Professional Documents
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- MBA -
Semester: 4 - Assignment
Vinay K. Singh
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- MBA -
Semester: 4 - Assignment
Process:
As we are discussing about the technology generation, let us now discuss about the process
of technology generation.
Let us have a look at an illustration of the various inputs required for generation of
technologies in Figure
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Semester: 4 - Assignment
house R&D unit would depend upon the technology policy of the company and the nature of
the business. In large companies, there are sometime R&D labs for each department and a
central R&D lab for major R&D projects. Industrial R&D is mostly product or process
oriented with specific objectives and time schedule; and not basic research. Incremental
developmental efforts or import substitution efforts are generally common in most of the
industries in developing countries including India, while emphasis is on new technologies or
new applications of technologies in advanced countries.
Co-operative R&D: A group of companies in a particular industrial sector promotes an R&D
centre as a society or a non-profit making company. The R&D is funded by the participating
companies and the government. This R&D centre undertakes R&D as per the requirements
of the companies in their larger interest, and sets up expertise and facilities of common
nature and which are usually expensive. A company can also support specific projects to this
centre. Cooperative research facilities are normally utilised for the projects which are not of
cautious nature from the business point of view. Otherwise, most important part of the R&D
can be done at the centre and the remaining part involving finer details or critical
technological aspects affecting the competitiveness is done at the in-house R&D division of
the company.
Contract research: A company may contract components of technology development to
suitable R&D organisations, academic institutions, or consultants or experts. The in-house
R&D unit may coordinate the progress of the activities, to develop the desired technologies.
This approach usually requires considerable internal technological and managerial
capabilities coupled with a strong Science and Technology (S&T) information base.
R&D collaboration: A company may collaborate with another company in areas of
common interest, if costs of development are high. Such inter-firm collaborative R&D efforts
are becoming common in developed countries mainly due to high costs and shorter
technology life cycles. It is found in areas such as micro-electronics, materials, information
technologies, bio-technologies, and so on. A firm may also collaborate with the public
funded or privately funded R&D institutions on case-to-case basis, where R&D results are
shared mutually, and so are the expenses. A company in India may even collaborate with
another company or R&D institution abroad, on mutually agreed terms.
Research societies: Large corporations or industrial houses may set up independent
research societies, in addition to their in-house R&D units. Such societies may undertake
R&D activities mostly relating to the broad interests of the promoting companies in line with
the national interests. They will also take advantage of those facilities for the activities and
programmes in their in-house R&D unit. Governments usually encourage such societies and
provide several tax concessions and financial incentives.
Research companies: Large firms of technology innovative industrialists may support
research companies, specifically for conducting research and development of technologies
for others on commercial basis. The development costs and reasonable profits are recovered
from the sale and transfer of technologies. Such a concept is common in USA, and other
developed countries while it is yet to gain recognition in developing countries such as India.
A company may adopt any of the approaches or a combination of the approaches depending
on its needs and resources.
Q2. Explain the dimensions of technology transfer and features of technology
package.
Answer: Basically technology transfer is categorised into passive and active modes. The
modes of technology transfer refer to the transferors role in the application of technology to
solve the users problem. The technology transfer is called active, if the transfer methods
assist the possible user in its application. In active mode, the transfer process goes after the
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- MBA -
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interpretation of the transmitted information, suggests the user how to use the technology,
or shows the applications of the technology for the apparent use. However, there may be an
intermediate mode also, known as semi-passive mode. In semi-passive mode, the transfer
activity is in the middles of the other two modes, that is, active and passive modes. The
time and resources required to transfer a given technology depend upon:
The technology progress varies in character, that is, whether it is transferring or diffusing.
We transfer technology from an enterprise to an individual, and diffuse the technology from
an individual to an enterprise. To understand the implication of the culture, you must praise
the variation between transfer and diffusion. The advancement of the technology depends
on the combined effect of transfer and diffusion.
From the above concept, we can say that the individual is the pivotal point of technology
movement, whether transfer or diffusion. It conveys you the concept of cultural dimension.
Several years ago, a minibus manufacturing plant was closed in Pakistan. A program of ten
years for the transfer of built-up and market technology had failed. The buses produced
were identical with those successfully built and marketed in foreign country. But in Pakistan,
they could not maintain the building-up quality. The sale of buses was dull, and required
excessive maintenance and repair. They could not find the solutions even after the
investigation of the problem. So, they left their program forgetting their whole experience.
Actually, the problem was with the bus and not with the customers. Since the vehicle was
designed as per the supervision and administration of British manufacturing plant,
distribution and marketing organisation. It was designed to be driven in England or similar
environments where repair services and spare parts will be easily available.
