TABLE OF CONTENTS

TO PIC

P AG E

Introduction to Basic electricity ...................................................1

Resistor and their application ....................................................16
Capacitors and their application ................................................28
Inductors and their application ..................................................33
Introduction to semiconductor ....................................................35
Diode and their application .36
Grounding .....................................................................................36
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters ...............................................46

THEORY OF ELECTRICITY
What is Electricity?
Though you cannot see electricity, you are aware of it every day. You see it used in countless
ways. You cannot taste or smell electricity, but you can feel it.
Basically, there are two kinds of electricity - static (stationary) and dynamic (moving). This
module is about dynamic electricity because that is the kind commonly put to use.
Electricity (dynamic) is characterized by the flow of electrons through a conductor. To
understand this phenomenon, you must know something about chemical elements and atoms.

Elements and Atoms

Elements are the most basic of materials. Every known substance - solid, liquid, or gas - is
composed of elements. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains all the
properties of that element. Each element has its own kind of atom; i.e., all hydrogen atoms are
alike, and they are all different from the atoms of other elements. However, all atoms have
certain things in common. They all have an inner part, the nucleus, composed of tiny particles
called protons and neutrons. An atom also has an outer part. It consists of other tiny particles,
called electrons, which orbit around the nucleus. Neutrons have no electrical charge, but
protons are positively charged. Electrons have a negative charge. The atoms of each element
have a definite number of electrons, and they have the same number of protons. An aluminum
atom, for example, has thirteen of each. The opposite charges - negative electrons and
positive protons - attract each other and tend to hold electrons in orbit. As long as this
arrangement is not changed, an atom is electrically balanced. This is illustrated in the figure
below.

However, the electrons of some atoms are easily moved out of their orbits. This ability of
electrons to move or flow is the basis of current electricity.
When electrons leave their orbits, they are referred to as free electrons. If the movement of
free electrons is channeled in a given direction, a flow of electrons occurs. As previously
stated, the flow of electrons through a conductor characterizes dynamic electricity.

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Electrical Materials
A material that contains many free electrons and is capable of carrying an electric current is
called a conductor. Metals and (generally) water are conductors. Gold, silver, aluminum and
copper are all good conductors.
Materials that contain relatively few free electrons are called insulators. Non-metallic materials
such as wood, rubber, glass and mica are insulators. Fair conductors include the human body,
earth, and concrete.
Generating Electricity
There are several ways to produce electricity. Friction, pressure, heat, light, chemical action,
and magnetism are among the more practical methods used to make electrons move along a
conductor.

To date, magnetism is the most inexpensive way of producing electrical power and is
therefore of most interest to us. Because of the interaction of electricity and magnetism,
electricity can be generated economically and abundantly and electric motors can be used to
drive machinery. Electricity is produced when a magnet is moved past a piece of wire. Or, a
piece of wire can be moved through a magnetic field. A magnetic field, motion, and a piece of
wire are needed to produce electricity.

Voltage, Current and Resistance

Voltage
A force or pressure must be present before water will flow through a pipeline. Similarly,
electrons flow through a conductor because a force called electromotive force (EMF) is
exerted. The unit of measure for EMF is the volt. The symbol for voltage is the letter E. A
voltmeter is used to measure voltage .

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Current
For electrons to move in a particular direction, it is necessary for a potential difference to exist
between two points of the EMF source. The continuous movement of electrons past a given
point is known as current. It is measured in amperes. The symbol for current is the letter I and
for amperes, the letter A. It is sometimes necessary to use smaller units of measurement.
The milliampere (mA) is used to indicate 1/1000 (0.001) of an ampere. If an even smaller unit
is needed, it is usually the microampere (A). The microampere is one-millionth of an ampere.
An ammeter is used to measure current in amperes. A microammeter or a milliammeter may
be used to measure smaller units of current .

Resistance
The movement of electrons along a conductor meets with some
opposition. This opposition is known as resistance. Resistance can be
useful in electrical work. Resistance makes it possible to generate heat,
control current flow, and supply the correct voltage to a device. The
symbol for resistance is shown in the accompanying figure.

