3.

BUILDING MATERIALS
(Stone, bricks, cement, reinforcing steel,
aggregate)
Building material is any material which is used for a construction purpose.
Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood and rocks,
even twigs and leaves have been used to construct buildings. Apart from
naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some
more and some less synthetic. The manufacture of building materials is an
established industry in many countries and the use of these materials is
typically segmented into specific specialty trades, such as carpentry,
plumbing, roofing and insulation work. They provide the make-up of
habitats and structures including homes.

STONE: Stone is a naturally available building material, which has been

used from the early age of civilization. It is available in the form of rock,
which is cut to the required size and shape and used as building block. Stone
has been used to build small residential buildings to larges palaces, forts,
temples and monuments. Rashtrapathi Bhavan, Jaipur Palace, Red Fort, Birla
Mandirs at Delhi, Banaras and Hyderabad, Taj Mahal, Gateway of India and
India Gate etc. are the world famous stone buildings. Stone is a naturally
available material of construction and is obtained from rocks.
Classification of Rocks
Rocks are classified in following three ways
1. Geological Classification
2. Physical Classification
3. Chemical Classification
1. Geological Classification
Based on the mode of formation, the rocks are classified as:
i. Igneous Rocks
ii. Sedimentary Rocks
iii. Metamorphic Rocks
i. Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed by the cooling of molten rocky
material called
Magma which is inside the earth's surface. If the magma cools at a
considerable depth from earth's surface then it is called Plutonic rock. The
cooling is slow and hence these rocks possess coarsely grained crystalline
structure. eg. Granite. If the magma cools at a relatively shallow depth from
earth's surface then it is called Hyperbyssal rocks. The cooling is quick and
hence these rocks possess finely grained crystalline structure eg. Dolerite. If
the magma cools at earth's surface than it is called volcanic rocks. The

cooling is very rapid and hence these rocks possess extremely fine grained
structure. eg. Basalt.
ii. Sedimentary Rocks: Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of
products of
weathering on the pre-existing rock. All the products of
weathering are u1timately carried away from their place of origin by the
agents of wind, rain, frost, etc. eg. Sandstone, Limestone, Gypsum, Gravel
etc
iii. Metamorphic Rocks: When the pre-existing rocks (i.e. Igneous and
Sedimentary rocks) are subject to great heat and pressure, they are changed
in character and forms metamorphic rocks. eg. Slate, Marble, Gneisses.
2. Physical Classification
Based on general structure the rocks are classified as
i) Stratified Rocks
ii) Un Stratified Rocks
iii) Foliated Rocks.
i) Stratified Rocks: These rocks possess planes of stratification and such
rocks can easily be split up along these planes. eg. Sedimentary Rocks.
These rocks may be crystalline, granular or compact granular. eg. Igneous
rocks.
iii) Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to be split up in a definite
direction only. eg. Metamorphic Rocks.
3. Chemical Classification
Based on chemical constituents, the rocks are classified as
i) Silicious Rocks
ii) Argillaceous Rocks
iii)Calcareous Rocks.
i) Silicious Rocks: In these rocks, Silica is the main constituent. eg. Granite
Quartzites etc.
ii) Argillaceous Rocks: In these rocks, clay or argil is the main constituent.
eg. Slates,
Laterites etc.
iii) Calcareous Rocks: In these rocks, Calcium Carbonate is the main
constituent eg. Lime stones, Marbles etc.
Tests for Stones
The following are the tests conducted on stones to decide construction work
1. Impact test
2. Crushing strength test
3. Attrition test

4. Hardness Test

5.
6.
7.
8.

