Literature

The quest to discover a denition for literatureis a road that is much travelled, though
the point of arrival, if ever reached, is seldom
satisfactory. Most attempted denitions are
broad and vague, and they inevitably change
over time. In fact, the only thing that is certain about dening literature is that the denition will change. Concepts of what is literature
change over time as well.* [2]

This article is about the art of written work. For the card
game, see Literature (card game). For literature in the
eld technical publications, see Academic publishing.
Literature consists of written productions, often re-

The Classic of Rites (Chinese: ; pinyin: Lj), an ancient

Chinese text. Certain denitions of literature have taken it to include all written work.

stricted to those deemed to have artistic or intellectual

value. Its Latin root literatura/litteratura (derived itself
from littera, letter or handwriting) was used to refer to
all written accounts, but intertwined with the roman concept of cultura: learning or cultivation. Literature often uses language dierently than ordinary language (see
literariness). Literature can be classied according to
whether it is ction or non-ction and whether it is poetry
or prose; it can be further distinguished according to major forms such as the novel, short story or drama; and
works are often categorised according to historical periods or their adherence to certain aesthetic features or
expectations (genre).

Denitions of literature have varied over time; it is a

culturally relative denition.* [3] In Western Europe
prior to the eighteenth century, literature as a term indicated all books and writing.* [3] A more restricted sense
of the term emerged during the Romantic period, in
which it began to demarcateimaginativeliterature.<ref
name="Ross, The Emergence of Literature": Making and Reading the English Canon in the Eighteenth
Century, 406">Ross, The Emergence of Literature": Making and Reading the English Canon in the
Eighteenth Century, 406</ref>* [4] Contemporary debates over what constitutes literature can be seen as returning to the older, more inclusive notion of what constitutes literature. Cultural studies, for instance, takes as
its subject of analysis both popular and minority genres,
in addition to canonical works.* [3]
The value judgement denition of literature considers it
to exclusively include writing that possesses high quality
or distinction, forming part of the so-called belles-lettres
('ne writing') tradition.* [5] This is the denition used
in the Encyclopdia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910
11) when it classies literature as the best expression
of the best thought reduced to writing.* [6] However,
this has the result that there is no objective denition of
what constitutes literature"; anything can be literature,
and anything which is universally regarded as literature
has the potential to be excluded, since value-judgements
can change over time.* [5]

The concept has changed meaning over time: nowadays it can broaden to include non-written verbal art
forms, and thus it is dicult to agree on its origin, which
can be paired with that of language or writing itself.
Developments in print technology have allowed an everThe formalist denition is that the history of litergrowing distribution and proliferation of written works,
atureforegrounds poetic eects; it is the literariculminating in electronic literature.
nessor poeticityof literature that distinguishes it
from ordinary speech or other kinds of writing (e.g.,
journalism).* [7]* [8] Jim Meyer considers this a useful
1 Denitions
characteristic in explaining the use of the term to mean
published material in a particular eld (e.g., "scientic litThere have been various attempts to dene literature erature"), as such writing must use language according to
.* [1] Simon and Delyse Ryan begin their attempt to an- particular standards.* [1] The problem with the formalist
swer the question What is Literature?" with the obser- denition is that in order to say that literature deviates
vation:
from ordinary uses of language, those uses must rst be
1

2 MAJOR FORMS

identied; this is dicult because "ordinary language" is than a normative category of ctive or rhetorical art.<ref
an unstable category, diering according to social cate- name="Ross,The Emergence ofLiterature": Making
gories and across history.* [9]
and Reading the English Canon in the Eighteenth CenEtymologically, the term derives from Latin liter- tury, 406">Ross, The Emergence of Literature":
atura/litteratura learning, a writing, grammar,orig- Making and Reading the English Canon in the Eighteenth
inally writing formed with letters,from litera/littera Century, 398</ref> As a form it may pre-date literacy,
composed within and susletter.* [10] In spite of this, the term has also been ap- with the earliest works being
*
*
[18]
[19] hence it constitutes
tained
by
an
oral
tradition;
*
*
plied to spoken or sung texts. [1] [11]
the earliest example of literature.

2
2.1

Major forms
Poetry

2.2 Prose
Main article: Prose

Prose is a form of language that possesses ordinary syntax

Main article: Poetry
Poetry is a form of literary art which uses aesthetic and and natural speech rather than rhythmic structure; in
which regard, along with its measurement in sentences
rather than lines, it diers from poetry.* [17]* [20] On the
historical development of prose, Richard Gra notes that
"[In the case of Ancient Greece] recent scholarship has
emphasized the fact that formal prose was a comparatively late development, an inventionproperly associated with the classical period".* [21]
Novel: a long ctional prose narrative. It was the
form's close relation to real life that dierentiated it
from the chivalric romance;* [22]* [23] in most European languages the equivalent term is roman, indicating the proximity of the forms.* [23] In English, the term emerged from the Romance languages in the late fteenth century, with the meaning of news"; it came to indicate something new,
without a distinction between fact or ction.* [24]
Although there are many historical prototypes, socallednovels before the novel,* [25] the modern
novel form emerges late in cultural history roughly
during the eighteenth century.* [26] Initially subject
to much criticism, the novel has acquired a dominant
position amongst literary forms, both popularly and
critically.* [23]* [27]* [28]
A calligram by Guillaume Apollinaire. These are a type of poem
in which the written words are arranged in such a way to produce
a visual image.

rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, prosaic ostensible meaning.* [12]
Poetry has traditionally been distinguished from prose
by its being set in verse;* [lower-alpha 1] prose is cast in
sentences, poetry in lines; the syntax of prose is dictated
by meaning, whereas that of poetry is held across metre
or the visual aspects of the poem.* [17] Prior to the nineteenth century, poetry was commonly understood to be
something set in metrical lines; accordingly, in 1658 a
denition of poetry is any kind of subject consisting of
Rythm or Verses.* [12] Possibly as a result of Aristotle's
inuence (his Poetics), poetrybefore the nineteenth
century was usually less a technical designation for verse

