over older
and preweathered materials
Older Pleistocene, with periglacial influence, commonly the recent soil formation on younger
over older and preweathered materials
Older Pleistocene without periglacial influence
Tertiary land surfaces, commonly high planes, terraces or peneplains, except incised valleys,
frequent occurrence of paleosoils
Older land surfaces, commonly high planes, terraces or peneplains, except incised valleys,
frequent occurrence of paleosoils

II. Soil profile description

1.

Soil surface characteristics

a)

Rock outcrops

Rock outcrops can limit the use of modern, mechanized, agricultural equipment. This can be
described using the table below:
Surface cover
None
Very few
Few
Common
Many
Abundant
Dominant
b)

Distance between rock outcrops

0%
0 2%
2 5%
5 15 %
15 40 %
40 80 %
>80 %

>50 m
20 50 m
5 20 m
2 5m
<2 m

Surface coarse fragments

Surface coarse fragments should be described using the table below:

Surface cover
None
Very few
Few
Common
Many
Abundant
Dominant
c)

0%
0 2%
2 5%
5 15 %
15 40 %
40 80 %
>80 %

Size classes
indicating the greatest dimension
Fine gravel
0.2 0.6cm
Medium gravel
0.6 2.0cm
Coarse gravel
2 6 cm
Stones
6 20 cm
Boulders
20 60 cm
Large boulders
60 200 cm

Erosion

Main categories of erosion

No evidence of erosion
Water erosion or deposition
Wind (eolian) erosion or deposition
Sheet erosion
Wind deposition
Rill erosion
Wind erosion and deposition
Gully erosion
Shifting sands
Tunnel erosion
Salt deposition
Deposition by water
Water and wind erosion
Mass movement (landslides and similar phenomena)
Not known
Area affected
The total area affected by erosion and deposition is estimated following the classes below:

10 25 %
25 50 %
> 50 %

0%
0 5%
5 10 %
Degree

Slight: Some evidence of damage to surface horizons. Original biotic functions

largely intact.
Moderate: Clear evidence of removal of surface horizons. Original biotic functions partly destroyed.
Severe: Surface horizons completely removed and subsurface horizons exposed.
Original biotic functions largely destroyed.
Extreme: Substantial removal of deeper subsurface horizons (badlands). Original
biotic functions fully destroyed.
d)

Surface sealing

Surface sealing refers to crusts which develop at the soil surface after the topsoil dries out.
Thickness
None
Thin
Medium
Thick
Very thick
e)

Consistency
Slightly hard
Hard
Very hard
Extremely hard

<2 mm
2 5 mm
5 20 mm
>20 mm

Surface cracks

Surface cracks develop in shrink-swell clayey soils after they dry out. They indicate the
dominance of expanding type of clay particularly montmorillonite.
Width

Distance between cracks

Fine
< 1 cm
Medium
1 2 cm
Wide
2 5 cm
Very wide
5 10 cm
Extremely wide
> 10 cm
2. Soil horizon characteristics
Subordinate characteristics within master horizons
a

Highly decomposed organic material

Buried genetic horizon

Concentrations1 or nodules

Dense layer (physically root restrictive)

Moderately decomposed organic material

Very closely spaced

Closely spaced
Moderately widely spaced
Widely spaced
Very widely spaced

<0.2 m
0.2 0.5 m
0.5 2 m
2 5 m
>5 m

Frozen soil

Stagnic horizons2

Accumulation of organic matter in mineral horizons

Slightly decomposed organic material

Jarosite accumulation

Accumulation of pedogenic carbonates

Capillary fringe mottling

Strong cementation (pedogenic, massive)

Pedogenetic accumulation of exchangeable sodium

Residual accumulation of sesquioxides

Plowing or other human disturbance

Accumulation of pedogenetic silica

Strong reduction3

Illuvial accumulation of silicate clay

Urban and other human-made materials

Occurrence of plinthite

Development of color or structure

Fragipan characteristics

Pedogenetic accumulation gypsum

Pedogenetic accumulation of salts more soluble than gypsum

Note: In the USDA method, concentration1 is called concretions, g indicates strong gleying2,
and r indicates weathered or soft bedrock3
a)

Horizon boundary

Depth
Distinctness and topography
Abrupt
Clear
Gradual
Diffuse

0 - 2 cm
2 - 5 cm
5 - 15 cm
> 15 cm

The topography of the boundary indicates the

smoothness of depth variation of the boundary
Smooth
Wavy
Irregular
Broken

Nearly plane surface

Pockets less deep than wide
Pockets more deep than wide
Discontinuous

b)

Soil texture

Field estimation of textural classes

The soil textural class can be estimated in the field by easy field tests. For this, the soil sample
must be in a moist to weak wet state. Gravel and plant materials >2 mm must be removed.
Clay: makes fingers dirty, is cohesive (sticky), is formable, has a high plasticity and has a
shiny surface after squeezing between fingers.
Silt: makes fingers dirty, is nonsticky, only weak formable, has a rough and ripped surface
after squeezing between fingers and feels very floury (like talcum powder).
Sand: can not be formed, makes fingers not dirty and feels very grainy.
Key to the soil texture classes (adapted from Schlichting et al., 1995)
1.