Water absorption test

Freezing and thawing test
Microscopic test
Smith's test

*Qualities of Good Building Stone:

A good building stone should have the following qualities:
1. The crushing strength of stone should be greater than 100 N/mm2.
2. Stones must be decent in appearance and be of uniform colour.
3. Stones must be durable. Their natural bed must be perpendicular to the
direction of
pressure.
4. Stones should be easily carved and dressed.
5. Fracture should be sharp and clear.
6. For a good building stone, co-efficient of hardness should not be below 14.
It
should be hard enough to resist wear and tear.
7. It must have a wear less than 3 percent.
8. It must be fire resistant.
9. It should not contain quarry sap which is nothing but moisture present in
the stones.
10. It must have a specific gravity of greater than 2.7.
11. It must have a compact, fine, crystalline structure, strong and durable.
12. The toughness index must not be less than 13.
13. It must be acid resistant and free form any soluble matter.
14. When a stone is immersed in water for 24 hrs, the percentage absorption
by weight
should not exceed 0.6

*Uses of Stones:
1. Stones are used as basic material for concrete, moorum of roads,
calcareous
cements etc.
2. Stones are used in the construction of foundation, walls, columns, lintels,
arches,
roofs etc.
3. Stones are used to cover floor of buildings of various types such as
residential,
commercial, industrial etc.
4. Stones are adopted to form paving of roads and foot paths.
5. Stones are converted to form basic materials for concrete, moorum of
roads,
artificial stones, hollow blocks, etc.
6. Stones are also used as ballast for railway track.
7. Stones are used as flux in blast furnace.
8. Stone blocks are used in the construction of bridges, piers, abutments
retaining wall, dams etc.

9. In modern days, polished stone panels are used as cladding for

architectural purposes and also polished stone slabs are replacing the dining
table tops in residential houses and restaurants.
Stone is commonly used as basic construction material in buildings, retaining
walls and
dams. However it is worth noting that the popularity of stones as building
material is going down due to the following reasons:
1. Availability of stones within a reasonable distance from the cities is
becoming scare. As a result of it, the cost of the stone at construction sites in
cities is increasing.
2. Labour cost for handling and dressing of stones is high.
3. As the surfaces of stones are not uniform, mortar consumed in stone
masonry is high.
4. Mortar bricks and hollow concrete blocks which are easy to handle and
consume less
mortar are becoming more popular.
5. R.C.C. and steel are more dependable materials for their uniformity of
strength and
hence designers prefer to use them for all important and big buildings.

BRICKS
Bricks are artificial blocks manufactured from tempered clay into standard
sizes. They are extensively used for building construction. Bricks are very
popular because of their easy availability, economy, strength, durability,
reliability and insulating properties.
Bricks are manufactured from Earth containing alumina (20 to 30%) Silica
(50 to 60%), Iron Oxide (5 to 6%) and small quantities of lime and magnesia.
Manufacture of Bricks
Manufacture of bricks involves the following operations
1. Preparation of brick earth

2. Moulding

3. Drying
4. Burnings
Size and Weight of Bricks
The Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi has specified, standard bricks of
19cm x 9cm x 9cm with 1cm thick mortar joints. This standard brick weight
is 3kg.
Classification of Bricks
Bricks are classified as under
1. First class bricks: Table moulded edges are clear, square straight. Used
for superior works.
2. Second class bricks: Ground moulded burnt in kilns surface not smooth
and edges not
regular used where the bricks work will be plastered.
3. Third c1ass bricks: Ground moulded not hard rough surface and edges
are also not sharp and regular. Used for unimportant and temporary
constructions.
4. Fourth class bricks: These are over burnt bricks dark in colour and
irregular. Used as
aggregates for concrete foundations, floors, roads etc.

*Characteristics of Good Bricks

A good brick should satisfy the following essential qualities:
1. Colour should be uniform. Colour should be red. Well burnt and sound
bricks have
these colours.
2. The bricks should have even surfaces free from flaw or cracks and should
have
sharp well defined edges.
3. These should be so hard that no impression should be left when scratched
with
finger nails.
4. These should produce clear ringing sound when struck against each other.
5. No brick should absorb more than 15% of its weight of water when kept
immersed
in for 24 hours.
6. No brick should have a crushing strength less than 3.5 N/mm2.
7. On breaking the surface it should show a bright homogeneous and
compact surface
free from voids
8. A brick soaked in water should not show any deposit of white salts on
drying in
shade.
9. When dropped flat from a height of 1m the brick should not break.
10. Bricks should not conduct most heat and they should be sound proof.

