Professional Documents
Culture Documents
..
a--*
Nile
W. J. JOSLIN
MEMBER AIME
ABSTRACT
The frontal-advance equation cats determine how the
fluid withdrawal rate and sabst.wface operating pressure
injluenee oil recovery from pressure-maitttained
resewoirs
having characteristics favorable for eficient, vertical segregatiott, For effective vertical segregation in formations
having
low dip angles, the requirements
are: thick, tnas,sive sands, low viscosity oil and high vertical permeability
witil few discontinuous shale members.
This approach has been successfully applied to tile I.L370, which is a massive Eocene sandstone reservoir containing crude with an average gravity of 26 API, a dip
of
anly
3 and vertical permeability of 1/2 darcy. The
average gas cap saturation was calculated for various
rates of vertica[ gas-oil contact tnovenient corresponding
to a wide range of reservoir producittg rates. This method
also evaluated the effect of different pressure tnaintenance
levels on oil recovery. Applicability of this procedure for
calculating the present oil saturatiott in the LL:370 gas
cap has been substatstiated from field performance, where
the oil saturation was computed by comparing oil recovery with the gas cap volume vacated.
INTRODUCTION
During the natural depletion history of the LL-370
reservoir, located in Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, excellent
vertical segregation resulted in the formation of a thin
gas zone over a substantial portion of the oil-productive
area. Subsequently, gas injection forced thk thin gas-saturated zone slowly dqwnward, reducing the oil saturation
in the gas cap to a low value, The oil recovery has been
raised considerably above earlier predictions where vertical segregation effects were under-estimated.
<
IJARY,
Petroleum
End news
Nov. 12, 196S. I%POl
IJH3.
Oct. W,
given
at
end
of
paper.
nld
Went
per con!
7P fflbbl
glc
ft
1964
.. . -.
. .
The reservoir consists of a truncated monocline of massive. highly permeable Eocene sandstone, called the B-6
formation, covering an area of more thtui 13,500 acres.
The original oil in place was 2.17 billion STB. lnterr.sal
non-seuling faults subdivide the structure into four blocks
called the B-6-x.6, 10, 11 and, 13, which are effectively
bounded by major faulting on the fliinks, an unconformity updip to the west, and an immobi Ie aquifer to the
southeast. The producing formation occurs at an average
depth of 5,2S0 ft subsea and has a closure of more than
1,500 ft. A typical producing section has a net oil sand
thickness of 170 ft. Scattered throughout the section arc
a few randomly-positioned shale lenses which. increase in
thickness and areal extent downdip.
The reservoir rock and fluid properties vary with depth,
The permeability and produced oil gravity are 1600 rnd
and 28 API at tho top, compared to 300 md and- 1S0
API at the water-oil contact. The productivity of updip
wells is, therefore, much bigher than the reservoir average. The reservoir oiI was originally saturated at the crest,
grading to a slight degree of undersaturation at the wateroil contact. There was no original gas cap; and material
balance and the field performance indicate no water influx, Except for the northern B-6-x.6 block, the fluid and
rock properties have already been published. Average
1.L.-37Oreservoir properties are shown in Table 1,
.
,..
PERFORMANCE
GAS 1NJECTION
UNDER
average GOR of 930 cu ft/bbi. By June 1, 1963, cunmlative oil production was 486,4 million bbl,and a cumulative total of 375.7 biilion cu ft of high pressure gas haii
been injected into the gas cap,
The thin zone of gas saturation that existed prior to
injection permitted injection effects to extend quickly
downdip, Less than two years after initial injection the
pre~ure decline was halted in more than 75 per cent of
the reservoir? CM Aug. 1, 1961, the average pressure was
1,521 psia, only 10 psi below the pressure at initial injection, and for the past two years it has not changed appreciably.
As shown on Fig. 2, the horizontal position of the gas
front has moved much more slowly during the recent
years, have remained almost stationary since Sept., 1960.
Higher withdrawal rates, however, have caused a more
rapid verticai advance of the front. The gas-oil contact
dropped 7 ft/ year from June, 1954, to Sept., 1960, with
an average reservoir production rate of 78,000 BOPD.
From Sept., 1960, until Nov., 1961, these rates were 8
ft/year and 87,000 BOPD. Fig. 2 shows, for the period
June, 1954, to Nov., 1961, the interpreted velocity of the
contact at various wells penetrating the gas cap, The average vertical gas front veiocity for interim periods was obtained by contouring and planimetering such observed
velocities. The fluid movements to date have not been appreciably influenced by the shale pattern in the gas cap,
m illustrated in the dipwise cross-section of Fig. 3.
