6.

0 MIXERS

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6.0 MIXERS
The mixer transforms a RF-frequency ( fRF ) signal into an intermediate frequency ( fIF )
signal by multiplying in input signal with a local oscillator signal ( fLO ).
In an ideal mixing only sum and difference frequencies are generated: ( fIF ) = fRF fLO .
Implementation of mixers:
1. Use of a device that has a known and controlled nonlinearity.
2. Switch the RF signal path on and off at the LO frequency.
The following parameters are used to describe mixer performance :
Conversion gain (or loss)
Noise figure
Isolation between the mixer ports
Conversion compression
Intercept point

6.1. BASIC THEORY OF A MIXER

1. Usage of a nonlinear component as a mixer is illustrated in Figure 6.1.

Fig. 6.1.

In a memoryless nonlinear component the dependency between input and output can be
expressed with a Taylor series.

I0 = quiescent output current

vi (t) = sum of input signals.
If vi (t) includes two frequencies:
Square term b[vi (t) ]2 causes the sum and difference frequencies
2nd degree non-linearity
results the desired mixing results.
3rd degree term c[vi (t) ]3 causes 3rd order intermodulation products.

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If there is only one signal at the input vi (t) (on one frequency), we get harmonic frequencies
according to formula (6-1).
A square law component causes as a mixer desired mixing results and the least undesired
frequencies

the input signal

The desired term is the IF-output

.
2. Switch the RF signal path on and off at the LO frequency.
Principle:

Fig.6.2.
RF: vrf cos it

LO:

Fig. 6.3.
Desired intermediate frequency component f0 fi = f IF

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Local oscillator signal (a square wave could be presented by its Fourier series):

Output signal at the IF-port v0 (t):

Fig. 6.4.
The intermediate frequency component (0 i) has amplitude

vRF

conversion loss
.
This is an ideal value, and assumes that the on-resistance of the switch is Ron = 0.
If Ron 0
conversion loss -3,9+201g (

ZL
)
Z L + Ron

Typical value for a Schottky-diode Ron 20 , ZL = 50

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conversion loss = -3,9+201g (

RV

50
)= -6.8 dB.
70

Compare with commercial diode mixers 68 dB.

6.2 MIXER TERMINOLOGY

The following terms are used to describe mixer performance

(1) Conversion loss ( gain) Lc

Lc = 10 log

available RF input power

available IF output power

(2) Noise figure NF is the SNR at the input (RF) port divided by the SNR at the output (IF)
port
SNRRF
.
SNRIF
The noise figure of a mixer depends on whether its input is a single sideband signal or a
double sideband signal. This is because the mixer will down-convert noise at both
sideband frequencies, but the power of a SSB-signal is one-half that of a DSB signal. So
noise figure of the SSB case is twice that of the DSB-case.
NF = 10 log

(3) Isolation
Isolation represents the amount of leakage between the mixer ports. Let fRF be the
frequency at the RF port and fLO the local oscillator frequency and fIF the IF-frequency.
Then the fLO at RF port isolation is the amount the fLO drive-level is attenuated when
measured at the RF port. The fLO at the IF port isolation is the amount of the fLO signal is
attenuated when measured at the IF port.

(4) Conversion compression

Conversion compression relates to the input power level above which the curve of IF
output power versus RF input power deviates from linearity. Typically input level at
which the compression is 1 dB is given.

(5) Intercept point

Figure 6.5 =>
Intercept point is the point at which the fundamental response and the third order
intermodulation response curves intersect. The higher the intercept point is the better
is the third order intermodulation products suppression.

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Fig. 6.5.

(6) Dynamic range

amplitude range over which the mixer can operate without performance degradation.
the dynamic range is restricted by:

the conversion compression point

the noise figure of the mixer.

Spurious responses:
response caused by other frequencies than the desired receiving frequency fRF on fIF .
these are for example
(1) signals coming directly from the antenna
(2) signals generated by the mixer itself
(3) signals generated by the harmonics of an oscillator.

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Fig.6.6. Frequencies which can cause spurious responses.

In the figure:
(1) image frequency fIM = fLO fIF
(2) fIF frequency input signal leaks through the mixer
(3) fRF /2-frequency input signal can double into fRF in a square law mixer, after that it
mixes normally with fLO.
(3) fIF /2 subharmonic of IF-signal.
(4) if the LO-output also includes a 2-harmonic (2 fLO) or the mixer generates it,this
component can cause a intermediate frequency together with a (2fLO fIF )-frequency
input signal.
Avoiding spurious responses:
(1) adequate selectivity before the mixer
(2) the RF-section must be linear.