In general, resistance in a conductor depends on four factors: the material from which it
is made, the length, the cross-sectional area and the temperature of the material

1. Material. Different materials have different resistances. Some, such as silver and
copper, have a low resistance, while others, such as iron have a higher resistance.
2.

Length. For a given material that has a constant cross-sectional area, the total
resistance is proportional to the length. The longer the conductor, the greater the
resistance.

3. Cross-Sectional Area. Resistance varies inversely with the cross-sectional area of

the conductor. In other words, the resistance decreases as the cross-sectional area
increases.
4. Temperature. Generally, in metals, the resistance increases as the temperature
increases. For non-metals, the reverse is usually true

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Direct Current (dc) Circuits

Introduction
This section discusses the electrical relationships in direct-current circuits. Although
alternating current is more commonly used in electrical work, direct current has its own unique
applications and advantages. Direct current always flows in one direction.

Some dc motors, for example, have speed control characteristics that are better in some
production operations. Direct current is used to charge storage batteries, for plating
operations, for aluminum refining, and to operate electromagnetic lifting devices and most
welding equipment.

Complete Circuit
A complete circuit is necessary for the controlled flow or movement of electrons along a
conductor. A complete circuit is made up of a source of electricity (e.g., battery), a conductor,
and a consuming device (load). This is illustrated in the figure below

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The orientation of the positive (+) and negative (-) terminals of the battery remains constant.
Since this voltage polarity does not change, the electrons flow in one direction. The negatively
charged electrons flow away from the (-) terminal of the voltage source and toward the (+)
terminal of the voltage source. By convention, the direction of current flow is the direction in
which positive electricity would move to cause the same effects as are produced by the actual
motion of electricity. Therefore, the direction of current, as it is usually considered, is in the
opposite direction to the motion of the electrons.

The movement of the electrons along the completed path provides energy. If the circuit is so
arranged that the electrons have only one path, the circuit is called a series circuit. If there are
two or more paths for electrons, the circuit is called a parallel circuit.

Series Circuit
The figure below shows three loads (resistors) connected in series. The current flows through
each of them before returning to the battery .

The total resistance in a series circuit, just add the individual resistances:

R3 = R 1 + R 2

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Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit, each load is connected directly across the voltage source. There are as
many separate paths for current flow as there are branches. See figure below

The voltage across all branches of a parallel circuit is the same. This is because all branches
are connected across the voltage source. Current in a parallel circuit depends on the
resistance of the branch. Ohm's Law (discussed later) can be used to determine the current in
each branch. You can find the total current by adding the individual currents. Expressed as a
formula:

Open Circuit:
An open circuit is one which does not have a complete path for electrons to follow. Therefore,
there is no current flow. Such an incomplete path is usually brought about by a loose
connection or the opening of a switch. An open circuit caused by an open switch is illustrated
in the figure below.

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S h o r t Circuit
A short circuit is one which has a path of low resistance to electron flow. It is usually created
when a low-resistance wire is placed across a consuming device. A greater number of
electrons will flow through the path of least resistance rather than through the consuming
device. A short usually generates an excess current flow which results in overheating,
possibly causing a fire or other damage. The figure below illustrates a short circuit.

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It is easy to compute the amount of current flowing in a circuit if the voltage and the resistance
are known. The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in any circuit is shown
by Ohm's Law.

Ohms Law
Ohm's Law states the relationship that exists among the three basic quantities of electricity:
current, voltage, and resistance. A physicist named Georg S. Ohm discovered the relationship
in 1827. With this law you can calculate any one of the three quantities if you know the other
two. Ohm's Law is the most important and most often applied law in electricity. To understand
electricity and electrical safety, you must thoroughly understand Ohm's Law.