Of primary importance in the analysis of reservoir performance is the fact that even though many wells have
LL- S70 RESERVOIR
13-6-X-.C
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*
fQ
.........mw, L,ll,r
OF
MS
-Julltt,1$X
wr OF6AS- SCMt, !W60
CUNNDIP
ot
---
-_,-
OWML wow mm w mm
ma,,
C22~Lz~cno,M*Lull
oras cl,,I&Y
$.,%1
- 0B-6-x-.
io
tif~l
B-6-X-.!
-2?.s
m)
ma
Frc.
2(;A.E..01I,,
COXTACT
AND
F[c.
F& lPaomcmoN
IUw
HISTORY,
f&370
RESERVOIR,
3TYPICAL
1.
1954,
NOV.
SWTHEASI
IIORTWWT
.,
DIPSVISE
CROSS. SECTION
LLS7il
JOURNAL
OF
B.6
SANDSTONE,
REsEsvons.
OF
PETIIO1.EUM
TECHNOLOGY
-.
. .
.:.
...
f,
j+
h~.
k.
p.
.,,
,.
-$.
. . . . ,,
(1)
For reservoirs with highly permeabie sands and iarge
closures, .the change in capiliary pressure with change
in distance in the flow direction is usuaily small enough
to justify excluding this term from Eq. i. This is because capillarity affects recovery only in the transition
zone where there is a sharp change from high-oil to highgw. saturation, When this zone is smaii in proportion to
the totai volume of the gas cap, as is true in the LL-370
reservoir, the effects of capillarity on reservoir performance can be negiected.
Weige demonstrated that, when the capillary pressure
term can be eliminated from Eq. i, the average gas saturation behind the front at gas breakthrough, ST can be
calculated by drawing from the origin a tangent to the
~. curve. The value of ~ is obtained where this tange~
intercepts the Iine, f, = i. This method of calculating S,
is demonstrated in Fig. 4.
Before proceeding, a clear definition of S; is required,
especially in verticai segreg~tion reservoirs where the ciosure is iarge and the rate of gas-oii contact advance varies
somewhat with the voiume of highly oii-saturated sand
that stiii remains beiow the gas cap.
During the eariy proriuction history, both the oii producing rate and the velocity of the gas-oiI contact. can
theoretically reach a sharp peak in most gravity segregation reservoirs,. This would be foliowed by an extended
period of lower producing ratea and a very slow advance
.!.. 64!4dL6.9.k!$.
-.
.
-_ . . .
_
-stant- GC3R--simplitles -the- calculation cif the -fut-urri?rese&
VERTICALDROPOF GAS-OIL CONTACTI
~w
voir withdrawal rate corresponding to a given surface oii
+ FEET PER YEAR
production rate, Also, since the anaiysis presented refers
,.
.9.
o
.4.2
.S.4.56.?.8
to areas where the LL-370 gas cap overiies the oil zone,
GAS.iATUfiATION-FRACTION
OF HYDROCARBONPORE SPACE
the pressure has remained sufficiently constant sinci? 1954
so that calculations at the current pressure shouid match
FIG., 4--T,VPICAI,
/,, CURVES
FOR
DIFFERIWT RATES OF TIIS GAS
past performance.
FISCINTAIWANCK.
JANUARY,
-..
The oil recovery from the LL-370 gas cap has been
calculated using the fractional fiow equation, which was
originally developed by Buckley and Leverett:
0.001 127k.A iW,
gAp sin a
i%Z
qt J&
89
1004
.,
.,
..
.
.
.-
.
.
. .. .
-....
.,
-
LL-5?C
.O(;O ,~
,~
,;
GAS SATURATION-FRACTl:N
OiH{DRO:ARi:N t$REOSPACE
FIG. 5RELATIVE
PKRMEABIIJTY CI:RWS.
4?4
i0,4
12.4
90
i
43,560
17s
(Ru+ ~~3/
52ti
case 1
15s0
1,213
0.001 S3
cai8 2-m
1,198
o.oo~m;
337
930
S94
2.4S
2.32
0.0162 0!0134
0.7ss , :.:::
0.073
.
JCSIJRh.4L
OF PETROLEUM
..
.
:..
. .
. ,.
.
.
ci$e3
17s0
I ,zza
0,00162
573
2%
O.O;;:
0:0s2
TEcHNOL49GY
,.
..
..
TABLE i-CALCUkAT
(1)
~2)
Q)
son
PSIA
,742
.762
.741
.721
.?01
.6s1
,647
.667
.607
.627
~
CA&l
[4]**
,5).**
q#TB
370 producing section. Effective cross flow has been experienced as the gas front advanced at an average rate of
1/3 in,/day or less. The gravity of drainage mechanism
should have reached a high degree of efficiency in reducing the oil saturation in sands of varying permeability, m
the gas front moved slowly into zones of high oil saturation, Therefore, a conformance factor is not required to
account for unswept zones in the existing gas cap.