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SINGLE-ENDED MIXER

A simple mixer (single-ended mixer) is presented in Fig. 6.7.

Fig.6.7. Single-ended mixer.

This type of mixer is called a single-ended mixer because it uses a single diode element. In the
figure the filters describe matching circuits adjusted on different frequencies.
The local oscillator power must be large enough for the mixing to be effective.

Disadvantages in a single-ended mixer:

(1) conversion loss
(2) no isolation between the RF-and the LO-ports
(3) higher order nonlinearities => undesired signals.

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BALANCED DIODE MIXERS

A balanced mixer (single balanced mixer) is comprised of two single-ended mixers that are
combined either with a 180 hybrid or a 90 hybrid. The block diagram of a balanced mixer is
shown in Fig. 6.8.
1.

Balanced diode mixer

Fig 6.8. Balanced diode mixer.

In figure a) the RF- and LO-signals are connected to ports isolated from each other. One signal
is connected to the - and the other to the -port. The power fed into the -port is divided into
two equal parts, but the voltages are in 180 phase shift. The power fed into the -port is also
divided into two equal parts, but now the voltages in the different ports are of same phase.
In a balanced mixer output there are not frequencies mfRFnfLO where m is even. The AMnoise in the LO-signal can be also attenuated.
Frequency components created in the output of a balanced mixer are calculated in the following.

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LO:

vl = vl cos l t

(6-6)

RF:

vr = vr cos r t

(6-7)

v1= -vl+vr = -vl cos(lt) + vr cos(lt)

v2= vl+vr = vl cos(lt) +vr cos(rt)

Fig.6.9.

v1 v

kT
i1 = f ( v1 ) = I 0 e T 1 ,
vT =

v 1 v 2 1 v 3

= I 0 1 + 1 + 1 + ...
vT 2 vT 6 vT

2
3
v

v2 1 v2
1
2
i2 = I 0 + + ...
vT 2 vT 6 vT

(6-8)

Generally:

i = f ( v ) = ak v k

(6-9)

k =1

i1 = iIF + i2

iIF = i1 i2

i1 = f ( vr vl ) = ak ( vr vl )
k =1

i2 = f ( vr + vl ) = ak ' ( vr + vl )
k =1

Lets assume that the diodes are similar

. This is not generally true.

(6-10)
k

(6-11)

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Lets examine the situation with orders (k=1,2,3,)

k=1 :
iIF 1 = a1vr a1vl + a1vr + a1vl = 2a1vr
Balance with respect to LO, but not with RF.
If a1 a1 and then 180 phase difference is not exact
LO-isolation is not perfect.

k=2 :
iIF 1 = a2 vr 2 2a2 vr vl + a2vl 2 a2vr 2 2a2vr vl a2vl 2
= 4a2vr vl
vr vl is the desired term, because this generates IF-frequency components of r - l and r +
l .
1
1
cos (l r )t + cos (l + r )t
2
2

cos l t cos r t =

k=4 :

iIF 4 = a4 ( vr vl ) a4 ( vr + vl )
4

= a4vr 4 4a4vr 3vl + 6a4vr 2vl 2 4a4vr vl 3 + a4v

a4vr 4 4a4vr 3vl 6a4vr 2vl 2 4a4vr vl 3 a4vr 4
= 8a4 vr 3vl 8a4vr vl 3

k=3 :

iIF 3 = a3 ( vr vl ) a3 ( vr + vl )
3

= 6vl 2vr 2a3vr 3

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Examples of balanced mixers

Fig. 6.10. Balanced mixer.

Fig. 6.11. Balanced mixer.

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DOUBLE-BALANCED MIXER

Double-balanced mixer can be realized as a ring- or a star structure. Benefits of a doublebalanced mixer:
all ports are isolated from each other
AM-noise of a local oscillator signal is attenuated
certain spurious responses and intermodulation results are attenuated
the mixer is broadband.
Disadvantages compared to balanced mixers realized with two diodes are greater need of
LO-power and more complicated structure.

Operating principle:

Fig. 6.12. Operating principle of a double-balanced ring mixer.

Figure (b) illustrates the currents i1 and i2 of RF-frequency during the time when vRF makes
point a positive with respect to e and b and when vLO makes point c positive with respect d.
Diodes D1 and D2 are turned on by vLO and current iLO flows around the loop c-a-d-f-c.