Testing of Bricks
For deciding the suitability of bricks the following tests are to be conducted.
1. Absorption test: A brick is taken and it is weighed dry. It is then
immersed in water for a period of 16 hours. It is weighted again and the
difference in weight indicates the amount of water absorbed by the brick. It
should not, in any case, exceed 20 percent of weight of dry brick.
2. Crushing strength test: Crushing strength of a brick is found out dry by
placing it in
compression testing machine. It is pressed till it breaks. Minimum crushing
strength of bricks is 3.5 N/mm2and for superior bricks; it may vary from 7.0
to 14.0 N/mm2
3. Soundness test: In this test, two bricks are taken and they are struck
with each other. Bricks should not break and a clear ringing sound should be
produced.
4. Hardness test: In this test, a scratch is made on brick surface with the
help of a finger nail. If no impression is left on the surface then the brick is
treated to be sufficiently hard.
5. Test for presence of soluble salts: Soluble salts, if present in bricks,
will cause efflorescence on the surface of bricks. For finding out the presence
of soluble salts in a brick, it is immersed in water for 24 hours. It is then
taken out and allowed to dry in shade. Absence of grey or white deposits
cover about 10 percent surface, the efflorescence is said to be slight and it is
considered as moderate, when the white deposits cover about 50 percent of
surface, the efflorescence becomes heavy and it is treated as serious, when
such deposits are converted into powdery mass.
Bricks are used for the following construction works:
1. As building blocks.
2. For lining of ovens, furnaces and chimneys.
3. To encase steel columns to protect them from fire.
4. For providing water proofing course to R.C.C. roofs.
5. For making footpaths and cycle tracks in cities

CEMENT
It is the product which is obtained by burning and crushing to powder a well
proportioned mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials. It was
introduced in 1824 by Joseph Asp Din a brick layer of Leeds, England. After
hardening it resembles in colour to the stone quarried near Portland in
England, so it is named after that as Portland cement.
It is available in different varieties and the selection of variety depends upon
the condition, strength and the type of structure.

Raw materials required for manufacture of cement are:

1. Calcareous and
2. Argillaceous material
Calcareous Materials: Calcareous materials are those materials which
contain calcium or lime as their main constituents such as lime stone, chalk
etc.
Argillaceous Materials: Argillaceous materials are those materials which
contain alumina as their main constituents such as shale, laterite etc. It
provides the required proportion of silica, clay, oxide of iron to the cement.
Proportion of mixing
The ingredients are generally mixed in the ratio of two parts of Calcareous
materials and one part argillaceous material. Limestone and shale are first
crushed and then they are mixed either in wet state or in dry state by
grounding them together. The mixture is then burnt in a rotary kiln at a
temperature between 1400C and l500C. Pulverized coal, gas or oil being
used as the fuel. The clinker so obtained is first cooled and then gypsum (3
to 4%) is added and it is grounded to the required fineness.
Main chemical Ingredients of Cement (Raw Stage)

Functions and Effects of Various Ingredients

Lime: It makes the cement sound and provides strength to the cement.
Excess of it in original form causes the cement to expand and disintegrate.

Silica: It provides strength to the cement. In excess it slows down the

setting of cement.
Alumina: It provides quick setting property to the cement. In excess it
weakens the strength of cement.
Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum): It helps in increasing the initial setting time
of cement.
Iron Oxide: It provides colour, hardness and strength to the cement.
Magnesium Oxide: It provides colour and hardness to the cement. Excess
of it in free state makes the cement unsound.
Sulphur Trioxide: In small quantity it makes the cement sound and in
excess it makes the cement unsound.
Alkalies: In excess it causes efflorescence.