Simply stated, voltage (E) in volts is equal to the current (I) in amperes multiplied by the
resistance (R) in ohms. In equation form:

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This is the formula to use in order to find the voltage when the current and resistance are
known.
To find the current when the voltage and resistance are known, the formula becomes:

The best way to become accustomed to using Ohm's Law is to solve some basic problems,
such as:

1.

If the current is 5 amps and the resistance is 20 ohms, what is the applied voltage?

2. If the voltage is 100 volts and the resistance is 25 ohms, what is the current in the circuit?

3.

If the current is 2 amps and the applied voltage is 100 volts, what is the resistance?

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Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

Comparison of ac and dc Direct current flows continuously in one
direction through a circuit because the polarity of the voltage source never
changes. But alternating current changes rapidly in both direction and
value. In an ac circuit, current flows from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal, just as in a dc circuit. But the polarity of the ac
terminals reverses at regular intervals, causing the direction of current
flow to also reverse.

Advantages of Alternating Current

Power companies use ac generators, also called alternators, to produce electrical power more
economically than was previously possible with dc generators. The main reason for this i s that
the power lost during the transmission of ac from the generating station to the user is very
much less than with dc. Using ac, the power companies are able to "transform" the produced
electrical energy into a high-voltage, but low-current, equivalent power. The device used to
conveniently raise or lower the voltage is called a transformer.
Conductors, or transmission lines, transport electrical power. All conductors have some
amount of resistance. Although the amount of resistance for a one foot length of conductor
may be small, this resistance is placed in series with each foot of a transmission line, which
can be hundreds of miles long. Over these long distances, the power losses, as given by
, can become excessive due to the resistance of the transmission lines

With dc, load governs the current flowing in the line; i.e., the current may be zero if there
is no demand, or very high if there is a large demand. The only way to reduce power losses in
this situation is to try to lower the resistance of the transmission lines.
Note, however, that even if the resistance could be cut in half, the power loss would also be
only halved, as shown by

. But because power is proportional to the square of the

current, reducing the current by half reduces the power loss by four times. Another power
formula, P=EI, tells us that we could indeed cut the current in half by doubling the voltage, and
still transmit the same amount of power.

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Powerful transformers operating on the principle of mutual induction can boost the voltage in
accordance with these requirements. A transformer consists of two coils of wire wound on the
same core. The input voltage is applied to one coil, called the primary, and the voltage output
is taken from the other coil, called the secondary. When the secondary has twice as many
turns of wire as the primary, the transformer has a turns ratio of 2:1. The rising and falling
magnetic field in the primary coil cuts across twice as many conductors in the secondary, and
the transformer is called a step-up transformer. By reversing this procedure, the original
voltage can be obtained using a step-down transformer. The symbol for a transformer is
shown in the accompanying figure

Transformers perform two functions in the transmission of ac. They step up and step down the
voltage, and they isolate the generating station from the load. In this way, power companies
can maintain low current levels in the transmission lines, and hold power losses to a minimum.
The figure below represents the common means of generating, transmitting, and distributing
electric power.

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Electromagnetism:
The first indication of a relationship between magnetism and electricity was discovered by
Hans Christian Oersted in 1820. He connected a wire between the two terminals of a battery
and held the wire over a magnetic compass needle. When the wire was held parallel to the
compass needle, the needle deflected from its normal position.
When current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is formed outside of the conductor.
The current direction determines the direction of the magnetic field. This is illustrated in the
figure below

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It is the intention of this course to teach the fundamental operation of basic

electronic components by comparison to drawings of equivalent mechanical
parts. It must be understood that the mechanical circuits would operate much
slower than their electronic counterparts and one-to-one correlation can never
be achieved. The comparisons wil, however, give an insight to each of the
fundamental electronic components used in every electronic product.

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RESISTORS
RESISTORS, What do they do?
The electronic component known as the resistor is
best described as electrical friction. Pretend, for a
moment, that electricity travels through hollow pipes
like water. Assume two pipes are filled with water
and one pipe has very rough walls. It would be easy
to say that it is more difficult to push the water
through the rough-walled pipe than through a pipe
with smooth walls. The pipe with rough walls could
be described as having more resistance to
movement than the smooth one.