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Diodes D3 and D4 are turned off because they are reverse biased. The currents i1 and i2 add in
the load to produce voltage vo with indicated polarity. When vLO polarity is reversed diodes D3
and D4 are turned on and currents i3 and i4 produce voltage vo opposite polarity.
In a double-balanced mixer also fRF is balanced (cancelled) out from the IF-port. The
multiplication of switching function by the input RF-voltage yields the output

The output spectrum will contain only the frequencies nfLOfRF, with n odd. Neither fLO nor
fRF appears at the output. The mixer balance and the isolation between the ports is
determined by the identity of transformer windings and the similarity of diode characteristics.
Characteristics of a typical double-balanced mixer:
Conversion loss about 6-8 dB
Noise figure 68 dB
Isolation LORF 50 dB
3rd degree intermodulation attenuation 5060 dB below the level of desired IFfrequency signal.
A double-balanced ring mixer is presented in Figure 6.13. This kind of mixer is very difficult
to integrate due to these transformers.

Diode quad

Fig. 6.13. Double balanced mixer.

The next figure shows a double-balanced diode mixer realized as a star structure.

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Fig. 6.14. Double-balanced star mixer.

6.6

Harmonic mixers

Harmonic frequencies nfLO of local oscillator signal are generated in the mixer, the signal may
be mixed also with these frequencies. A benefit of the harmonic mixer is that the required
frequency of a local oscillator signal is lower than in the case of a basic frequency mixer. As
the order n grows, the conversion loss however grows. The harmonic mixer, whose n=2, is
called a sub-harmonic mixer. The figure shows a sub-harmonic mixer based on two diodes
parallel coupled in opposite directions.

Fig. 6.15. Sub-harmonic mixer.

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TRANSISTOR MIXERS

Active transistor mixers can achieve gain. In figures 6-16 a), b) and c) there are three FETmixer couplings presented.
In figure a) the LO- and RF-signal are fed for the gate and a intermediate ferquency signal is
received from the drain.
The mixing is based on transconductance changing with the LO-signal.

Fig. 6-16.
Improvements achieved with the a)-coupling with respect to the single-ended diode mixer:
(1)
(2)

conversion gain
less higher degree non-linearities (almost square law characteristic graph).

In figure b) we get more isolation between the RF- and LO-signals.

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BJT can also be used, but the 3rd degree distortion is increased.

With the double-gate FET of the c)-coupling the RF- and LO-signals can be connected to
separate gates. Then the RF-LO-isolation is good. The double-gate FET can be modelled as
two one-gate FETSs coupled in series.

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6.7.1 FET- AND BJT-MIXERS

Operating principle of a FET-mixer
In a FET-mixer the signal and LO are fed into the gate and a intermediate frequency signal is
received from the drain. The function of a FET-mixer is based on transconductance changing
with the LO. The transconductance describes how big change in the drain current is caused by
the change in the gate voltage.

FET-mixer:

Fig. 6.17.

When the Vp sign is not taken into account (interpreted as phase shift)
when

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linear dependency on the gate voltage vGS = VGS + vLO

VGS is the bias-voltage

If the RF-signal vRF = VRF cos RF t is added into bias and LO-signal, and if VRF <<

Mixing transconductance gc

If the Q-point is selected so, that gmQ = gm0 /2 =>

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Graphic analysis:

blocking angle

Figure 6.18.
With a basic frequency component gm1 we get
or

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6.7.2 Balanced and double-balanced transistor mixer:

Like in the case of diode mixers, can a balanced FET-mixer be made by combining two FETmixers with hybrids. Then we reach the same benefits of balancing as with diode mixers.

FETmixer
90/ 180
hybrid

180
hybrid
FETmixer

Fig. 6.21. Balanced FET-mixer.

A balanced and double-balanced mixer can also be made according to the following figure.
The transistors in the figure are bipolar-transistors. A very often used structure in making
mixers out of bipolar-transistors is the Gilbert cell mixer of fig.b).

Fig. 6.22. a) Balanced mixer b) Double-balanced

Gilbert cell mixer made of bipolar transistors.
In Fig a) LO signal level is strong so that RF current is alternatively sent either Q2 or Q3. This
is equivalent to multiplying RF current by 1. In the Gilbert cell mixer the RF-signal is fed
into a differential amplifiers (Fig. b) formed by transistors Q1 and Q2. The LO-signal is fed
into transistors Q3 Q6, that function as switches so, that the polarity of voltage connected
into the IF-port changes with the polarity of LO-voltage. These kind of mixers could be easily
integrated.