Novella: in purely quantitative terms, the novella

exists between the novel and short story; the publisher Melville House classies it as too short to
be a novel, too long to be a short story.* [29]
There is no precise denition in terms of word
or page count.* [30] Literary prizes and publishing
houses often have their own arbitrary limits,* [31]
which vary according to their particular intentions.
Summarising the variable denitions of the novella,
William Giraldi concludes "[it is a form] whose
identity seems destined to be disputed into perpetuity.* [32] It has been suggested that the size restriction of the form produces various stylistic results,
both some that are shared with the novel or short
story,* [33]* [34] and others unique to the form.* [35]
Short story: a dilemma in dening the short

3
storyas a literary form is how to, or whether
one should, distinguish it from any short narrative;
hence it also has a contested origin,* [36] variably
suggested as the earliest short narratives (e.g. the
Bible), early short story writers (e.g. Edgar Allan Poe), or the clearly modern short story writers
(e.g. Anton Chekhov).* [37] Apart from its distinct
size, various theorists have suggested that the short
story has a characteristic subject matter or structure;* [38]* [39] these discussions often position the
form in some relation to the novel.* [40]

2.3

Drama

Egyptian hieroglyphs with cartouches for the name "Ramesses II",

from the Luxor Temple, New Kingdom

Main article: Drama

Drama is literature intended for performance.* [41] The
form is often combined with music and dance, as in opera
and musical theatre. A play is a subset of this form, referring to the written dramatic work of a playwright that is
intended for performance in a theatre; it comprises chiey
dialogue between characters, and usually aims at dramatic
or theatrical performance rather than at reading. A closet
drama, by contrast, refers to a play written to be read
rather than to be performed; hence, it is intended that
the meaning of such a work can be realized fully on the
page.* [42] Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently.
Greek drama exemplies the earliest form of drama of
which we have substantial knowledge. Tragedy, as a dramatic genre, developed as a performance associated with
religious and civic festivals, typically enacting or developing upon well-known historical or mythological themes.
Tragedies generally presented very serious themes. With
the advent of newer technologies, scripts written for nonstage media have been added to this form. War of the
Worlds (radio) in 1938 saw the advent of literature written for radio broadcast, and many works of Drama have
been adapted for lm or television. Conversely, television, lm, and radio literature have been adapted to
printed or electronic media.

History

Main articles: History of literature and History of modern literature

The history of literature follows closely the development of civilization. When dened exclusively as written work, Ancient Egyptian literature,* [43] along with
Sumerian literature are considered the world's oldest literatures.* [44] The primary genres of the literature of
Ancient Egyptdidactic texts, hymns and prayers, and
taleswere almost entirely written in verse;* [45] while
use of poetic devices is clearly recognisable, the prosody
of the verse is unknown.* [46]

Dierent historical periods are reected in literature. National and tribal sagas, accounts of the origin of the world
and of customs, and myths which sometimes carry moral
or spiritual messages predominate in the pre-urban eras.
The epics of Homer, dating from the early to middle Iron
age, and the great Indian epics of a slightly later period,
have more evidence of deliberate literary authorship, surviving like the older myths through oral tradition for long
periods before being written down.
The roots of all our modern academic elds can be found
within the pages of literature.* [47] Literature in all its
forms can be seen as written records, whether the literature itself be factual or ctional, it is still quite possible
to decipher facts through things like charactersactions
and words or the authorsstyle of writing and the intent
behind the words. The plot is for more than just entertainment purposes; within it lies information about economics, psychology, science, religions, politics, cultures,
and social depth. Studying and analyzing literature becomes very important in terms of learning about our history. Through the study of past literature we are able to
learn about how society has evolved and about the societal
norms during each of the dierent periods all throughout
history. This can even help us to understand references
made in more modern literature because authors often
make references to Greek mythology and other old religious texts or historical moments. Not only is there literature written on each of the aforementioned topics themselves, and how they have evolved throughout history (like
a book about the history of economics or a book about
evolution and science, for example) but we can also learn
about these things in ctional works. Authors often include historical moments in their works, like when Lord
Byron talks about the Spanish and the French inChilde
Harolds Pilgrimage: Canto I* [48] and expresses his
opinions through his character Childe Harold. Through
literature we are able to continuously uncover new information about history. It is easy to see how all academic
elds have roots in literature.* [47] Information became
easier to pass down from generation to generation once
we began to write it down. Eventually everything was

4
written down, from things like home remedies and cures
for illness, or how to build shelter to traditions and religious practices. From there people were able to study
literature, improve on ideas, further our knowledge, and
academic elds such as the medical eld or trades could
be started. In much the same way as the literature that
we study today continue to be updated as we continue to
evolve and learn more and more.
As a more urban culture developed, academies provided
a means of transmission for speculative and philosophical
literature in early civilizations, resulting in the prevalence
of literature in Ancient China, Ancient India, Persia and
Ancient Greece and Rome. Many works of earlier periods, even in narrative form, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such as the Sanskrit Panchatantra or the
Metamorphoses of Ovid. Drama and satire also developed as urban culture provided a larger public audience,
and later readership, for literary production. Lyric poetry (as opposed to epic poetry) was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in East
Asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the most notable being the Shijing or Book
of Songs. Over a long period, the poetry of popular preliterate balladry and song interpenetrated and eventually
inuenced poetry in the literary medium.
In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused
on philosophy, historiography, military science, agriculture, and poetry. China, the origin of modern paper
making and woodblock printing, produced one of the
world's rst print cultures.* [49] Much of Chinese literature originates with the Hundred Schools of Thought
period that occurred during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty
(769-269 BCE). The most important of these include
the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of
Legalism, as well as works of military science (e.g. Sun
Tzu's The Art of War) and Chinese history (e.g. Sima
Qian's Records of the Grand Historian). Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy emphasis on historiography,
with often very detailed court records. An exemplary
piece of narrative history of ancient China was the Zuo
Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 389 BCE, and
attributed to the blind 5th century BCE historian Zuo Qiuming.
In ancient India, literature originated from stories that
were originally orally transmitted. Early genres included
drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry. Sanskrit literature begins with the Vedas, dating back to 15001000
BCE, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age
India. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts.
The Samhitas (vedic collections) date to roughly 1500
1000 BCE, and thecircum-Vedictexts, as well as the
redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid
1st millennium BCE, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron
Age.* [50] The period between approximately the 6th to
1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of
the two most inuential Indian epics, the Mahabharata