As we find difficult to adjust with the foreign culture, technology is also not culture free.
Those creating and applying technology perform within the context of their culture, and
incorporate it into their work. In our discussion, the manufactured product works with the
culture from which it came. The same is true for other technologies like, refineries, electric
power stations, mining machinery, computerised information systems, engineering,
education, and so on. So, either the technology must adapt different culture or the people
who use the technology must adapt to the culture used in the technology for successful
transfer. Usually, the combination of both is required for the successful technology transfer.
If it is transferred without any adjustments can be referred to the result of blind luck.
Most recently developed technologies are embedded with western type cultural qualities,
including that available from developed countries. Most of these qualities are considerably
different or do not exist in other cultures. However, they influence both the transfer and
successful application of the technology.
The qualities often include:
The problem-solving method and logic.
The decision making social authority structure.
Taking initiative action for analysis value.
The time management and plan as it relates to tasks and activity.
The relationship between performance and incentives.
The view and appreciation of pre-emptive action to prevent future problems.
The social suggestion including questionnaire, conflict and confrontation.
Source of personal status in the work place and society.
The relationship of fatalism and self-determination.
The vertical and horizontal orientation to organisational authority.
Features of Technology Package:
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- MBA -
Semester: 4 - Assignment
Technology package is nothing but the technology services, which include estimated market
price, annual payments, and so on.
The technology package consists of three principal elements, namely, product design,
production technique, and management systems. Product design may range from simple
items to highly complex (example, automotive) parts. The techniques related to production
and the layout of the plant comprises of photocopies and flowcharts, formulas, sheets for
process, instructions for fabrication, designs of tools and fixture, operational procedures and
material specifications.
Management Systems comprises of different plans, blueprints and technical control systems
(along with relevant marketing and financial controls). These covers design and blueprint of
plant, quality control and testing, acquirement of material, inventory control, techniques for
equipment maintenance and repair, and machine loading.
The three principal categories of technical information or know-how inherent in technological
systems are general knowledge, system-specific and firm-specific knowledge. These various
categories of knowledge may be in the form of written fabricating or processing equipment.
General Knowledge refers to information common to industry such as blueprint reading, tool
and fixture design and fabrication, welding techniques, and so on.
Since the technology is a package (or service) type that cannot be viewed, it shows the
feature attributes of packages, which includes:
Indivisibility: Since there are few demanding parties, a lot of time and effort is required to
find out apparent customers, unlike product transfer. In particular, industry is gaining good
reputation corresponding to company credit- rating and technology capability because of
different language, culture, and commercial practice that overseas customers have.
Consumer participation: Technology transfer activities together with objective technology
data, technology sales data, document submissions in Korean and local governments and so
on needs various documentation systems. As a result, technology peacekeeping troops are
needed to accomplish English documentation tasks, negotiation, and contracts. They must
be experts in international manner and language skills, financial analysis and marketing
research skills, international contracts skills, and communication skills to sensibly persuade
counterparts. So, technology transfer responsibilities should be recognised as technology
mediation rather than being a duty domain of patent attorneys.
Non-traceability: Since the technology is an indefinable item, it can gain trust only by
providing the technology capability as per the customer requirement. In particular, samples
or demonstration along with data from public organisations as evidences with authority are
essential. The authoritative public organisations may include the patent office, testing and
research centres, and so on.
Difficulties in standardisation: The scope of the corporate market can be widened with
the help of technology transfer. In terms of market size and opportunities and overall good
market expansion opportunities, growth and revenue are very important factors that can be
gained respectively without production facilities or operation funds.
Q3. Briefly describe the concept of technology choice. List and explain the steps
involved in technology assessment process.
Answer: Technology choice:
Choice of technology has significant involvement in growth and productivity of an
organisation. The use of technology is always related to an objective. Because we can use
different types of technologies to realise an organisation's goals, but the issue of choice
arises. The effective choice depends on previously decided measures for a technology's
conference specified requirements. In addition, it depends on the ability to identify and
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evaluate opportunities in different technologies. The expected result is that the organisation
will go for the most "appropriate" technology (AT) in this situation.
The technology choice in the framework of society and its creation is the idea of imaginary
assumptions and are the key sources of meaning in social and cultural life. Imaginary
assumptions can be considered as conscious or unconscious symbolic representation of
human actions in the creation of meaningful and sense making ideas. Symbolic
representation proposes implications which require perceptions of not only the real or
rational, but also an additional imaginary component. This eventually comes from the
original ability of positing or presenting oneself with things and associations that do not
exist and have never been given in any depiction. The social world is, in every situation,
constituted and expressed as a function of such a system of implications. These implications
exist after they have been formed, in the method of what we call the actual imaginary or
the imagined. These imaginary designs play an important role in modelling the choice of
symbolic representation constituted by the world, and especially the choice of its
organisational symbolism as well as the ends to which it supports functionality.