Electrons flow through materials when a pressure

(called voltage in electronics) is placed on one end
of the material forcing the electrons to react with
each other until the ones on the other end of the
material move out. Some materials hold on to their
electrons more than others making it more difficult
for the electrons to move. These materials have a
higher resistance to the flow of electricity (called
current in electronics) than the ones that allow
electrons to move easily. Therefore, early
experimenters called the materials insulators if they
had very high resistance to electon flow and
conductors if they had very little resistance to
electron flow. Later materials that offered a medium
amount of resistance were classified as

Pioneers in the field of electronics thought electricity

was some type of invisible fluid that could flow
through certain materials easily, but had difficulty
flowing through other materials. In a way they were
correct since the movement of electrons through a
material cannot be seen by the human eye, even
with the best microscopes made. There is a
similarity between the movement of electrons in
wires and the movement of water in the pipes. For
example, if the pressure on one end of a water pipe
is increased, the amount of water that will pass
through the pipe will also increase. The pressure on
the other end of the pipe will be indirectly related to
the resistance the pipe has to the flow of water. In
other words, the pressure at the other end of the
pipe will decrease if the resistance of the pipe
increases. Figure 1 shows this relationship
graphically.

semiconductors.

When a person designs a circuit in electronics, it is

often necessary to limit the amount of electrons or
current that will move through that circuit each
second. This is similar to the way a faucet limits the
amount of water that will enter a glass each second.
It would be very difficult to fill a glass without
breaking it if the faucet had only two states, wide
open or off. By using the proper value of resistance
in an electronic circuit designers can limit the
pressure placed on a device and thus prevent it from
being damaged or destroyed.
The resistor is an electronic
component that has electrical friction. This friction
opposes the flow of electrons and thus reduces the
voltage (pressure) placed on other electronic
components by restricting the amount of current that
can pass through it.
SUM M ARY :

High Pressure
Through Same
Size Opening

High Resistance
Pipe (rough walls)

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RESISTORS
RESISTORS, How are they made?
The value of wirewound resistors remains fairly flat
with increasing temperature, but change greatly with
frequency. It is also difficult to precisely control the
value of the resistor during construction so they
must be measured and sorted after they are built.

There are many different types of resistors used in

electronics. Each type is made from different
materials. Resistors are also made to handle
different amounts of electrical power. Some
resistors may change their value when voltages are
placed across them. These are called voltage
dependent resistors or nonlinear resistors. Most
resistors are designed to change their value when
the temperature of the resistor changes. Some
resistors are also made with a control attached that
allows the user to mechanically change the
resistance. These are called variable resistors or
potentiometers. Figure 2 shows physical shapes of
some different types of resistors.

THE CARBON COMPOSITION RESISTOR

By grinding carbon into a fine powder and mixing it
with resin, a material can be made with different
resistive values. Conductive leads are placed on
each end of a cylinder of this material and the unit is
then heated or cured in an oven. The body of the
resistor is then painted with an insulating paint to
prevent it from shorting if touched by another
component. The finished resistors are then
measured and sorted by value (Figure 4). If these
resistors are overloaded by a circuit, their resistance
will permanently decrease. It is important that the
power rating of the carbon composition resistor is
not exceeded.

THE WIREWOUND RESISTOR

The first commercial resistors made were formed by
wrapping a resistive wire around a non-conducting
rod (see Figure 3). The rod was usually made of
some form of ceramic that had the desired heat
properties since the wires could become quite hot
during use. End caps with leads attached were then
placed over the ends of the rod making contact to
the resistive wire, usually a nickel chromium alloy.

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RESISTORS
CARBON FILM RESISTORS

THE VARIABLE RESISTOR

Carbon film resistors are made by depositing a very

thin layer of carbon on a ceramic rod. The resistor
is then protected by a flameproof jacket since this
type of resistor will burn if overloaded sufficiently.
Carbon film resistors produce less electrical noise
than carbon composition and their values are
constant at high frequencies. You can substitute a
carbon film resistor for most carbon composition
resistors if the power ratings are carefully observed.
The construction of carbon film resistors require
temperatures in excess of 1,000 OC.