Not possible to roll a wire of about 7 mm (about of a pencil)~% clay

1.1 not dirty, not floury, no fine material in the finger rills
- if grain sizes are mixed
- if most grains are very coarse (>0.6 mm)
- if most grains are of medium size (0.2-0.6 mm)
- if most grains are of fine size (<0.2 mm) but still grainy
- if most grains are of very fine size (<0.12 mm), tending
to be floury

sand
unsorted sand
coarse sand
medium sand
fine sand

<5
<5
<5
<5
<5

very fine sand

<5

1.2 not floury, grainy, scarcely fine material in the finger rills,
weakly shapeable, adheres slightly to the fingers

loamy sand

1.3 as 1.2 but moderately floury,

sandy loam (clay poor) <10

2.

<12

Possible to roll a wire of about 7 to 3 mm (about of a pencil) but breaks if trying

to form a ring, moderate cohesive, adheres to the fingers

2.1 very floury and not cohesive

- some grains to feel
- no grains to feel

silt loam
silt

(clay poor) <10

<12

2.2 moderately cohesive, adheres to the fingers, has a rough and ripped surface after
squeezing between fingers and
- very grainy and not sticky
sandy loam (clay rich) 10-25
- has moderate sand grains
loam
8-27
- not grainy but distinctly floury and somewhat sticky
silt loam
(clay rich) 10-27
2.3 has a rough and moderate shiny surface after squeezing between fingers and is sticky
and grainy to very grainy
sandy clay loam
3.

Possible to roll a wire smaller than 3 mm (less than of a pencil) and to form the
wire to a ring of about 2-3 cm , cohesive, sticky, gnash between teeth, has a moderate
shiny surface after squeezing between fingers

20-35

3.1 very grainy

sandy clay

35-55

3.2 grains can be seen and felt

clay loam

25-40

3.3 no grains to see and to feel, low plasticity

silty clay loam

25-40

3.4 no grains to see and to feel, high plasticity

silty clay

40-60

4.

Has a shiny surface after squeezing between fingers and a high plasticity

4.1 some grains to see or to feel, gnashes between teeth

clay

40-60

4.2 no grains to see or to feel, does not gnash between teeth

heavy clay

>60

c)

Rock fragments
Abundance (by volume), for estimation see Figure 5
None
Very few
Few
Common
Many
Abundant
Dominant

0%
0- 2%
2- 5%
5 - 15 %
15 - 40 %
40 - 80 %
>80 %

1%

3%

5%

10 %

15 %

20 %

25 %

30 %

40 %

50 %

75 %

90 %

Charts for estimating proportions of coarse fragments and mottles

Size of rock fragments
Rock Particle Size
Fine gravel
0.2-0.6 cm
Medium gravel
0.6- 2 cm
Coarse gravel
2 - 6 cm
Stones
6 - 20 cm
Boulders
20 - 60 cm
Large boulders
>60 cm
Shape of rock fragments

The general shape or roundness may be described using the following terms:
Flat
Angular

Subrounded
Rounded

State of weathering of rock fragments

The state of weathering of the coarse fragments is described as follows:
Fresh or slightly weathered: fragments show little or no signs of weathering
Weathered: partial weathering is indicated by discolouration and loss of crystal
form in the outer parts of the fragments while the centres remain relatively fresh
and the fragments have lost little of their original strength.
Strongly weathered: all but the most resistant minerals are weathered, strongly
discoloured and altered throughout the fragments, which tend to disintegrate
under only moderate pressure.
d)

Soil color

Hue is the dominant spectral colour (red, yellow, green, blue, violet).
Value is the lightness or darkness of colour ranging from 1 (dark) to 8 (light).
Chroma is the purity or strength of colour ranging from 1 (pale) to 8 (bright).
If there is no dominant soil matrix color, the horizon is described as mottled and two or more
colors are given. In addition to the colour notations, the standard Munsell color names may be
given.
e)

Mottling

Color of mottles
Abundance of mottles
None
Very few
Few

0%
0- 2%
2- 5%

Common
Many
Abundant

5 - 15 %
15 - 40 %
>40 %

Medium
Coarse

6 - 20 mm
>20 mm

Size of mottles
Very fine
Fine

<2 mm
2 - 6 mm

Contrast of mottles
The color contrast between mottles and soil matrix can be described as follows:
Faint: The mottles are evident only on close examination. Soil colors in both the
matrix and mottles have closely related hues, chromas and values.
Distinct: Although not striking, the mottles are readily seen. The hue, chroma or
value of the matrix are easily distinguished from those of the mottles. They
may vary by as much as 2.5 units of hue or several units in chroma or value.