3 HISTORY
and the Ramayana, with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD.
In ancient Greece, the epics of Homer, who wrote the
Iliad and the Odyssey, and Hesiod, who wrote Works
and Days and Theogony, are some of the earliest, and
most inuential, of Ancient Greek literature. Classical
Greek genres included philosophy, poetry, historiography, comedies and dramas. Plato and Aristotle authored
philosophical texts that are the foundation of Western
philosophy, Sappho and Pindar were inuential lyric poets, and Herodotus and Thucydides were early Greek historians. Although drama was popular in Ancient Greece,
of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays
by three authors still exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and
Euripides. The plays of Aristophanes provide the only
real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old
Comedy, the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in
fact used to dene the genre.* [51]

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German writer and author of the

Faust books

Roman histories and biographies anticipated the extensive mediaeval literature of lives of saints and miraculous
chronicles, but the most characteristic form of the Middle
Ages was the romance, an adventurous and sometimes
magical narrative with strong popular appeal. Controversial, religious, political and instructional literature proliferated during the Renaissance as a result of the invention
of printing, while the mediaeval romance developed into
a more character-based and psychological form of narrative, the novel, of which early and important examples
are the Chinese Monkey and the German Faust books.
In the Age of Reason philosophical tracts and speculations on history and human nature integrated literature
with social and political developments. The inevitable
reaction was the explosion of Romanticism in the later
18th century which reclaimed the imaginative and fantastical bias of old romances and folk-literature and asserted the primacy of individual experience and emotion. But as the 19th-century went on, European ction
evolved towards realism and naturalism, the meticulous

6.1

Natural science

documentation of real life and social trends. Much of the

output of naturalism was implicitly polemical, and inuenced social and political change, but 20th century ction
and drama moved back towards the subjective, emphasising unconscious motivations and social and environmental pressures on the individual. Writers such as Proust,
Eliot, Joyce, Kafka and Pirandello exemplify the trend
of documenting internal rather than external realities.

5
them from factual writing or nonction, which writers
historically have crafted in prose.

6.1 Natural science

As advances and specialization have made new scientic
research inaccessible to most audiences, theliterarynature of science writing has become less pronounced over
the last two centuries. Now, science appears mostly in
journals. Scientic works of Aristotle, Copernicus, and
Newton still exhibit great value, but since the science in
them has largely become outdated, they no longer serve
for scientic instruction. Yet, they remain too technical
to sit well in most programmes of literary study. Outside
of "history of science" programmes, students rarely read
such works.

Genre ction also showed it could question reality in its

20th century forms, in spite of its xed formulas, through
the enquiries of the skeptical detective and the alternative
realities of science ction. The separation of mainstreamandgenreforms (including journalism) continued to blur during the period up to our own times.
William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S.
Thompson expanded documentary reporting into strong
subjective statements after the second World War, and
post-modern critics have disparaged the idea of objective
realism in general.
6.2

Awards

Main article: List of literary awards

There are numerous awards recognising achievement and
contribution in literature. Given the diversity of the eld,
awards are typically limited in scope, usually on: form,
genre, language, nationality and output (e.g. for rst-time
writers or debut novels).* [52]
The Nobel Prize in Literature was one of the ve
Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in
1895,* [53] and is awarded to an author on the basis of
their body of work, rather than to, or for, a particular work itself.* [lower-alpha 2] Other literary prizes for
which all nationalities are eligible include: the Neustadt
International Prize for Literature, the Man Booker International Prize and the Franz Kafka Prize.

Philosophy

Philosophy has become an increasingly academic discipline. More of its practitioners lament this situation
than occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most new
philosophical work appears in academic journals. Major
philosophers through historyPlato, Aristotle, Socrates,
Augustine, Descartes, Kierkegaard, Nietzschehave become as canonical as any writers. Some recent philosophy works are argued to merit the title literature, but
much of it does not, and some areas, such as logic, have
become extremely technical to a degree similar to that of
mathematics.

6.3 Psychology

Literature allows readers to access intimate emotional aspects of a persons character that would not be obvious
otherwise.* [54] It benets the psychological development
and understanding of the reader. For example, it allows a
person to access emotional states from which the person
has distanced himself or herself. An entry written by D.
Mitchell featured in The English Journalexplains
how the author utilized young adult literature in order to
5 Essays
re-experience the emotional psychology she experienced
a child which she describes as a state of wonder
An essay consists of a discussion of a topic from an au- as
*
[55]
.
thor's personal point of view, exemplied by works by
Michel de Montaigne or by Charles Lamb.
Hogan also explains that the temporal and emotional
Genres related to the essay may include the memoir and amount which a person devotes to understanding a characters situation in literature allows literature to be conthe epistle.
sidered ecological[ly] valid in the study of emotion
.* [56] This can be understood in the sense that literature
unites a large community by provoking universal emo6 Other prose literature
tions. It also allows readers to access cultural aspects that
they are not exposed to thus provoking new emotional exPhilosophical, historical, journalistic, and scientic writ- periences.* [57] Authors choose literary device according
ings are traditionally ranked as literature. They oer to what psychological emotion he or she is attempting to
some of the oldest prose writings in existence; novels and describe, thus certain literary devices are more emotionprose stories earned the names "ction" to distinguish ally eective than others.* [58]

Furthermore, literature is being more popularly regarded

as a psychologically eective research tool. It can be considered a research tool because it allows psychologists to
discover new psychological aspects and it also allows psychologists to promote their theories.* [59] For example,
the print capacity available for literature distribution has
allowed psychological theories such as Maslows Hierarchy of Needs to be universally recognized.
Maslows Third Force Psychology Theory
even
allows literary analysts to critically understand how characters reect the culture and the history in which they are
contextualized. It also allows analysts to understand the
authors intended message and to understand the author
s psychology.* [60] The theory suggests that human beings possess a nature within them that demonstrates their
trueselfand it suggests that the fulllment of this nature is the reason for living. It also suggests that neurological development hinders actualizing the nature because a
person becomes estranged from his or her true self.* [61]
Therefore, literary devices reect a characterss and an
authors natural self.* [62] In hisThird Force Psychology and the Study of Literature, Paris argues D.H
Lawrencespristine unconsciousis a metaphor for the
real self.* [63] Thus Literature is a reputable tool that
allows readers to develop and apply critical reasoning to
the nature of emotions.