When a resistor is constructed so its value can be

adjusted, it is called a variable resistor. Figure 6
shows the basic elements present in all variable
resistors. First a resistive material is deposited on a
non-conducting base. Next, stationary contacts are
connected to each end of the resistive material.
Finally, a moving contact or wiper is constructed to
move along the resistive material and tap off the
desired resistance. There are many methods for
constructing variable resistors, but they all contain
these three basic principles.

METAL OXIDE RESISTORS

Metal oxide resistors are also constructed in a
similar manner as the carbon film resistor with the
exception that the film is made of tin chloride at
temperatures as high as 5,000 OC. Metal oxide
resistors are covered with epoxy or some similar
plastic coating. These resistors are more costly than
other types and therefore are only used when circuit
constraints make them necessary.

METAL FILM RESISTORS

Metal film resistors are also made by depositing a
film of metal (usually nickel alloy) onto a ceramic
rod. These resistors are very stable with
temperature and frequency, but cost more than the
carbon film or carbon composition types. In some
instances, these resistors are cased in a ceramic
tube instead of the usual plastic or epoxy coating.

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RESISTORS
RESISTOR VALUES AND MARKINGS
The unit of measure for resistance is the ohm, which
is represented by the Greek letter W. Before
technology improved the process of manufacturing
resistors, they were first made and then sorted. By
sorting the values into groups that represented a 5%
change in value, (resistor values are 10% apart),
certain preferred values became the standard for
the electronics industry. Table 1 shows the standard
values for 5% resistors.

10
22
47

11
24
51

12
27
56

13
30
62

15
33
68

16
36
75

18
39
82

Note: If the third ring is gold, you multiply the first

two digits by 0.1 and if it is silver, by 0.01. This
system can identify values from 0.1W to as high as
91 x 109, or 91 ,000,000,000W. The amount of
power each resistor can handle is usually
proportional to the size of the resistor. Figure 8
shows the actual size and power capacity of
normal carbon film resistors, and the symbols
used to represent resistors on schematics.

20
43
91

Table 1
Resistors are marked by using different colored
rings around their body (see Figure 7). The first ring
represents the first digit of the resistors value. The
second ring represents the second digit of the
resistors value. The third ring tells you the power of
ten to multiply by. The final and fourth ring
represents the tolerance. For example, gold is for
5% resistors and silver for 10% resistors. This
means the value of the resistor is guaranteed to be
within 5% or 10% of the value marked. The colors
in Table 2 are used to represent the numbers from 0
to 9.
COLOR

Violet

Gold

27 X 10 = 27,000 W, with 5%
Tolerance
3

Figure 7

VALUE

Black

Brown
Red

1
2

Orange

Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet

4
5
6
7

Gray

White

Table 2

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RESISTORS
SELF TEST
THEORY
Circle the letter that best fits the description.
1. A flow of electrons through a material:
a) Voltage
c) Current
b) Resistance
d) Conductance

6. A resistor that is made by wrapping a wire around a

ceramic rod:
a) Carbon Film
c) Thermistor
b) Carbon Composition d) Wirewound

2. The pressure that pushes electrons through a

material:
a) Voltage
c) Conduction
b) Current
d) Resistance

7. A resistor made by heating powder and resin in an

oven:
a) Carbon Film
c) Thermistor
b) Carbon Composition d) Wirewound

3. A material that has very high resistance to electron

flow:
a) Conductor
c) Resistor
b) Semiconductor
d) Insulator

8. A resistor made by depositing a very thin layer of

resistive material on a ceramic rod:
a) Carbon Film
c) Thermistor
b) Carbon Composition d) Wirewound

4. A material that allows electrons to flow easily:

a) Conductor
c) Resistor
b) Semiconductor
d) Insulator

9. One of the preferred values for a 5% resistor:

a) 4000W
c) 77W
b) 560W
d) 395W

5. A material that produces electrical friction and

restricts the flow of electrons:
a) Conductor
c) Resistor
b) Semiconductor
d) Insulator

10. The amount of wattage a resistor can handle is

determined by:
a) Value
c) Current
b) Voltage
d) Size

PRACTICE
Open the bag marked resistors and fil in the table below.