Prominent: The mottles are conspicuous and mottling is one of the outstanding
features of the horizon. Hue chroma and value alone or in combination are
at least several units apart.
f)

Redoximorphic properties

Redoximorphic (or reductimorphic) properties of the soil matrix reflect permanently wet or at
least reduced conditions. They are expressed by neutral (white to black: Munsell N1 to N) or
bluish to greenish colours (Munsell 2.5Y, 5Y, 5G, 5B). The color pattern will often change by
aeration in minutes to days, due to oxidation processes.
Redoximorphic color pattern and occurrence of Fe compounds
Color

Munsell Color

Formula

Greyish green, light blue

5GY-5B2-3/1-3

FeII/FeIII

White, after oxidation

brown
White, after oxidation blue
Bluish black
(w. 10% HCl H2S- smell)

N7-8 10YR4/5

FeCO3

5-10B1-2/1-3

FeS (or Fe3F4)

White, after oxidation white

N8 N8

g)

siderite

Fe3(PO4) 8 H2O vivianite

Fe- sulphides
Complete loss of Fecompounds

Carbonates
CaCO3 Content
0%

Class

Reaction

Non-calcareous:

No detectable visible or audible

effervescence.

0- 2%

Slightly calcareous:

Audible effervescence but not visible.

2 -10 %

Moderately calcareous:

Visible effervescence.

Strongly calcareous:

Strong visible effervescence. Bubbles

form a low foam.

Extremely calcareous:

Extremely strong reaction. Thick foam

forms quickly.

10 -25 %
>25 %

i)

N7-8 5B

Mineral
Fe-mix-compounds
(blue green rust)

Readily soluble salts

Certain soils like coastal or desert soils can be enriched with water soluble salts or salts more
soluble than gypsum. The salt content of the soil can be estimated from an electrical
conductivity (EC in dS m-1 = mS cm-1) measurement on a saturated soil paste or a more dilute
suspension of soil in water. Conventionally EC is measured in the laboratory in the saturation
extract (ECSE) and most classification values as well as data about salt sensitivity of crops
refer to ECSE.
ECSE
(dS m-1 at 25 C)

Not salty
Slightly salty
Moderately salty
Strongly salty
Very strongly salty
Extremely salty
j)

<0.75
0.75 - 2
2- 4
4- 8
8 15
>15

Field soil pH

In the field, pH is either estimated using indicator papers or measured with a portable pH
meter in a soil suspension (1 part soil and 2.5 part H20, 1 M KCl or 0.1M CaCl2 solution).
After shaking the solution and waiting for 15 minutes the pH value can be read. For the
measurement use a transparent 50 ml plastic cup with marks for 8 cm3 soil (~ 10 g) and 25 ml
water.
pH value

k)

Very strongly alkaline

>9.0

Strongly alkaline

8.5-9.0

Moderately alkaline

7.9-8.4

Mildly alkaline

7.4-7.8

Neutral

6.6-7.3

Slightly acid

6.1-6.5

Medium acid

5.6-6.0

Strongly acid

5.1-5.5

Very strongly acid

4.5-5.0

Extremely acid

<4.5

Soil structure

Grade
Weak: Aggregates are barely observable in place and there is only a weak arrangement of
natural surfaces of weakness. When gently disturbed, the soil material breaks into a
mixture of few entire aggregates, many broken aggregates, and much material without
aggregate faces.
Moderate: Aggregates are observable in place and there is a distinct arrangement of natural
surfaces of weakness. When disturbed, the soil material breaks into a mixture of many
entire aggregates, some broken aggregates, and little material without aggregates faces.
Strong: Aggregates are clearly observable in place and there is a prominent arrangement of
natural surfaces of weakness. When disturbed, the soil material separates mainly into
entire aggregates.
The following classes may be used to describe soil structure:
Very weak
Weak
Moderate

Combined classes may be constructed as follows:

Weak to moderate
Moderate to strong

Strong
Very strong
Size
Class
Very fine
Fine
Medium
Coarse
Very coarse

Platy
mm
<1
1-2
2-5
5 - 10
> 10

Prismatic
mm
< 10
10 - 20
20 - 50
50 - 100
> 100

Blocky
mm
<5
5 - 10
10 - 20
20 - 50
> 50

Granular
mm
<1
1- 2
2- 5
5 10
> 10

Combined classes may be constructed as follows:

Fine and very fine
Fine and medium
Medium to very coarse

Coarse and very coarse

Fine to coarse
Medium and coarse

Type
Granular: Spheroids or polyhedrons, having curved or irregular surfaces which are not casts
of the faces of surrounding aggregates.
Blocky: Blocks or polyhedrons, nearly equidimensional, having flat or slightly rounded
surfaces which are casts of the faces of the surrounding aggregates. Subdivision is
recommended into angular blocky, with faces intersecting at relatively sharp angles, and
subangular blocky faces intersecting at rounded angles.
Prismatic: the dimensions are limited in the horizontal and extended along the vertical plane;
vertical faces well defined; having flat or slightly rounded surfaces which are casts of
the faces of the surrounding aggregates. Faces normally intersect at relatively sharp
angles. Prismatic structures with rounded caps are distinguished as Columnar.
Platy: Flat with vertical dimensions limited; generally oriented on a horizontal plane and
usually overlapping.
l)

Consistence

Consistence when dry

This is determined by breaking an air-dried mass of soil between thumb and forefinger or in
the hand.
Loose: Non-coherent
Soft: Soil mass is very weakly coherent and fragile; breaks to powder or
individual grains under very slight pressure
Slightly hard: Weakly resistant to pressure; easily broken between thumb and
forefinger.
Hard: Moderately resistant to pressure; can be broken in the hands; not
breakable between thumb and forefinger.
Very hard: Very resistant to pressure; can be broken in the hands only with
difficulty.

Extremely hard: Extremely resistant to pressure; cannot be broken in the hands.

Additional description:
Soft to slightly hard
Slightly hard to hard
Hard to very hard
Consistence when moist
This is determined by attempting to crush a mass of moist or slightly moist soil material. This
is the usual condition in the field except in poorly drained soils or immediately after a heavy
rain.
Loose: Non-coherent
Very friable: Soil material crushes under very gentle pressure, but coheres when
pressed together.
Friable: Soil material crushes easily under gentle to moderate pressure between
thumb and forefinger, and coheres when pressed together.
Firm: Soil material crushes under moderate pressure between thumb and
forefinger, but resistance is distinctly noticeable.
Very firm: Soil material crushes under strong pressures; barely crushable
between thumb and forefinger.
Extremely firm: Soil material crushes only under very strong pressure; can not
be crushed between thumb and forefinger.
Additional description:
Very friable to friable
Friable to firm
Firm to very firm
Consistence when wet: maximum stickiness and maximum plasticity
Stickiness is the quality of adhesion of the soil material to other objects determined by noting
the adherence of soil material when it is pressed between thumb and finger.
Non sticky: after release of pressure, practically no soil material adheres to
thumb and finger.
Slightly sticky: after pressure, soil material adheres to both thumb and finger but
comes off one or the other rather cleanly. It is not appreciably
stretched when the digits are separated.
Sticky: after pressure, soil material adheres to both thumb and finger and tends
to stretch somewhat and pull apart rather than pulling free from either
digit.
Very sticky: after pressure, soil material adheres strongly to both thumb and
finger and is decidedly stretched when they are separated.
Additional description:
Slightly sticky to sticky
Sticky to very sticky

Plasticity is the ability of soil material to change shape continuously under the influence of an
applied stress and to retain the compressed shape after removal of stress. Determined by
rolling the soil in the hands until a wire about 3 mm in diameter has been formed.
Non plastic: No wire is formable
Slightly plastic: Wire formable but immediately breaks if bent into a ring; soil
mass deformed by very slight force.
Plastic: Wire formable but breaks if bent into a ring; slight to moderate force
required for deformation of the soil mass.
Very plastic: Wire formable and can be bent into a ring; moderately strong to
very strong force required for deformation of the soil mass.

m)

Soil moisture

The soil moisture condition of the soil in the field can be estimated by the simple procedure of
Schlichting et al. (1995):
Crushing
dusty or
hard
makes no
dust
makes no
dust

Forming (to a ball)

not possible,
seems to be warm
not possible,
seems to be warm

Moistening
getting very
dark
getting dark

Rubbing (in the hand)

Moisture

pF *)

not lighter

very dry

hardly lighter

dry

slightly
moist

moist

wet

very wet

getting
obviously lighter
slightly dark
finger moist and
no change of
is sticky
obviously lighter
cool, weakly shiny colour
no change of
free water
drops of water
color
drops of water
no change of
free water
without crushing
color
*)
pF (p = potential, F = free energy of water) is log hPa
m)

possible (not sand)

Bulk density

Field estimation of bulk density for mineral soils (Schlichting et al., 1995)
Observation

Sandy, silty and loamy soils with low clay content

Many pores, moist materials drop easy out of the
auger; materials with vesicular pores, mineral soils
with andic properties.
Sample disintegrates at the instant of sampling, many
pores visible on the pit wall.