LITERARY TECHNIQUES

7 Other narrative forms

Electronic literature is a literary genre consisting of
works that originate in digital environments.
Films, videos and broadcast soap operas have carved
out a niche which often parallels the functionality of
prose ction.
Graphic novels and comic books present stories told
in a combination of sequential artwork, dialogue and
text.

8 Genres of literature
Literary genre is a mode of categorising literature. The
term originates from French, designating a proposed
type or class.* [64] However, such classes are subject to
change, and have been used in dierent ways in dierent
periods and traditions.

9 Literary techniques
Main article: Literary technique

6.4

History

A literary technique or literary device can be used by

authors in order to enhance the written framework of a
piece of literature, and produce specic eects. Literary techniques encompass a wide range of approaches
to crafting a work: whether a work is narrated in rstperson or from another perspective, whether to use a traditional linear narrative or a nonlinear narrative, or the
choice of literary genre, are all examples of literary technique. They may indicate to a reader that there is a familiar structure and presentation to a work, such as a conventional murder-mystery novel; or, the author may choose
to experiment with their technique to surprise the reader.

A signicant portion of historical writing ranks as literature, particularly the genre known as creative nonction,
as can a great deal of journalism, such as literary journalism. However, these areas have become extremely
large, and often have a primarily utilitarian purpose: to
record data or convey immediate information. As a result, the writing in these elds often lacks a literary quality, although it often(and in its better moments)has that
quality. Major literaryhistorians include Herodotus,
Thucydides and Procopius, all of whom count as canonical literary gures.
In this way, use of a technique can lead to the development of a new genre, as was the case with one of the rst
modern novels, Pamela by Samuel Richardson. Pamela
is written as a collection of letter-writing correspondence,
called epistolary technique"; by using this technique,
6.5 Law
Pamela strengthened the tradition of the epistolary novel,
Law oers more ambiguity. Some writings of Plato a genre which had been practiced for some time already
and Aristotle, the law tables of Hammurabi of Babylon, but without the same acclaim.
or even the early parts of the Bible could be seen as
legal literature. Roman civil law as codied in the
Corpus Juris Civilis during the reign of Justinian I of the
Byzantine Empire has a reputation as signicant literature. The founding documents of many countries, including Constitutions and Law Codes, can count as literature;
however, most legal writings rarely exhibit much literary
merit, as they tend to be rather Written by Samuel Dean.

Literary technique is distinguished from literary device,

as military strategy is distinguished from military tactics. Devices are specic constructions within the narrative that make it eective. Examples include metaphor,
simile, ellipsis, narrative motifs, and allegory. Even simple word play functions as a literary device. The narrative
mode may be considered a literary device, such as the use
of stream-of-consciousness narrative.

7
Literary criticism implies a critique and evaluation of a
piece of literature and, in some cases, it is used to improve
a work in progress or a classical piece, as with an ongoing
theatre production. Literary editors can serve a similar
purpose for the authors with whom they work. There are
many types of literary criticism and each can be used to
critique a piece in a dierent way or critique a dierent
aspect of a piece.

Ergodic literature
Erotic literature
Hinman collator
Hungryalism
Literature basic topics
Literary agent

10

Legal status

Literature cycle
Literary element

10.1

UK

Literary works have been protected by copyright law from

unauthorised reproduction since at least 1710.* [65] Literary works are dened by copyright law to mean any work,
other than a dramatic or musical work, which is written,
spoken or sung, and accordingly includes (a) a table or
compilation (other than a database), (b) a computer program, (c) preparatory design material for a computer program, and (d) a database.

Literary magazine
Modern Language Association
Orature
Postcolonial literature
Rabbinic literature
Rhetorical modes

Vernacular literature
It should be noted that literary works are not limited
to works of literature, but include all works expressed
World literature
in print or writing (other than dramatic or musical
works).* [66]
Associations devoted to the study of language and literature

11

See also

Main articles: Outline of literature and Index of literature

articles
Philosophy and literature
Lists
List of authors
List of books
List of literary magazines
List of literary terms
List of women writers

American Council of Learned Societies (for list of

member societies)
Modern Language Association

12 References
Notes
[1] This distinction is complicated by various hybrid forms
such as the prose poem* [13] and prosimetrum,* [14]
and more generally by the fact that prose possesses
rhythm.* [15] Abram Lipsky refers to it as an open secretthatprose is not distinguished from poetry by lack
of rhythm.* [16]
[2] However, in some instances a work has been cited in the
explanation of why the award was given.

List of writers
Citations
Related topics
Asemic writing
Children's literature
Cultural movement for literary movements.
English studies

[1] Meyer, Jim (1997). What is Literature? A Denition

Based on Prototypes. Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session 41
(1). Retrieved 11 February 2014.
[2] Simon Ryan; Delyse Ryan. What is Literature?". Foundation: Fundamentals of Literature and Drama. Australian Catholic University. Retrieved 9 February 2014.

[3] Leitch et al., The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, 28

[4] Eagleton, Literary theory: an introduction, 16
[5] Eagleton, Literary theory: an introduction, 9
[6] Biswas, Critique of Poetics, 538
[7] Leitch et al., The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, 4
[8] Eagleton, Literary theory: an introduction, 26
[9] Eagleton, Literary theory: an introduction, 4

12

REFERENCES

[24] Sommerville, C. J. (1996). The News Revolution in England: Cultural Dynamics of Daily Information. Oxford:
OUP. p. 18.
[25] Goody, The Novel: History, Geography, and Culture, 19
[26] Goody, The Novel: History, Geography, and Culture, 20
[27] Goody, The Novel: History, Geography, and Culture, 29
[28] Franco Moretti, ed. (2006). The Novel in Search of
Itself: A Historical Morphology. The Novel, Volume
2: Forms and Themes. Princeton: Princeton UP. p. 31.
ISBN 978-0-691-04948-9.