EXTRA CREDIT
Using a razor blade or sharp knife, scrape away the paint on the body of one resistor and determine the type of
construction used to make it. Try and determine all of the materials used including the metals used to make the
leads.
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CAPACITORS
CAPACITORS, What do they do?
Capacitors are components that can store electrical
pressure (Voltage) for long periods of time. When a
capacitor has a difference in voltage (Electrical
Pressure) between its two leads it is said to be
charged. A capacitor is charged by forcing a one
way (DC) current to flow through it for a short period
of time. It can be discharged by letting an opposite
direction current flow out of the capacitor. Consider
for a moment the analogy of a water pipe that has a
rubber diaphragm sealing off each side of the pipe
as shown in Figure 9.

Capacitors act the same as the pipe in Figure 9.

When a voltage (Electrical Pressure) is placed on
one lead with respect to the other lead, electrons are
forced to pile up on one of the capacitors plates
until the voltage pushing back is equal to the voltage
applied. The capacitor is then charged to the
voltage. If the two leads of that capacitor are
shorted, it would have the same effect as letting the
plunger in Figure 9 move freely. The capacitor
would rapidly discharge and the voltage across the
two leads would become zero (No Charge).
What would happen if the plunger in Figure 9 was
wiggled in and out many times each second? The
water in the pipe would be pushed by the diaphragm
then sucked back by the diaphragm. Since the
movement of the water (Current) is back and forth
(Alternating) it is called an Alternating Current or
AC. The capacitor will therefore pass an alternating
current with little resistance. When the push on the
plunger was only toward the diaphragm, the water
on the other end of the diaphragm moved just
enough to charge the pipe (transient current). Just
as the pipe blocked a direct push, a capacitor clocks
direct current (DC). An example of alternating
current is the 60 cycle (60 wiggles each second)
current produced when you plug something into a
wall outlet.

If the pipe had a plunger on one end, as shown in

Figure 9, and the plunger was pushed toward the
diaphragm, the water in the pipe would force the
rubber to stretch out until the force of the rubber
pushing back on the water was equal to the force of
the plunger. You could say the pipe is charged and
ready to push the plunger back. In fact, if the
plunger is released it will move back to its original
position. The pipe will then be discharged or with no
charge on the diaphragm.

SUMMARY: A capacitor stores electrical energy

when charged by a DC source. It can pass

alternating current (AC), but blocks direct current
(DC) except for a very short charging current, called
transient current.

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CAPACITORS
capacitance, but high working voltage). By
making the pipe larger and keeping the stiff
rubber we can achieve a device that holds a large
amount of water and withstands a high amount of
pressure (high capacitance, high working voltage,
large size). These three types of water pipes are
illustrated in Figure 12. The pipes follow the rule
that the capacity to hold water, (Capacitance)
multiplied by the amount of pressure they can
take (Voltage) determines the size of the pipe. In
electronics the CV product determines the
capacitor size.

CAPACITORS, How are they made?

There are many different types of capacitors used
in electronics. Each type is made from different
materials and with different methods. Capacitors
are also made to handle different amounts of
electrical pressure or voltage. Each capacitor is
marked to show the maximum voltage that it can
withstand without breaking down. All capacitors
contain the same fundamental parts, which consist
of two or more conductive plates separated by a
nonconductive material. The insulating material
between the plates is called the dielectric. The
basic elements necessary to build a capacitor are
shown in Figure 10.