EFFECT OF PRODUCING RATE UPON
BREAKTHROUGH
RECOVERY
Verticai segregation in low dip reservoirs having thick
sands with few shale barriers, causes the gas-oii contsct
to cover a huge percentage of the production area, OrJ
Nov. 1, 1961, the LL-370 gas cap covered 8,344 of the
original 13,534 productive acres, and 5,719 acres ha-d
60.,
{
70 -
e.
CASE f -
RESERVOIR
f 550 PSIA
#m
i 50
+
RECCW~/fY
AZ A ~#-4#710NW)w
v..
L.L-370
1>
Reca.e w
I*
THEORETICAL
0 C#LCULATfD
FRODUC{NQ
RflTE
550
2s
50
I50
300
600
CASE 2-1350
PSIA
25
.760
.740
!718
,73s
1%
.678
.69S
300
;:::
.644
600
.603
CASE 31 750- PSIA
.745
25
.765
.723
.743
1::
.6S3
,703
,649
300
,669
600
.629
.609
1701
1595
4,6S
9,64
30.60
64,40
137.30
1,493;000
75.1
72.7
6S,5
64.9
60,6
2107
2045
1929
1833
171s
4,33
8,92
2a .40
69,70
127.50
5s,100
I 16,200
34s,600
697,300
1.395.000
74,5
72.0
67.8
:$;
.
1949
1894
S4S
824
?78
740
694
1788
852
S31
7s4
745
69S
1841
1786
16SS
1604
1506
841
S16
771
733
688
4.96
10.22
32.40
6S.30
145,40
62,200
;*:g
65,300
130,700
392,000
7s3,900
1,56S,000
DATA SOINTS
g
m
.;/
,
,
!
ZWW)4Q2WOSQ700SW
DAILY PROOUCINO
Frc.
= Avemge
Sa. =
SAF =
qmi
Average
gas saturation
In all
6AVERAGE
TO NOV. 1, t 06!
GAS.OIL
,
603
1:
RA7S-
PERFORM&NCE
SEPT. !, f960
1
Ko3
MSOPO
CONTACT VELOCITY,
VT,, w
76
[
LL-370
RESERVOIR
oil saturaNan
LL.370
sEW. f, !960
70
75.5
73.3
49.1
65.6
61.5
FROM FIELO
A JUNK 1,1954
20
g,
&.\,
i he S18 production from the 1acre model that would cause a 1ft.
drop in the ea% ail contact wifh the qt value assumed.
qmi = The prOduciien in resewdr bbl from the 1-acre model that would
cuwe a 1-ft dtc.p In the eas.ell cenfacf wlfh the Qr value
.... . .
a,sunlmd.
\\*
RSSTR = Rawwalr bbl produced far each S18 produced= B. + (Rj) SF=
no + (593) so
R=
if
V.w =
_..
Praduced gas.ell
ratio, cu ft/bbl,
[WC w ft/bbl
at 1,5S0 PS141.
Free
. . . ..
[This value
Am = Area of smell
confacf In 11-370 rewrvolr which has 20 or mere
.
-feet of.. wndariylng-oll-. sand; The acres measured on. Nav. 1.1941,
were used In this calculation, (S,719 acres)
E,..-.
Recovery = The {nterlm ON recavery from the gas cap at tJ.as break fhraugh
the updip wells, per cent of original ON In place.
.
.
.%scol,
2-.3#=
**aRn= Rawraxcol, 4
** qSTll=SAl?x COl. 3
+ Vvo =
-CQI, 1x365
cd.
,IANUAS2Y,
.
1
.:.
~~ ~,, =
~-. _.
.-.
q. = The thenmtlcal 11.370 reservoir daily all producing rate If the gas.
oil contact on Nov. 1, 1961. were lowered at the rate, VW.
olCo200xt3400SCo
t.a
._
-..
OIL RECOVERY
J?ROMLL-370 GAS CAF AS A
7INTERtM
RATE AND SUBSURFACEPRESSURE
FIJNCTION
OF DAILYPROJN3CING
FIG.
Cot. 1 XAno
LEVEL.
R128m
.
J1
1964
-.
,
1
sco70Qsoo~l~
OAILY PRODUCING RATE - MfiOPD
,
. .
,., ..
.- ---I
..-
ON THE
The existing LL-370 .welIs are producing with reasonable drawdowrss, and increasing these drawdowns would
only aggravate the degre# of gas coning. Any large increase in the future producing rate of the reservoir, therefore, must come from the drilling of new welis, These new
we[ls can be carefuliy ioeded to induce an even advance of the gas front throughout the reservoir.
Considerable tleld data are avaiiable from the reservoir
to prove that rates of gas-front movement up to 25 ft/year
wiii not cause fingering or appreciably affect the. conformance factor. For example, in the vicinity of weil LL-451
located in the Et-6-x.10 block, the free-oii levei has fallen
at a rate of 22 ft/year for the period of ,hsne, 1954, to
Nov., 1961. The last GOR measured on this well was 404
cu ft/bbI. In other wells located in this same area the
gas-oil contact has been observed to fall more than 20
ft/year without any apparent effect on the oil saturation
in the lowermost sands.
