SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS (Handout)

MJ. S. San Juan

What is the Scientific Method?
- A systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in
researching a problem (Schaefer, 2009:31)
- It involves the following steps/procedures:
o Defining a problem
o Reviewing the literature
o Formulating the hypothesis
o Selecting the research design
o Collecting and analyzing the data
o Developing the conclusion
Defining the problem:
- Technical definition: based on established and accepted definition
- Operational definition: Explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researchers
to assess the concept
Review of the literature:
- Assessment of how much work have been done regarding the study undertaken
- Useful in refining the problem under study
- Reduces (common) mistakes
- Clarifies possible techniques
Formulating the hypothesis:
- Hypothesis: speculative statement about the relationship between 2 or more factors known as
variables.
- Variable: measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions
o Independent variable (x): variable hypothesized to cause or influence another
o Dependent variable (y): variable that depends on the influence of the independent variable
Note: Identifying the independent and dependent variables is critical in clarifying the cause-and-effect
(causal logic) relationships.
Causal logic:
Correlation:

Involves the relationship between a condition and a particular consequence with one
event leading to the other.
Indication that causality may be present but they do not necessarily indicate causation.
Exists when a change in one variable coincides with a change in the other.

Selecting the Research Design:

Research Design:
- Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically
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SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS (Handout)

MJ. S. San Juan
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Often based on the theories and hypotheses the researcher starts with
May employ a single or a combination of research methodologies/techniques (triangulation)

Types of Research Design

By Purpose
- Exploratory
- Descriptive
- Explanatory

By Method
-

Quantitative
Qualitative

Research Methods:
1. Quantitative Research
- Research which collects and reports data primarily in numeric form
- Cannot offer depth and detail on a topic
2. Qualitative Research
- Relies on what is seen in the field and naturalistic settings
- Often focuses on small groups and communities rather than on large groups or whole nation
- Most common form of qualitative research is OBSERVATION
Data gathering methods and techniques:
Survey:
- A study generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire that provides researchers with
information about how people think or act
- 2 forms:
o Interview: Researchers obtain information through face-to-face or telephone questioning
o Questionnaire: Researchers use printed or written forms to obtain information from
respondents
Note:
- A survey must be based on precise, representative sampling if it is to genuinely reflect a broad range
of the population
- Questions must be simple and clear
- Specific open-ended questions must be carefully phrased to solicit the type of information desired.
Observation:
- Collecting of information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or
community
- Allows examining of behavior but the researcher must practice care in taking detailed notes while
observing their subjects
- Common forms:
o Ethnography
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SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS (Handout)

MJ. S. San Juan
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Participant observation

Ethnography:
- Efforts to describe an entire social setting through extended systematic observation
- The emphasis is on how the subjects themselves view/construe their social life in some setting
Features of ethnography:
- A strong emphasis on exploring the nature of particular social phenomena, rather than setting out to
test hypotheses about them
- A tendency to work primarily with unstructured data or those that have not been coded at the
point of data collection
- Investigation of a small number of cases, but in detail
- Analysis of data involves explicit interpretation of the meanings and functions of human actions
Participant Observation:
- The researcher joins a group (for a period of time) to get an accurate sense of how things operate
- Researchers systematically observe people while joining in their routine activities
- Degree of participation and the role/s adopted by the researcher may vary
- Limitation: sometimes researchers merely have to observe so as not to compete with the members of
the community
- Requires earning the trust of community members
Experiments:
- An artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables
- A research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions
- Experimental research is explanatory, meaning, it asks not just what happens but why.
- Classical method: (2 groups)
o Experimental group exposed to the independent variable
o Control group unexposed
Use of Existing Sources:
Secondary Analysis:
Research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly
accessible information and data
Researchers use data in ways that were unintended by the initial collectors of
information
Content Analysis:

Systematic coding and objective recording of data guided by some rationale

Collecting and Analyzing Data:

Two (2) important requirements in collecting and analyzing data: (1) selecting the sample, and (2)
ensuring validity and reliability:
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SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS (Handout)

MJ. S. San Juan
1. Selecting the sample:
Sample:

Selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population

(Part of the population that represents the whole)

Random Sample: When every member of an entire population being studied has the chance of being
selected
2. Ensuring Validity and Reliability:
Validity:

Degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study; validity
depends on the gathering of accurate data (Precision)

Reliability:

The extent to which a measure produces consistent results (Consistency)

Developing the Conclusion:

Supporting the hypothesis: Social researches do not always generate the data that support the original
hypothesis. Sometimes, controlling for other factors is necessary.
Ethics of Research:
Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997)
1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
2. Respect the subjects right to privacy and dignity
3. Protect subjects from personal harm
4. Preserve confidentiality
5. Seek informed consent
6. Acknowledge collaboration and assistance
7. Disclosure of sources of financial support
These can be summed up in the following practices:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Privacy
Confidentiality
Informed Consent
Debriefing
Benefits and reciprocity

SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS (Handout)

MJ. S. San Juan
Limitations of scientific sociology:
Science is one important way of knowing. Yet, applied to social life, science has several important
limitations:
1. Human behavior is too complex for social scientists to predict precisely any individuals actions.
2. Because humans respond to their surroundings, the mere presence of a researcher may affect the
behavior being studied.
3. Social patterns change. What is true in one time or place may not (necessarily) hold true in another.
4. Because social scientists are part of the social world they study, being value-free when conducting
social research is difficult.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER: 10 STEPS INVOLVED IN SOCIAL RESEARCH:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

What is your topic? (Statement of the problem)

What have others already learned/discovered? (Review of the literature)
What exactly are your questions? (Objectives/goals of the study)
What will you need to carry out the research? (Instruments to be used)
Are there ethical concerns? (Ethical considerations)
What method will you use? (Research design and methodology)
How will you record the data? (Process: theoretical framework or orientation)
What do the data tell you? (Findings)
What are your conclusions? (Analysis)
How can you share what youve learned? (Recommendations)

References:
Guerrero, Silvia H (ed). Gender-Sensitive and Feminist Methodologies: A handbook for health and
social researchers. University of the Philippines Press, 2002
Macionis, John J. Sociology, 8th Ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001
Schaefer, Richard T. Sociology: A Brief Introduction, 8th Ed. McGraw Hill International Edition, 2009

SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS (Handout)

MJ. S. San Juan
KROS-KATUTUBONG PERSPEKTIBO SA METODOLOHIYA (By Rogelio Pe-Pua)
Key Points:

Kros-katutubong perspektibo refers to an indigenous research method developed by Filipino

psychologists as an alternative to research methodology of foreign (Western) origin.

It emphasizes the need to understand the worldview and experiences of local communities from their
own socio-cultural context.

The methodology allows exploration of specific cultural, social and psychological phenomena without
having to (strictly) subscribe to any theoretical framework (especially those of foreign origin). In other
words, the method simply relies on what might be available in the local setting.

The use or application of this alternative methodology is primarily based on suitability, that is, it is not
a question of how unique the process(es) this method entails but what is suitable to the local
community (or setting) under study.

While the method may be subjective in nature, biases may be reduced through validation,
counterchecking and compliance with its requirements.

Important requirements when applying the indigenous research method:

1. Empirical validation (replicability and reliability)
2. Trustworthiness (multiple operationism and validity)
3. Certification
4. Affirmability and attestability
5. Authenticity
Guidelines for the use of the indigenous method:
1. Degree of interaction or relationship between the observer and the participant must be clarified.
2. Equality of observer and participant must be observed to ensure that data collection is nonextractive, non-manipulative and therefore meaningful.
3. Primary consideration is given to the participant than the data.
4. Selection of an appropriate research design and method must be based on what is suitable/fit to the
context of the community under study.
5. Use of local language is a must.