*Different Types of Cement

1. Ordinary Portland cement.

2. Rapid Hardening Portland cement
3. Low Heat Portland cement
4. Portland Blast Furnace slag cement
5. Portland Sulphate resistant cement
6. Air entraining portland cement
7. White and coloured cement
8. High Alumina cement
9. Pozzoana cement
10. Oil well cement
11. Quick setting cement
12. Expanding cement
1. Ordinary Portland Cement: It is also known as Normal setting cement.
It is general
purpose cement suitable for all purpose. It is used in Road pavements,
buildings, culverts, water pipes etc. In the other sense it is used every where
except in places where special properties of other types are required. Out of
the total consumption of different types of cement 90% of this type is used.
2. Rapid Hardening Cement: Its manufacturing process is same as that of
ordinary cement except chemical composition, degree of grinding and
temperature of burning. It contains less quantity of C 2S and more quantity of
C3S. It is generally used where high early strength is required and so it is
some times called as High Early Strength Portland cement. It is used by
concrete product manufactures, highway pavements which are to be opened
early for road traffic and in cold weather concreting due to its high heat of
hydration development.
3. Low Heat Portland Cement:
This cement is so called because it develops low heat at the time of
hydration. It contains C3A and; C3S in less quantity because they develop
early heat. It develops strength quite late and so not advised to concrete
structures as it requires shuttering and curing, for a longer period. It is
generally used in massive concrete structures such as dams, bridge,
abutments, retaining walls etc.
4. Blast Furnace Slag Cement:

As the name indicates in this cement granulated blast furnace slag is grained
along with cement clinkers. Percentage of slag varies from 25 to 65%. It is
cheaper as compared to ordinary cement because waste product is used in
it. It can also be used in massive concrete such as dams, bridges etc. It has
a1so the capacity to resist sulphate bearing soils, and water. Hence good for
use in marine structures and construction in marshy areas.
5. Sulphate Resistant Portland Cement:
It contains very low percentage of C3A and C4AF. Because when C3A and C4AF
come in contact with sulphates they form sulpho aluminates causing swelling
and disintegration. It is used in canal lining, construction of pipe lines and
culverts etc.
6. Air Entraining Portland Cement:
It is ordinary Portland cement mixed with small
quantities or air entertaining materials during grinding. The diameter of air
bubbles varies from 0.075 mm and 1.25 mm. On account of air bubbles the
strength of cement is reduced. Air bubbles are permitted only up to 3 to 4
percentage, as these reduce 10 to 15% strength of cement. Air entraining
materials are Dorex Resin, Vinsol, Resin, oils and Fats etc. These should be
0.01% to 0.05% by weight of cement. This cement is more plastic and
workable causing less segregation and bleeding in concrete. It makes the
concrete more resistant to freezing. It. also reduces the water requirement
and has high resistance to weather. This cement is generally used in making
insulated walls, roof slabs, and light weight concrete and the concrete which
is subjected to freezing and thawing.
7. White and Coloured Cement:
In it white chalk and china clay are used instead of lime stone and clay as
these are having low percentage of Iron Oxide i.e.1 %. Oil is used as fuel to
avoid contamination o coal ash. It is 3 to 4 times costlier than ordinary
cement. It is used for decorative floorings. Bridge railings, traffic curbs and
aerodrome markings.
For coloured cement suitable pigments varying from 5 to 10% free from
soluble salts are added during grinding. Iron oxide gives Red, Yellow and
Brown colour. Chromium dioxide gives green and cobalt Blue gives blue
coloured cement is used for decorations only such as Terrazzo Floor finishes
swimming pools etc.
8. High Alumina Cement:
It contains 35% to 45% of aluminates Bauxite and chalk or lime stone are
mixed dry and heated till they melt and on cooling they form clinkers. These
clinkers are then grounded to the required fineness. It is dark in colour and
initial setting time varies from 3 to 6 hrs and final setting takes place with in
2 hours of the Initial set. Its setting times are controlled by the rate of cooling
of the fused product. It is highly resistant to heat and the strength is more. It
is high resistant to attack of sulphates. It gives high heat of hydration and, is
also costlier than ordinary Portland cement. It is used in structures subjected
to the action of sea water, chemical and sulphate bearing water. It is