THE METAL FOIL CAPACITOR

Perhaps the most common form of capacitor is
constructed by tightly winding two foil metal plates
that are separated by sheets of paper or plastic as
shown in Figure 11. By picking the correct
insulating material the value of capacitance can be
increased greatly, but the maximum working
voltage is usually lowered. For this reason,
capacitors are normally identified by the type of
material used as the insulator or dielectric.
Consider the water pipe with the rubber diaphragm
in the center of the pipe. The diaphragm is
equivalent to the dielectric in a capacitor. If the
rubber is made very soft, it will stretch out and hold
a large amount of water, but it will break easily
(large capacitance, but low working voltage). If the
rubber is made very stiff, it will not stretch far, but
will be able to withstand higher-pressure (low

Low Capacity but

can withstand
High Pressure

High Capacity and can withstand High Pressure

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CAPACITORS
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT, What is it?

THE VARIABLE CAPACITOR

The dielectric (rubber diaphragm in the water pipe

analogy) in a capacitor is the material that can
withstand electrical pressure (Voltage) without
appreciable conduction (Current). When a voltage is
applied to a capacitor, energy in the form of an
electric charge is held by the dielectric. In the
rubber diaphragm analogy the rubber would stretch
out and hold the water back. The energy was stored
in the rubber. When the plunger is released the
rubber would release this energy and push the
plunger back toward its original position. If there
was no energy lost in the rubber diaphragm, all the
energy would be recovered and the plunger would
return to its original position. The only perfect
dielectric for a capacitor in which no conduction
occurs and from which all the stored energy may be
recovered is a perfect vacuum. The DIELECTRIC
CO NSTANT (K) is the ratio by which the
capacitance is increased when another dielectric
replaces a vacuum between two plates. Table 3
shows the Dielectric Constant of various materials.

To make a variable capacitor, one set of stationary

aluminum plates are mounted to a frame with a
small space between each plate. Another set of
plates are mounted to a movable shaft and designed
to fit into the space of the fixed plates without
touching them. The insulator or dielectric in this type
of variable capacitor is air. When the movable plates
are completely inside the fixed plates, the device is
at minimum capacitance. The shape of the plates
can be designed to achieve the proper amount of
capacitance
versus
rotation
for
different
applications. An additional screw is added to
squeeze two insulated metal plates together
(Trimmer) and thus set the minimum amount of
capacitance.

Air, at normal pressure

Alcohol, ethyl (grain)
Beeswax
Castor Oil
Glass flint density 4.5
Glycerine

1
25
1.86

Mica

7.5

Paper, manila

1.5

Paraffin wax

2.25

4.67 Porcelain
10

Quartz

56

Water, distilled

4.4
2
81

Table 3

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CAPACITORS
CAPACITANCE, How is it calculated?
The amount of charge a capacitor can hold
(capacitance) is measured in Farads. In practice,
one farad is a very large amount of capacitance,
making the most common term used micro-farad or
one millionth of a farad. There are three factors that
determine the capacitance that exist between two
conductive plates:
1. The bigger the plates are (Surface Area),
the higher the capacitance. Capacitance
(C) is directly proportional to Area (A).
2. The larger the distance is between the two
plates, the smaller the amount of
capacitance. Capacitance (C) is indirectly
proportional to distance (d).
3. The larger the value of the dielectric
constant, the more capacitance (Dielectric
constant is equivalent to softness of the
rubber in our pipe analogy). The
capacitance (C) is directly proportional to
the Dielectric Constant (K) of the insulating
material. From the above factors, the
formula for capacitance in Farads becomes:

CAPACITOR VALUES AND MARKINGS

The older styles of capacitors were marked with
colored dots or rings similar to resistors. In recent
years, the advances in technology has made it
easier to print the value, working voltage, tolerance,
and temperature characteristics on the body of the
capacitors. Certain capacitors use a dielectric that
requires markings to insure one lead is always kept
at a higher voltage than the other lead. Figure 15
shows typical markings found on different types of
capacitors. Table 4 gives the standard values used
and the different methods for marking these values.