Structure

granular
single grain, granular

Bulk Density
[g cm-3]

<0.9
0.9-1.2

Sample disintegrates into numerous fragments after

application of weak pressure.
Knife can be pushed into the moist soil with weak
pressure, sample disintegrates into few fragments,
which may be further divided.
Knife penetrates only 1-2 cm into the moist soil, some
effort required, sample disintegrates into few
fragments, which cannot be subdivided further.
Very large pressure necessary to force knife into the
soil, no further disintegration of sample.

single grain, subangular, angular blocky

subangular and
angular blocky,
prismatic, platy

1.2-1.4

prismatic, platy,
(angular blocky)

1.6-1.8

prismatic,

1.4-1.6

>1.8

Loamy soils with high clay content, clayey soils

When dropped, sample disintegrates into numerous
1.0-1.2
fragments, further disintegration of subfragments after
angular blocky
application of weak pressure.
When dropped, sample disintegrates into few
angular blocky,
1.2-1.4
fragments, further disintegration of subfragments after
prismatic, platy,
application of mild pressure.
columnar
Sample remains mostly intact when dropped, further
coherent, prismatic,
1.4-1.6
disintegration possible after application of large
platy, (columnar, anpressure.
gular blocky, platy)
>1.6
Sample remains intact when dropped, no further
coherent (prismatic,
disintegration after application of very large pressure.
columnar)
If organic matter content is >2%, bulk density has to be reduced by 0.03 g cm-3 for each %
increment of organic matter content.

n)

Voids (Porosity)

Type
There is a large variety in the shape and origin of voids. The major types of voids may
be classified in a simplified way as follows:
Interstitial: Predominantly irregular and interconnected, generally the voids
between sand grains and rock fragments.
Vesicles: Discontinuous spherical or elliptical voids (chambers) of sedimentary
origin or formed by compressed air, for instance gas bubbles in
slaking crusts after heavy rainfall.
Vughs: Mostly irregular, equidimensional voids of faunal origin or resulting from
tillage or disturbance of other voids. Discontinuous or interconnected.
Channels: Elongate voids of faunal or floral origin. Mostly of tubular shape and
continuous, strongly varying in diameter.
Size
The diameter of the elongate or tubular voids is described using the following classes:
Very fine
< 0.5 mm
Fine
0.5 - 2 mm

Medium
2
Coarse
5
Very coarse 20

- 5
- 20
- 50

mm
mm
mm

Abundance
The abundance of fine and very fine elongate pores as one group and of medium and coarse
pores as another is recorded as the number per unit area of a square decimeter.
None
Very few
Few
Common

< 2 mm

> 2 mm

0
1 - 20
20 - 50
50 - 200

0
1- 2
2- 5
5- 20

Abundance
very few

few

common

Size

very fine
(<0.5 mm)

fine
(0.5-2 mm)

medium
(2-5 mm)
1cm

q) Roots
The abundance of fine and very fine roots may be recorded similarly as for voids (see Figure
9), expressed in the number of roots per square decimetre.
Size (diameter)
Very fine
Fine
Medium
Coarse

< 0.5 mm
0.5 - 2 mm
2 - 5 mm
> 5 mm

Abundance
None
Very few
Few
Common
Many

< 2 mm
0
1 - 20
20 - 50
50 - 200
>200

> 2 mm
0
1- 2
2- 5
5- 20
>20

r) Other biological features

Biological features such as krotovinas, termite burrows, insect nests, worm casts or burrows
of larger animals are described in terms of abundance and kind. In addition, specific locations,
patterns, size, composition or any other characteristic may be recorded.
Abundance
Abundance of biological activity is recorded in the following general descriptive terms:
None
Common
Few
Many
Kind
Examples of biological features are the following:
Artefacts
Burrows (unspecified)
Open large burrows
Infilled large burrows

Charcoal

-----------Vbasio,SS212, Nov2013

Earthworm channels
Pedotubules
Termite or ant channels and nests
Other insect activity