generally used for chemical plants and in lining of furnaces. It can also be
used in cold weather concreting.
9. Pozzolana Cement: Pozzolana is a naturally occurring material such as
volcanic ash or
Pumice stone or an artificial product such as burnt clay or shale containing
siliceous and
aluminous mineral substances. As per BIS 1489-1967, the proportion of
pozzolana material varies from 10 to 25% by weight of cement. It increases
the workability, reduces heat of hydration, and increases the water tightness.
It also offers greater resistance against sulphatic action and sea water. It is
used in the construction of massive concrete structures such as dams, bridge
abutments and retaining wall etc. This cement has been also used in Bhakra
Nangal Dam.
10. Oil Well Cement:
As the name indicates, it is used for cementing; oil wells. It is used at
greeter depth under high temperature and pressure. As approximately 3 hrs
are required to, pump the cement to fill the space between steel tube lining
and wall of the well, so it should not set during this period. Iron Oxide is so
adjusted that all the alumina is converted into C4AF and sc proportion of C3A
is very small, high increases the setting time of cement and also hardens
quickly after setting. It protects the oil well causing from corrosion and also
help in supporting the oil well casing and thus reduce the tension, in steel
pipes. It also fills up the porous strata preventing water or gas from gaining
access in the oil bearing strata.
11. Quick Setting Cement:
It has less proportion of CaSO4 (Gypsum) or a small % of aluminium sulphate
is added at the time of grinding. It is grounded much finer than ordinary
Portland cement. Its initial setting time is 5 minutes and final setting time is
30 minutes. It is used for concreting under or in running water and only in
special circumstances as it gives very little time for mixing.
12. Expanding Cement:
As per the name, its volume increases on hardening. It takes about 15 daysfor the expansion to occur fully but the time can be controlled by curing. The
upper limit of expansion is 1%. The agent which causes expansion is Calcium
Sulpho Aluminate (3CaOA12O33CaSO4) which is formed by the presence of
calcium sulphate with Calcium Oxide present in cement in sufficient quantity.

*Field Tests on Cement:

1. The colour of cement should be uniform gray with light greenish shade.
2. Cement should feel smooth when touched.
3. If hand is inserted in a bag of cement it should feel cool not warm.
4. If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, it should sink
and
should not float on the surface.
5. Cement should be free from any hard lumps.

A sample meant for testing shall be drawn from at least 12 different bags or
barrels or containers or from 12 different positions in a heap if cement is
loose. Chemical composition of cement should be checked for B. I. S.
specifications.

STEEL
Steel is probably the most versatile commonly used structural material. Steel
is used to a large extent in modern multi-storied buildings. Steel is used as
reinforcing bars/wires for concrete since concrete is weak in tension.
Structural steel is available in various forms and shapes and it is being used
for various structural components.

Physical Properties of Mild Steel:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mass density = 7850 Kg/m3

Youngs Modulus = 2.04 x 105 N/mm
Modulus of Rigidity = 0.785 x 105 N/mm
Poissons Ratio = 0.25 0.3
Coefficient of thermal expansion = 12 x 10-6 per c
2

Reinforcement Steel
Steel reinforcement is of following types
1. Mild Steel bars (MS)
2. High strength deformed bars / rolled twisted bars (HSD / RTS)
3.
High
tensile

bars

Normally in all types of structural elements High Strength Deformed bars are
used as main reinforcement. For distribution bars mild steel is being used.
Reinforcement steel is characterized by its yield strength and ultimate tensile
strength. Stress strain behavior is studied by conducting simple tension test
and various salient points are noted to determine the strength.
Reinforcement bars are available in various nominal sizes. Mild steel (Grade
I) and (Grade II) are available in the following nominal sizes
5,6,8,10,12,16,20 mm diameter which has the yield stress of 250 N/mm and
minimum
ultimate
tensile
stress
as
410
N/mm 2.
Diameters
22,25,28,32,36,40,45,50 are also available which has yield stress as 240
N/mm2.
2

High strength deformed bars / wires are available in the following nominal
sizes:
6,8,10,12,16,18,20,22,25,28,32,36,40,45,&50
with
the
characteristic
strength 415 N/mm2 and 500 N/mm2.