[10]literature (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved

9 February 2014.

[29] Antrim, Taylor (2010). In Praise of Short. The Daily

Beast. Retrieved 15 February 2014.

[11] Finnegan, Ruth (1974). How Oral Is Oral Literature?".

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
37 (1): 5264. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00094842. Retrieved 10 February 2014. (subscription required)

[30] Giraldi 796

[12] poetry, n.. Oxford English Dictionary. OUP. Retrieved

13 February 2014. (subscription required)

[32] Giraldi 793

[13] Poetic Form: Prose Poem. Poets.org. Academy of

American Poets. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
[14] Preminger, The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry
and Poetics, 981

[31] Ripatrazone, Nick. Taut, Not Trite: On the Novella.

The Millions. Retrieved 15 February 2014.

[33] Giraldi 7956

[34] Fetherling, George (2006). Briey, the case for the
novella. Seven Oaks Magazine. Retrieved 15 February 2014.

[15] Preminger, The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry

and Poetics, 979

[35] Norton, Ingrid.Of Form, E-Readers, and Thwarted Genius: End of a Year with Short Novels. Open Letters
Monthly. Retrieved 15 February 2014.

[16] Lipsky, Abram (1908). Rhythm in Prose. The Sewanee Review 16 (3): 27789. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
(subscription required)

[36] Boyd, William. A short history of the short story.

Prospect Magazine. Retrieved 8 March 2014.

[17] Preminger, The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry

and Poetics, 9389

[37] Colibaba, tefan (2010).The Nature of the Short Story:

Attempts at Denition (PDF). Synergy 6 (2): 220230.
Retrieved 6 March 2014.

[18] Finnegan, Ruth H. (1977). Oral poetry: its nature, significance, and social context. Indiana University Press. p.
66.
[19] Magoun, Jr., Francis P. (1953). Oral-Formulaic Character of Anglo-Saxon Narrative Poetry. Speculum 28
(3): 44667. doi:10.2307/2847021. Retrieved 13 February 2014. (subscription required)
[20] Alison Booth; Kelly J. Mays.Glossary: P. LitWeb, the
Norton Introduction to Literature Studyspace. Retrieved 15
February 2014.
[21] Gra, Richard (2005).
Prose versus Poetry in
Early Greek Theories of Style.
Rhetorica: A
Journal of the History of Rhetoric 23 (4): 30335.
doi:10.1525/rh.2005.23.4.303. (subscription required)
[22] Goody, Jack (2006). From Oral to Written: An Anthropological Breakthrough in Storytelling. In Franco
Moretti. The Novel, Volume 1: History, Geography, and
Culture. Princeton: Princeton UP. p. 18. ISBN 978-0691-04947-2.
[23] The Novel. A Guide to the Study of Literature: A Companion Text for Core Studies 6, Landmarks of Literature.
Brooklyn College. Retrieved 22 February 2014.

[38] Rohrberger, Mary; Dan E. Burns (1982). Short Fiction

and the Numinous Realm: Another Attempt at Denition
. Modern Fiction Studies. XXVIII (6).
[39] May, Charles (1995). The Short Story. The Reality of
Artice. New York: Twain.
[40] Marie Louise Pratt (1994). Charles May, ed. The Short
Story: The Long and the Short of It. Athens: Ohio UP.
[41] Elam, Kier (1980). The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama.
London and New York: Methuen. p. 98. ISBN 0-41672060-9.
[42] Cody, Gabrielle H. (2007). The Columbia Encyclopedia of Modern Drama (Volume 1 ed.). New York City:
Columbia University Press. p. 271.
[43] Forster, Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology, xix
[44] Black et al. The Literature of Ancient Sumer, xix
[45] Forster, Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology, vii
[46] Forster, Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology, viii
ix

[47] English: a degree for the curious. (2013, September

16). UWIRE Text, p. 1. Retrieved from:http://go.
galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA342994126&
v=2.1&u=otta77973&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=
0b1f124b2250452bd1bab5551e352af3
[48] Lord Byron, (2008) Childe Harolds Pilgrimage: Canto
I. Lord Byron: The Major Works. ed. McGann, J.J. New
York: Oxford University Press
[49] A Hyatt Mayor, Prints and People, Metropolitan Museum
of Art/Princeton, 1971, nos 1-4. ISBN 0-691-00326-2
[50] Gavin Flood sums up mainstream estimates, according to
which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500
BCE over a period of several centuries. Flood 1996, p.
37
[51] Aristophanes: Butts K.J.Dover (ed), Oxford University
Press 1970, Intro. page X.
[52] John Stock; Kealey Rigden. Man Booker 2013: Top
25 literary prizes. The Telegraph. Retrieved 8 March
2014.
[53] Facts on the Nobel Prize in Literature. Nobelprize.org.
Nobel Media AB. Retrieved 8 March 2014.
[54] Hogan, P. Colm, (2011). What Literature Teaches Us
about Emotion. New York: Cambridge University Press.
p.1
[55] Mitchell, D. (2001, Jan). The Lure of Young Adult Literature.The English Journal
, Vol. 90, No.3, pp.23-25.
Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/821301
[56] Hogan, P. Colm, (2011).
What Literature Teaches
Us about Emotion
. New York: Cambridge University
Press.p.10
[57] Hogan, P. Colm, (2011).
What Literature Teaches
Us about Emotion
. New York: Cambridge University
Press.p.11
[58] Nezami, S. R. A. (2012, February). The use of gures of
speech as a literary device--a specic mode of expression
in English literature. Language In India
, 12(2),
659+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?
action=interpret&id=GALE%7CA283834622&v=2.1&
u=otta77973&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&authCount=1
[59] Hogan, P. Colm, (2011).
What Literature Teaches
Us about Emotion
. New York: Cambridge University
Press.p.19
[60] Paris, B.J. (1986)
Third Force Psychology and the
Study of Literature. Cranbury: Associated University
Press. p.61
[61] Paris, B.J. (1986)
Third Force Psychology and the
Study of Literature. Cranbury: Associated University
Press. p.25
[62] Nezami, S. R. A. (2012, February). The use of gures of
speech as a literary device--a specic mode of expression
in English literature. Language In India, 12(2), 659+.
Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?action=
interpret&id=GALE%7CA283834622&v=2.1&u=
otta77973&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&authCount=1