In the perspective of technology choice, we can say that imaginary implications are the
result of both rational technology based economic behaviour and complex imaginary
struggles that emerge at various points and in many shapes by providing archives of
meaning about the content of technology and its application. These implications and
dominant interests are reflected in the shape and functioning of technology in imaginary
practice. This is an imaginary field which individuals and institutions create in order to
maintain and show representations and projections of possible alternative realities and ideas
of possible fate related to the content and application of a technology. Because of this
balance between the assumed, the real and the imaginary components of these
implications, the technology and its choice encloses not only the preferred technology based
economic implications of the technology itself, but also the engraved imaginaries of
technology in society, work, and institutions. For example, the acquirement of certain
technologies can simultaneously provide verification of membership of certain social groups,
indicate cherished relationships and include imaginaries about knowledge practices,
expertise and relations to other actors by encouraging new aspects of subjectivity.
Technology Assessment Process:
We can say that the process of technology assessment comprises of recurring cycles of
planning, data gathering, and reporting results. We can classify these three cycles into nine
steps, as given in the figure
Technology assessment has been defined as a form of policy research that assesses shortterm and long-term results of the application of technology.
Instructional technology assessment involves recurring cycles of planning, gathering data,
and reporting. It is good to plan the technology assessment at the same time we coordinate
the technology introduction, so that we can take necessary steps such as collection of
baseline data. Figure explains the technology assessment process.
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Semester: 4 - Assignment
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connected to the proof gathered and verified against agreed-upon standards set by
stakeholders. And, the recommendations we made are the actions for consideration that are
based on the conclusions we made, but go beyond simple verifications about efficacy or
interpretation of the proof gathered.
9. Reporting results: This is the final step in the process of technology assessment. In this
step, we report the results of the assessment. We must consider some factor while reporting
the results. These factors are:
- Creating a report content for the audience.
- Describing the aim of the study and its limitations.
- Listing both the strengths and weaknesses of the technology.
Q4. Briefly explain the factors influencing the high performance innovative
technology based organisations.
Answer: International competition, shorter product lifecycles and increasingly challenging
customer satisfaction are creating significant problems for the creation of innovative
organisations.
Thus, we can interpret innovation potential as a combination of parameters, internal and
external to the organisation, which are correlated to the organisations ability to continuously
innovate. Innovation capacity is therefore considered as a complex conception because it
can be influenced by factors internal and external to the organisation, such as leadership
capabilities and the level of industry innovativeness, respectively. As demands for innovation
have increased, new measures and drivers have also evolved, such as, government
regulations, sustainable development and a focus on speeding up new product development.
They are taking leading roles in assisting transformation of knowledge into new products,
processes and services. These three factors can have a role in the innovation capability of
organisations.
briefly describe the external factors that influence innovation:
Government regulation: Government regulation can provide organisations with
opportunities or Constraints, depending on the circumstance and how they approach it.
Although government regulation is not the only measure that can positively impact on the
process of innovation, it is nevertheless an essential one. Regulatory measures can influence
innovation ranging from tax to patent and copyright laws. However, the communications
between environmental and e-Commerce regulation, and organisation and industry
innovation in these two areas are examined.
Environmental regulation: An organisations sustainable development orientation (SDO)
shows the influence of and ability to influence environmental, political and social measures.
An organisations SDO can be defined as the degree to which the organisation customs and
its set of SD practices are capable and effective both in meeting financial, environmental
and social needs and in assisting the strategic course of the business, hence providing
greater opportunity for long-term greater business success. For example, strict
environmental regulations in the developed countries have been decisive in getting
organizations to focus on sustainability.
Customers and competitors: Customers and competitors in a specific industry can
influence the innovation potential of organizations in that industry. For example,
technologically advanced customers may demand more innovative products and services. In
addition, geographically close competitors may be able to identify customer requirements
and source mechanism more quickly than isolated ones. As a result, customers and
competitors may manipulate the innovative potential of organizations.
After a brief discussion on the external factors, let us now discuss the internal factors that
influence innovation.
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- MBA -
Semester: 4 - Assignment
In general, past studies indicate that organizations characteristics affect some relationships
commonly associated with innovation. For example, the positive relationship between R&D
and an organizations performance is stronger for organizations that provide high quality
after-sales customer service than for organizations that do not, and that this relationship is
different for growth-stage and developed companies. Therefore, in this section we analyze
the literature on the relationship between innovation and the organizational quality of size,
strategy, structure, technology management, and business knowledge, amongst others.