STRUCTURAL STEEL
Various shapes and sections are used for building works. Most of them are
made by rolling.The common types of sections used in structural steel work
are shown in Fig.

AGGREGATES

Aggregate: These are the inert or chemically inactive materials which form
the bulk of cement concrete. These aggregates are bound together by
means of cement. The aggregates are classified into two categories, Fine and
coarse.
The material which is passed through 4.75mm size sieve is termed as fine
Aggregate. Usually natural river sand, issued as a fine aggregate. But at
places where river sand is not available crushed stone may be used as a fine
aggregate.
The material which is retained on 4.75 mm size B. S. test sieve termed as a
coarse aggregate. Broken stone is generally used as a coarse aggregate. The
nature of work decides the maximum size of coarse aggregate. For thin slabs
and walls the maximum size of coarse aggregate should be limited to onethird the thickness of the concrete section.
The aggregate to be used for cement concrete work should be hard, durable
and clean. The aggregate should be completely free from lumps of clay,
organic and vegetable matter, fine dust etc. The presence of a11 such debris
prevents adhesion of aggregates and hence, reduces the strength of
concrete.

Aggregates are the major component used in road making. It is used in

granular bases and subbases, bituminous courses and in cement concrete
pavements. A study of the types of aggregates, their properties and tests is
of great importance to a highway engineer.
Desirable Properties
The desirable properties of aggregates as a highway material are
Strength: The aggregates to be used in road construction should be
sufficiently strong to
withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load.

Hardness: The aggregates should to hard enough to resist the wear due to
abrasive action of traffic.
Toughness: The aggregates should have sufficient resistance to impact or
toughness due to moving wheel loads.
Durability: The aggregates should resist disintegration due to the action of
weather. The property of the stones to withstand the adverse action of
weather may be called soundness.
Shape of Aggregates: The aggregates may be rounded, angular, cubical,
flaky or elongated shape of particles. The flaky and elongated particles will
have less strength and durability when compared with cubical, angular or
rounded particles of the same stone.
Adhesion with Bitumen: The aggregates must have less affinity with water
when compared with bituminous materials; otherwise the bituminous coating
on the aggregate will be stripped off in presence of water.
Tests on aggregates
The common tests on road aggregates in India are:
Aggregate Impact Test
Los Angles Abrasion Test
Aggregate Crushing Test
Water Absorption Test and Bulk Specific Gravity Test
Flakiness Index Test
Aggregate Polishing Test
Stripping Test

STRUCTURAL GLAZING
Definition of Structural Glazing

Structural glazing is a system of bonding glass to a buildings structural framing

members utilizing a high strength; high performance silicone sealant specifically
designed and tested for structural glazing.In structural glazing applications,
dynamic wind loads are transferred from the glass, by the structural silicone
sealant, to the perimeter structural support. The net results of this glazing
technique are either four-sided systems, which yield an unobstructed glass surface;
or two-sided systems, where horizontal or vertical accents can be achieved.