[63] Paris, B.J. (1986)

Third Force Psychology and the
Study of Literature
. Cranbury: Associated University
Press. p.65
[64] M. H. Abrams, Glossary of Literary Terms, Harcourt/New York, 1999. pp.108
[65] The Statute of Anne 1710 and the Literary Copyright Act
1842 used the term book. However, since 1911 the
statutes have referred to literary works.
[66] University of London Press v. University Tutorial Press
[1916]

Bibliography
A.R. Biswas (2005). Critique of Poetics (vol. 2). Atlantic Publishers &
Dist. ISBN 978-81-269-0377-1.
Jeremy Black, Graham Cunningham, Eleanor Robson, ed. (2006).
The literature of ancient Sumer.
Oxford: OUP. ISBN 978-0-19929633-0.
Cain, William E.; Finke, Laurie A.;
Johnson, Barbara E.; McGowan,
John; Williams, Jerey J. (2001).
Vincent B. Leitch, ed. The Norton
Anthology of Theory and Criticism.
Norton. ISBN 0-393-97429-4.
Eagleton, Terry (2008). Literary theory: an introduction: anniversary edition (Anniversary, 2nd
ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-7921-8.
Foster, John Lawrence (2001), Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology, Austin: University of
Texas Press, pp. xx, ISBN 0-29272527-2
Giraldi, William. The Novella's
Long Life (PDF). The Southern
Review (Autumn 2008): 793801.
Retrieved 15 February 2014.
Goody, Jack (2006). From Oral
to Written: An Anthropological
Breakthrough in Storytelling. In
Franco Moretti. The Novel, Volume
1: History, Geography, and Culture.
Princeton: Princeton UP. p. 18.
ISBN 978-0-691-04947-2.
Preminger, Alex; et al. (1993).
The New Princeton Encyclopedia of
Poetry and Poetics. US: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-69102123-6.
The
Ross, Trevor (1996).
Emergence of Literature":

10

14
Making and Reading the English Canon in the Eighteenth
Century."" (PDF). ELH 63: 397
422. doi:10.1353/elh.1996.0019.
Retrieved 9 February 2014.

13

Further reading

Major forms
Bonheim, Helmut (1982). The
Narrative Modes: Techniques of the
Short Story. Cambridge: Brewer.
An overview of several hundred
short stories.
Gillespie, Gerald (January 1967).
Novella, nouvelle, novella, short
novel?
A review of terms
. Neophilologus 51 (1): 117
127.
doi:10.1007/BF01511303.
Retrieved 6 March 2014. (subscription required)
History
Wheeler, L. Kip. Periods of
Literary History (PDF). CarsonNewman University. Retrieved 18
March 2014. Brief summary of
major periods in literary history of
the Western tradition.

14

External links

English Literature Forum

Project Gutenberg Online Library
Abacci Project Gutenberg texts matched
with Amazon reviews
Internet Book List similar to IMDb but for books
Internet Archive Digital eBook Collection

EXTERNAL LINKS

11

15
15.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Literature Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature?oldid=701327416 Contributors: Derek Ross, JvaGoddess, Brion VIBBER,