Organizational size: The relationship between organisation size and innovation is
complicated. The size is positively related to innovation but some measures, such as the
type of organisation and the stage of implementation, moderated this relationship. For
example, size was more positively associated to innovation in manufacturing than in service,
and in benefits, rather than in non-benefits. As per the above discussion, organization size
does not appear to be related in the same way to all dimensions of innovation nor to all
environmental management practices. The relationship between company size and the
companys ability to innovate seems to be moderated by factors such as the measure of
size, the scope of innovation, the type of organization, and the stage of implementation.
However it is clear that large and small organizations have different types of chances to
innovate, and, hence it is possible to conclude that size does matter to innovation potential.
Strategy: A business strategy addresses the limitation of how the company or its business
units can compete with other businesses and industries. In general, research has shown
that effective strategic management can help organizations to surpass their competitors.
Strategic management is defined as the set of managerial findings and activities that
determines the enduring performance of a corporation.
Finally, a clear innovative strategy that fits in with the overall organizations strategy, and
the clear understanding or definition of various factors of innovation should be related to
innovation capability.
Communication: Internal and external communications have been found to be associated
to innovation. External communication comprises knowledge of the environment outside the
organization, communication with customers and suppliers, and the contribution of
employees with external professional activities and networks. Communications can be
considered as the capability of innovative organizations. Since effective internal and external
communication allows information to be shared by all stakeholders in the innovation
process.
Q5. What is Research and Development (R&D), and how is it managed? Explain the
different categories of Intellectual Property Management.
Answer: Research and Development (R&D):
Research and Development also known as R&D, is typically the creation and execution of
new product ideas. The research part of R&D refers to the planning and examining stage of
creating a new product or upgrading an existing product. The development part involves the
process of designing and testing the effectiveness of the new product or product
improvement.
Research and development management has transformed from the back office work to
center stage, to a leading force, becoming a key part of business success. Those days have
passed, when a good R&D manager required only technical knowledge. The need for
growth, the search for new ideas and new ways of doing things, and growing competitive
pressures has changed the R&D operation into one of the major strategic requirement. This
new responsibility has drastically changed relationships with other business operations, such
as production, marketing, and finance.
R&D management involves the process and methods used to control the amount of funds
and effort invested in research and development (R&D) projects. The key concepts used in
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countries of their interest, along with required amount, for obtaining patents in those
countries.
Trademark: A trademark is a unique symbol or logo, which identifies certain commodities
or services as the ones manufactured or used by some other person or organisation.
Trademarks may be single or collection of words, letters, and numerals. They may also
consist of pictures, symbols, letters, three-dimensional designs, such as, shape and
wrapping of goods, or colours used as distinctive feature. Collective symbols are reserved by
an alliance, whose members use them to recognise themselves with a level of class.
International Certification grades are provided to companies for compliance with the defined
standards (example ISO 9000.) formulated by international institutes and governments. A
trademark is given to the owner of the mark by providing the exclusive right to use it for
identification of goods or services, or to allow others to use it in return for some
considerable amount.
Copyrights: Copyright is a right, which is given for creating an original content or theatrical
or musical or artistic work. Motion films, containing sound track and videos and recordings
on discs, tapes, perforated roll or other equipments come under copyrights act. Computer
programs and software are covered under intellectual works, and are protected in India
under copyrights. Copyright provides protection for the expression of an idea and not for the
idea itself. For example, many authors write textbooks on chemistry covering various topics
like molecules, heat, compounds and so on. Although these topics are covered in several
other books by different authors, each author will have a copyright on the book written by
him / her, unless the book is not a copy of some other book published previously. India is a
member of the Berne Convention, an international agreement on copyright. According to
this standard, registration of copyright is not an important requirement for protecting the
right. Hence, it means that the copyright on a work created in India, would be automatically
and concurrently protected under copyright, in all the member countries of the Berne
Convention. But still, it is a good idea to include a copyright notice.
Industrial design: An industrial design is the decorative or artistic aspect of an article. The
design can have three-dimensional characteristics, such as, the shape and composition of an
article, or two-dimensional characteristics, such as pattern and decoration. The design
characteristics should be incorporated to an object by any industrial process or any means
through which the features in the finished object are attractive.
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Semester: 4 - Assignment
The third step is to identify, assess, and define all the environmental attributes.
4. The fourth step is to rank environmental resources by their fragility, significance and
quality.
5. The fifth step to carry out review on every aspect of effects of the proposed project
on the identified individual environmental resources available in the project zone.
6. The sixth step is to categorise the effects in a systematic order.
7. The seventh step is to prepare remedial plans for diminishing negative effects.
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