Advantages of Structural Glazing

Allows for broader architectural design flexibility
Increases the thermal efficiency of buildings, because the exterior exposure of
metal
framing is either reduced or eliminated
Reduces or eliminates water and air infiltration
Reduces the potential for thermal breakage of glass

CONCRETE TYPES:[PCC, RCC, Precast & Ready mix

concrete]
Concrete is the most versatile material for all types of construction works and has
been used for innumerable construction works, either as plain concrete or as
reinforced cement concrete or as precast concrete, or prestressed concrete or in
many other forms. In building industry, the concrete is mainly used for purposes,
viz., foundations, columns, beams, slabs, stair cases, lintels, doors, window frames,
sun-shades, storage tanks, etc. The various constituents of concrete are cement,
water, fine aggregate, and coarse, aggregates. In Reinforced Cement Concrete Steel
is also used.
Grades of Concrete
Concrete as per IS 456 2000 is classified into three groups as ordinary concrete,
Standard concrete and High strength concrete. M10, M15 and M20 are ordinary
concrete, M25, M30, M35, M40, M45, M50 and M55 are grouped as Standard
concrete and M60, M70, M75 and M80 are grouped under High strength concrete.
The letter M refers to the mix and the number indicates the specified compressive
strength of that mix at 28 days expressed in N/mm2. For lean concrete bases and
simple foundations for masonry walls M5 and M7.5 grades of concrete may be used.
These mixes need not be designed. Grades of concrete lesser than M20 are not to
be used in RCC work. For general guidance, the nominal mix proportions (volume
ratio) correspond approximately to the different grades as follows:
M 5 - 1:5:10
M 7.5- 1:4:8
M 10 - 1:3:6
M 15 - 1:2:4
M 20 - 1:1.5:3
M 25 - 1:1:2

Types of Concrete

The following are the various types of concrete in use.

1. Plain Cement Concrete
2. Reinforced Cement Concrete
3. Pre Stressed Concrete
4. Light Weight Concrete
5. No-Fines Concrete
6. Pre-Cast Concrete
7. Fiber Reinforced Concrete

1. Plain Cement Concrete:

The intimate mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregate (jelly) and water is known
as plain cement concrete. A small quantity of admixtures like air entraining agents,
water proofing agents, and workability agents may also be added to impart special
properties to the plain cement concrete. It possesses the following important
properties.
i) It is free from corrosion
ii) It has a high compressive strength
iii) It blinds rapidly with steel
iv) It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasions.
v) It has a tendency to shrink. It can be minimized by curing
vi) It has a tendency to be porous
Uses of plain cement concrete are listed below:

1. As bed concrete below the wall footings, column footings and on walls below
beams.
2. As sill concrete to get a hard and even surface at window and ventilator sills.
3. As coping concrete over the parapet and compound walls.
4. For flagging the area around the buildings.
5. For making pavements.
6. For making tennis courts, basket ball courts etc.
.
2. Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC).
Concrete is good in resisting compressive stress but is very weak in resisting tensile
stresses.
Hence reinforcement is provided in the concrete wherever tensile stress is
expected. The best
reinforcing material is steel, since its tensile strength is high and bond between
steel and concrete is good. Since elastic modulus of steel is quite high compared to
concrete, the force developed in steel is high. A cage of reinforcements is prepared
as per the design requirements, kept in the form work and then green concrete is
poured. After the concrete hardens, the form work is removed. The composite
material of steel and concrete, now called R.C.C. acts as a structural member and
can resist tensile as well as compressive forces efficiently.
Uses of R.C.C.
1. R.C.C. is used as a structural member wherever bending of the member is
expected. The
Common structural elements in a building where R.C.C. is used are:
(a) Footing (b) Columns (c) Beams, lintels (d) Chejjas, roof slabs (e) Stairs.
2. R.C.C. is used for the construction of storage structures like:
(a) Water tanks (b) Dams (c) Silos, bunkers
3. They are used for the construction of
(a) Bridges (b) Retaining walls (c) Docks and harbors (d) Under water structures
4. R.C.C. is used for building tall structures like
(a) Multistorey buildings (b) Chimneys (c) Towers.
5. R.C.C. is used for paving
(a) High ways (b) City roads (c) Airports.
6. R.C.C. is used in atomic plants to prevent radiation. For this purpose R.C.C. walls
built are as thick as 1.5 m to 2.0 m.

3. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (PSC)

In this type of concrete, high tensile steel wires are used as reinforcement instead of
mild steel
bars. There are two types of prestressing namely
i) Pre-tensioning and
ii) Post tensioning.
i) Pre-tensioning: In pre-tensioning method, the wires are initially stressed and the
concrete is cast in the moulds built around the wires. The wires released after the
concrete attain its strength. The tendency of the wires to return to their original
length sets up a compression in concrete, which helps the concrete to resists more
tensile stress. Thus in bridge girders,
bottom side of beam tensile stresses develop when deck slab is placed and vehicles
start moving on the bridge. Hence before girder is placed in its position compressive
stresses are introduced at bottom side. This is achieved by pulling the high tensile

wires before concrete is poured in the form work of beam and releasing the pull only
after concrete hardens.
ii) Post-tensioning: In post tensioning the wires are placed inside the concrete and
then stressed. The use of prestressed concrete results in saving of concrete and
steel to the extent of 50% and 80% respectively compared to RCC.
In this method, it may be achieved by providing a duct from end to end in the beam
while casting the beam. Then high tensile wire is passed through the duct and after
stretching, it is anchored to the ends of beams. This is called post-tensioning
prestress beam. ACI committee defines prestressed concrete as the one in which
internal stresses have been introduced such that the stresses resulting from given
external loadings are counter-acted to a desired degree. Prestressed concrete is
commonly used in making the following structural elements.
1. Beams and girders.
2. Slabs and grid floors.
3. Pipes and tanks
4. Poles, piles, sleepers and pavements.
5. Shell and folded plate roofs.

4. PRECAST CONCRETE
Usually concrete structures are built by casting them in their final position in the site
by providing
form work, pouring concrete and then removing the form work. It is called as castin-situ construction. If concrete elements are cast in factories or elsewhere and
transported to their final destination, they are called precast elements. Since the
elements are cast in factories where controls are better, they are superior to cast in
situ elements. However, the disadvantage is cost of transportation and achieving
desired connections on site.
The advantages are:
i) The pre-cast articles may be given the desired shape and finish with accuracy.
ii) The labour required in the manufacturing process of pre-cast units can be
easily trained.
iii) Concrete of superior quality is produced
iv) The pre-cast structures can be dismantled when required and they can then
be suitably used elsewhere.
v) The work can be completed in short time .
Precast concrete is used in the following:
1. Pipes and tanks
2. Poles, piles, sleepers and pavement
3. Lintel beams
4. Beams and girders
5. Building blocks
6. Wall panels
7. Manhole covers

3. Pre-stressed Concrete

In this type of concrete, high tensile steel wires are used as reinforcement instead of
mild steel bars. There are two types of prestressing namely:
i) Pre-tensioning and ii) Post tensioning.
Pre-tensioning:
In pre-tensioning method, the wires are initially stressed and the concrete is cast in
the moulds built around the wires. The wires released after the concrete attain its

strength. The tendency of the wires to return to their original length sets up a
compression in concrete, which helps the concrete to resists more tensile stress.
ii) Post-tensioning:
In post tensioning the wires are placed inside the concrete and then
stressed. The use of prestressed concrete results in saving of concrete and steel to
the extent of 50% and 80% respectively compared to RCC.

4. Ready-mix concrete: Ready Mixed Concrete, or RMC as it is popularly called, refers

to concrete that is specifically manufactured for delivery to the customer's

construction site in a freshly mixed and plastic or unhardened state. It is a type of
concrete that is manufactured in a factory or batching plant, according to a set
recipe, and then delivered to a work site, by truck mounted transit mixers. This
results in a precise mixture, allowing specialty concrete mixtures to be developed
and implemented on construction sites. Ready-mix concrete is sometimes preferred
over on-site concrete mixing because of the precision of the mixture and reduced
work site confusion. However, using a pre-determined concrete mixture reduces
flexibility, both in the supply chain and in the actual components of the concrete.
Ready Mixed Concrete is manufactured under computer-controlled operations and
transported and placed at site using sophisticated equipment and methods. RMC
assures its customers numerous benefits.