Eloquence, Mav, Koyaanis Qatsi, Ap, Trimalchio, Eclecticology, Danny, XJaM, Atorpen, Enchanter, Oliverkroll, Deb, Little guru,
Ortolan88, SimonP, Heron, MrH, R Lowry, Sfdan, KF, Hephaestos, Olivier, DennisDaniels, Edward, Ghyll~enwiki, Michael Hardy,
Fred Bauder, Jahsonic, GUllman, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Gabbe, Firebirth, Vinodmp, TakuyaMurata, Eroseneld, Tiles, Poitypoity,
Minesweeper, Looxix~enwiki, Ihcoyc, ArnoLagrange, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, BevRowe, Docu, Notheruser, Jdforrester, Kingturtle,
, Salsa Shark, Yenar~enwiki, Glenn, Poor Yorick, Nikai, Kwekubo, Rotem Dan, Llull, Andres, David Stewart, Jonik, Seth
ze, Crusadeonilliteracy, Alakon, Adam Bishop, Geo, Dino, Michael Reiter, Dysprosia, Jwrosenzweig, Wik, KRS, Pedant17, Tpbradbury,
Catalyst, Furrykef, Itai, Nthomas, Jgm, Traroth, Topbanana, Curero, Rbellin, Wetman, Jusjih, SusieG, Owen, David Stapleton, Bearcat,
Robbot, DavidA, Pigsonthewing, RedWolf, Chocolateboy, Mschorr, Seglea, Naddy, Chancemill, Academic Challenger, Hemanshu, Kiltannen, LGagnon, Rasmus Faber, Hadal, Borislav, Diberri, Wayland, Dina, Snobot, Ancheta Wis, Centrx, Dbenbenn, DocWatson42, Gtrmp,
Jyril, Amorim Parga, Xeresblue, Meursault2004, Aphaia, Zigger, Mark Richards, Bradeos Graphon, Henry Flower, Sproy, Malyctenar, LarryGilbert, Jeery McCaskill, Masken, Coralys, Edcolins, Scurra, Joseph Dwayne, Wmahan, Stevietheman, Utcursch, Andycjp, Zeimusu,
Slowking Man, Sonjaaa, Quadell, Antandrus, Beland, OverlordQ, Evertype, PDH, Dmkidd, Lukeisham, Tothebarricades.tk, Dave L,
Sumen, Buickid, Bojan~enwiki, Mike Rosoft, DanielCD, Jiy, A-giau, Mercurius~enwiki, RossPatterson, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough,
LegCircus, Vsmith, YUL89YYZ, Bishonen, Stace175, MeltBanana, Notinasnaid, Carptrash, Dbachmann, Mani1, Stbalbach, Bender235,
S.K., Brian0918, El C, Walden, Randolph Hoppe, Brisis~enwiki, RoyBoy, Prsephone1674, Bobo192, Zidel333, Giraedata, Juzeris,
Man vyi, Sam Korn, Ral315, Hagerman, Jonathunder, Geschichte, Alansohn, Lijil, ABCD, Logologist, Riana, Olaf Simons, Jaw959, CJ,
Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Velella, Dalillama, Inge-Lyubov, Shoey, ~shuri, Versageek, Shimeru, Dejvid, Gmaxwell, Angr, Velho, Boothy443,
Kelly Martin, Woohookitty, Xover, FeanorStar7, Shreevatsa, Zogin~enwiki, Before My Ken, SP-KP, Polycarp, Stefan Ivanovich, MrDarcy,
Al E., Parallelstripes, Amikeco, Jacj, Allen3, MrSomeone, Graham87, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Porcher, Josh Parris, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Alex Coiro~enwiki, Phileas, NatusRoma, MarSch, YAZASHI, Brighterorange, Titoxd, FlaBot, Docbug, Nihiltres,
SouthernNights, JYOuyang, RexNL, Gurch, Malhonen, Chobot, Scoops, DVdm, Gdrbot, Gwernol, YurikBot, Quentin X, Jlittlet, RussBot,
Rocketgoat, Briaboru, Bhny, Pigman, Stephenb, Lord Voldemort, NawlinWiki, Bruxism, Grafen, ONEder Boy, NYScholar, Howcheng,
Brandon, G. D. Theodore, Mlouns, DaveClapper, BOT-Superzerocool, Rwalker, Psy guy, Bota47, CLW, Martinwilke1980, Robertbyrne,
FF2010, Zzuuzz, Closedmouth, Cobblet, GraemeL, Darbyw, Globe-trotter, Scoutersig, Kennylucius, Katieh5584, DVD R W, SmackBot, Unschool, Classiclms, ThreeDee912, Unyoyega, Jagged 85, Mscuthbert, Jab843, PeterSymonds, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains,
M.Imran, Schmiteye, Anwar saadat, Persian Poet Gal, Fuzzform, Oli Filth, MalafayaBot, Greatgavini, Sadads, Scwlong, Chlewbot, Snowmanradio, Jajhill, Rrburke, KerathFreeman, Runefurb, Alanlastufka, Jwy, Nakon, VegaDark, RobinJ, Crazyale, Lcarscad, Weregerbil,
DMacks, Kukini, Nov ialiste, Kuru, Akendall, John, Gobonobo, JoshuaZ, Dumelow, Mgiganteus1, Mr. Lefty, IronGargoyle, Ckatz, Fernando S. Aldado~enwiki, The Man in Question, Across.The.Synapse, Andypandy.UK, Mr Stephen, Kyoko, Ferhengvan, Ehheh, Johnmc,
RichardF, Jose77, King Kovifor, DabMachine, JoeBot, Shoreranger, CP\M, The71, Tawkerbot2, JForget, Wolfdog, Ale jrb, Victoriagirl,
GHe, ShelfSkewed, Outriggr (2006-2009), Bobnorwal, Funnyfarmofdoom, AndrewHowse, Gogo Dodo, Zginder, Dancter, BuildControl, Aintsemic, Chrislk02, Nsaum75, Garik, Kozuch, Maziotis, PamD, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Qwyrxian, Memty Bot, N5iln, Andyjsmith,
Ronald W Wise, A3RO, JustAGal, Booshakla, Escarbot, Igorwindsor~enwiki, Mentisto, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Goldenrowley, Noroton, Damno52, Oddity-, Storkk, Martingabel1960, JAnDbot, Ekabhishek, Taliawi, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Robina
Fox, Bunnyboiler, PhilKnight, LittleOldMe, .anacondabot, Chinanski, Freshacconci, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Mjw65, Dekimasu, JNW,
Bbrarebooks, Feeeshboy, Tedickey, I JethroBT, KConWiki, Catgut, Cgingold, Ignoble One, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Wrad, Spellmaster,
Alunnico, DerHexer, JaGa, Jahangard, Xtifr, Greenguy1090, MartinBot, Vigyani, Pupster21, Eo, Mschel, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, LedgendGamer, Wikipediausernumber1, J.delanoy, Draccon136, Numbo3, Jackblackhead, Tcop, Roger Maioli, Ehwills, Coin945, Drahgo,
Gill4693, The Transhumanist (AWB), Master shepherd, LeighvsOptimvsMaximvs, Nrobin9, Joe snail, Juliancolton, Golemarch, Saence,
King Toadsworth, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Brianreads, Spellcast, WWGB, Foundby, Chromancer, Deor, One Night In Hackney, Je
G., AlnoktaBOT, Sitbunnynow, TXiKiBoT, Mercurywoodrose, Technopat, Someguy1221, JhsBot, Bearian, Maxim, Improve~enwiki,
Tiger1427, Staka, Lamro, Synthebot, Strangerer, Falcon8765, Oldwes, Insanity Incarnate, Sumi:Meera:wikipedia, Fanofranz, AlleborgoBot, Symane, Demmy, Badvibes101, SieBot, Dusti, Nubiatech, Nihil novi, Dreamafter, Scarian, Iamthedeus, Caltas, Triwbe, Yintan,
Rhymworm, Flyer22 Reborn, Radon210, Artoasis, Hello71, Ealdgyth, Chickenlet, The-G-Unit-Boss, BenoniBot~enwiki, Fratrep, Jorgen
W, OKBot, Kutera Genesis, Dcattell, Artisol2345, DRTllbrg, Bardofcornish, Escape Orbit, DTGHYUKLPOQWMNB, Alfredo elejalde,
Mr. Granger, Loren.wilton, Elassint, Animeronin, ClueBot, DavePercy, SummerWithMorons, Enyavar, Binksternet, PipepBot, Andrewmagliozzi, The Thing That Should Not Be, Chocoforfriends, DionysosProteus, Mike Klaassen, R000t, Saddhiyama, Drmies, Sevilledade,
Uncle Milty, Hafspajen, CounterVandalismBot, Harland1, Esrou, Excirial, Bossw09, Cenarium, Ilovekojimoto, Frongle, Gujaratiauthor,
Berean Hunter, Johnuniq, MasterOfHisOwnDomain, Plesiosaur~enwiki, Cowardly Lion, XLinkBot, Beantwo, Hotcrocodile, Pichpich,
Goblyglook, Gnowor, BodhisattvaBot, Cshubho, Duncan, Ost316, WikHead, EddBruce, PL290, ZooFari, Ejosse1, Felix Folio Secundus,
Maimai009, Addbot, Cxz111, Willking1979, Lithoderm, Blethering Scot, Sorryitwasme, TutterMouse, Qwsderf, Pr0wner0093, GD 6041,
KGBarnett, Abreactive, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Gail, Isolation booth, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Karunyavardhan,
Fraggle81, Victoriaearle, Nallimbot, RX750, MacTire02, AnomieBOT, Ciphers, Rubinbot, Slmiller6, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, JohnnyB256, ArthurBot, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Amritbir, Nasnema, Lele giannoni, Anna Frodesiak, Locos epraix, Pmlineditor, RibotBOT, Bowerman1010, PRE2008FIRST, Joaquin008, Prezbo, Ddawkins73, Velblod, Dreampsy, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, AlexanderKaras, VS6507,
Mr. Comodor, Alxeedo, Finalius, DivineAlpha, JRBallou, Simple Bob, RandomDSdevel, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, HRoestBot,
MJ94, Calmer Waters, Skyerise, Davetwining, Ongar the World-Weary, Serols, le ottante, Candiman45, FoxBot, TobeBot, Yunshui,
Lotje, Fox Wilson, Ingi.b, Dinamik-bot, G4g, Neoaverroes, L8r1234, Writeoutofme, Gazer69, Suusion of Yellow, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,
Onel5969, Mean as custard, TjBot, Regancy42, Jmark6191, Esibun, DASHBot, LibertyDodzo, Contre-boutant-ex, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Avenue X at Cicero, Elusker, Gfoley4, Ajraddatz, Brianpetersn, Faolin42, GoingBatty, Sournick3, Tommy2010, NYC Writes, Princess
Lirin, Wikipelli, P. S. F. Freitas, Savh, Kkm010, CanonLawJunkie, Peteypaws, ElationAviation, Dr Sheldon Cooper 99, Ordaley, Battoe19, BisquickMyDear, Blogfaweb, Averaver, Wayne Slam, Tolly4bolly, Elux777, Simonjustice, Euchii, Seattleslim, Coasterlover1994,
L Kensington, Donner60, Braonsceatstoe, Delveter, RockMagnetist, Hooplaa, Sven Manguard, DASHBotAV, 28bot, Mjbmrbot, Tlnian, CM2G0005, ClueBot NG, Ccestrada, Peter James, Ferdinand11, NordhornerII, Deepvalley, Failure2001, Bped1985, Movses-bot,
Neptune 123, Py0alb, ScottSteiner, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Strike Eagle, Calabe1992, Thomasettaei, Yuan2085, BG19bot, Vagobot,
M0rphzone, Northamerica1000, ISTB351, Mathematicmajic, MusikAnimal, Frze, Goldenshimmer, Mark Arsten, OttawaAC, LongLiveMusic, NNU-10-03100303, Awagner1, Corybechtold, Meganvc, Stagedad, Eduardofeld, Masharif, Fazleariferabbana, UnconsciousInferno,
Pratyya Ghosh, Mrt3366, ChrisGualtieri, GoShow, SquarrelingElf, Rezonansowy, Mogism, Sanjay1234551, Gacelp, Numbermaniac, Lu-