The large gas cap and the vertical segregation performance reduce to negligible values the pressure interference
between offset welis located in the gas cap, since the fltud
moves principally from the upper sands to replace the
oil withdrawals from the low r sand members. Therefore,
in the LL-370 gas cap the classical pressure distribution
around a welIbore, that wouid be predicted by the diffusivity equation, does not exist. Both calculations and
field tests have supported this conclusion in the updip portion of the reservoir. Decreasing the well spacing below
the gas cap to 300 meters does not result in measurable
pressure interference in offset weIls, However, the production from a given weii does influence the fall of the
gas-oil contact close to the well,
Severai investigators have discussed the effect of flooding rate upon recovery, Jones stated that fseld experience on displacement of oil by gas under various reservoir
conditions indicates that gas-front movements of 200
ft/year represent the lower Iimit of interface advancement for most reservoirs. And if -.
gravity is not effective
i-t --370
RESER\~OiR
CASE f -1550
PSIA
@
80
q!=
51,S
bbls/day/ac,e
@%m50.
@
150
Vgo E 0.93
f!/yr
II
%Jcls ~,~q
,,
,,
,(
,,
VgO * 30.6
,s
70
tW
u
u.
1
all L
I -,2Id
z.
J 5,0-[
%= 300
c1
,,
!,
!(
%0*
%.ao(l
,,
,,
,,
,,
%o m 137.3
64.4
II
It
~
k 40
a
L
w
g
30
~1
~.
s 2.0
g
w
z
- 1
-..
[~
(.
1.0
..
[-------------
----
o,&__&-&_LJ.l._L_&_&J
.50
.60
GAS SATURATION
- PER CENT
Fm.
8SAmmATIaN
PROFILES
FREE
OXL
JOURNAL
92
-->~---40
.30
HYDROCARBON
0
PORE
VOLUME
OF
FALL
OF
V=,
OF PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGY
..
-.
. .-.
.,
:..
..
.. . ...
WP-W,
-G~-
Condensate
injected
~=
Hydrocarbon Pore Volume Above Gas-Oil
Contact
.,
.,.
. . . . . ...
, (2)
The recovery from field performance as a per cent of
the original oil in pkce is calculated as follows:
Recovery = 1- +(1-T)
. . . . . . (3)
o
On this basis the recovery in the LL ~70 gas cap by
Nov, 1, 1961, wa 69 per cent of the original oil in
place. This value aJ rees well with the 73 per cent interim
recovery prior to breakthrough calculated by the fractional flow anaiysis for a vertical gas front movement of 8.2
ft/year, the average vertical front velocity estimated for
the period Sept. 1, 1960, to Nov. 1, 1961.
The accuracy with which the gas saturation in the gas
cap can be calculated from field performance always depends on (1) the reliability of locating the position of the
gas-oil contact; (2) the accuracy of measuring the pore
volume represented by the gas cap; (3) the ability to assign the proper fluid and rock properties to the gas cap
and to the entire reservoir; (4) knowledge of the water
influx; and (5) the accuracy of the average gas saturation assigned to the highly oil-saturated zone.
The gas saturation calculated from field performance
refers only to the area swept by the existing gas front,
The results cannot be extrapolated to the extreme downdip portion of the reservoir where the fluid attd rock
characteristics are less favorable. The accuracy of this
calculated gas saturation improves as the gas cap voh.smc
becomes an appreciable portion of the entire reservoir
volume. Since the gas cap had invaded about one-third of
the original LL-370 pore volume by Nov. 1, 1961, the
gas saturation computed from field performance should
be within acceptable limits of accuracy. The reliability in
estimating ST is further improved by the large volume of
excellent basic data that have been gathered and correlated
for this reservoir,
SUMMARY
The. frontal, advance equation can determine how the
fluid withdrawal rate and subsurface operating pressure
intluence oil recovery from pressure.maintained reservoirs
having characteristics favorable for etlicient vertical segre-
gationo
The area of the gas-oil contact determines the maximum
efficient producing rate in reservoirs having favorable
gravity segregation characteristics and high closure, Frequently the gas-oil contact extends over these reservoirs in
a dipwise direction rather than as a horizontal plane, permitting et%cient rates much higher.than have normally been
considered possuble. For exarnpl~, calculations made-foi
the LL-370 reservoir, which falls in this category, indicate that doubling the current producing rate has iittle
effect on recovery at gas breakthrough, Calculated breakthrough recoveries have been confirmed by field perforn~ante.
99
.-
ENTS
-.
...
-.
(1944)
155, 133.
_,._. __ _...__-
-.