12

15

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

gia2453, 93, Chronotopian, Telfordbuck, MyLittlePwny690, Plurofuturo, Greengreengreenred, CsDix, Lemnaminor, The Millionth One,
Tentinator, AlexChristodoulouBellBruzaBendell, Digniedrice, Ugog Nizdast, Ginsuloft, Natashanayak, GamemasterXX, Anastasai23,
Maan Tujay Salam, Thewordsmith9, Faaasss, Slayer41126, Monkbot, Reddet, Sobia ayaz, Biblioworm, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fs654654,
SDAGE018, Gvprtskvnis, GeneralizationsAreBad, Jaskaran9911, KasparBot, JordyvanLith, Kevindison88, Hiteshpatil212, Lolyololol09,
Jordanlim, Agitsas, Shahd5attab, InformativeInfoInformed, Meaghanross, Jdcnjncdjcnj, TXLB2, Allthefoxes, Martin4judge and Anonymous: 959

15.2

Images

File:Ambox_globe_content.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg License:

Public domain Contributors: Own work, using File:Information icon3.svg and File:Earth clip art.svg Original artist: penubag
File:Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg
License: CC0 Contributors: https://openclipart.org/detail/105859/booksajsvg-aj-ashton-01 Original artist: AJ on openclipart.org
File:Calligramme.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Calligramme.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Source Original artist: Guillaume Apollinaire
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Johann_Heinrich_Wilhelm_Tischbein_-_Goethe_in_the_Roman_Campagna_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Johann_Heinrich_Wilhelm_Tischbein_-_Goethe_in_the_Roman_Campagna_-_
Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: aAH2PRcepgpGwA at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum
Original artist: Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein
File:Liji.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Liji.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: taken in Beijing zoo,Beijing,China in 28th Agu 2005 Original artist: snowyowls
File:LuxorTemple03.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/LuxorTemple03.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Asta
File:Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.
png License: LGPL Contributors: http://icon-king.com Original artist: David Vignoni / ICON KING
File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This le was derived from Wiki letter w.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Wiki_letter_w.svg' class='image'><img alt='Wiki letter w.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_
letter_w.svg/50px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png' width='50' height='50' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/
Wiki_letter_w.svg/75px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/
100px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='44' data-le-height='44' /></a>
Original artist: Derivative work by Thumperward
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

15.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0