A(N-1)
C = 0.244K

Picofarads *
d

C = Capacitance in Picofarads (Farad x 10-12)

K = Dielectric Constant
A = Area of one Plate in square inches
N = Number of Plates
d = Distance between plates in inches
Example Calculation for Capacitor shown in Figure 14.
C = 2.24 x (1 x 1)(2 - 1) / (.01) = 224 Picofarads or
0.000224 Microfarads.
* If A and d are in centimeters change 0.224 to
0.0885.

-24-

CAPACITORS
Voltage
1
4
5.5
6.3
10
16
25
35
50
63
80
100
110
125
160
180
200
220
250
315

Code
2
0G
0L
0J
1A
1C
1E
1V
1H
1J
1K
2A
2Q
2B
2C
2Z
2D
2P
2E
2F

Cap. Value
3
100pF
.001mF
.015mF
.002mF
.0022mF
.003mF
.033mF
.047mF
.05mF
.068mF
.1mF
.15mF
.2mF
2.2mF
22mF
100mF
220mF
470mF
1000mF

Typical Markings
4
5
100pF
101
.001
102
.015
152
.002
202
.0022
222
.003
302
.033
333
.047
473
.05
R05
.068
R068
.1
104
.15
154
.2
204
2.2
2R2
22
22
100
100
220
220
470
470
1000
1000

Capacitor markings vary greatly from one

manufacturer to another as the above table shows.
Voltages may be marked directly (200V) or coded
(2D). The value of capacitance may be marked
directly on the part as shown in columns 4 and 5
(note that .001mF and 1000mF have the same
marking, but the difference in size makes the value
obvious). The number 102 may also be used to
represent 1000 (10+2 zeros). In some instances the

Tolerance (%)
6
+5%
+10%
+20%
10% +30%
10% +50%
20% +80%
SPECIAL

Markings
7
J
K
M
Q
T
Z
A

Temperature
Markings
NP0 {<10ppm / OC}
N100 {<100ppm / OC}
N220 {<220ppm / OC}
N820 {<820ppm / OC}
Y5F
Y5T
Y5V
X5F
Z5U

Manufacturer may use an R to represent the

decimal point. The tolerance is usually printed
directly on the capacitors. When it is omitted, the
standard tolerance is assumed to be +80% to 20%
for electrolytic. Capacitance change with
temperature is coded in parts per million per degree
C, {N220 = 220/1,000,000 or .022%}, or by a
Temperature graph.
See manufacturers
specifications for complete details.

CAPACITOR SYMBOLS
Figure 16 shows the schematic symbols used to represent
capacitors. The + symbol indicates that the capacitor is
polarized and the lead marked with the + sign must always
have a higher voltage than the other lead. The curved
plate, plate with sides, and minus sign also indicate the
capacitor is polarized and these leads must always be at a
lower voltage than the other lead. The arrow crossing
through the capacitor indicates of capacitance is variable.
- 25-

CAPACITORS
SELF TEST
THEORY
Circle the letter that best fits the description.
1. A flow of electrons in one direction:
a) AC Voltage
c) Alternating Current
b) Direct Voltage
d) Direct Current
2. When two conductive plates are moved closer
together Capacitance will:
a) Increase
c) Stay the Same
b) Decrease
d) Vary Downwards
3. The name given to the material between a capacitors
plates:
a) Air
c) Conductor
b) Dielectric
d) Insulator
4. Electrons flowing in and out of a wire:
a) AC Voltage
c) Alternating Current
b) Direct Voltage
d) Direct Current
5. If the size of the conductive plates is increased,
capacitance will:
a) Increase
c) Stay the Same
b) Decrease
d) Vary Downwards
6. A capacitor will block:
a) AC Voltage
b) Direct Voltage

c) Alternating Current
d) Direct Current

7. When electrons are forced onto one plate of a

capacitor:
a) Polarization
c) Storage
b) Discharging
a) Charging
8. A capacitor lead that is marked with a + must always
be:
a) Grounded
c) At higher voltage than
the other lead
b) At highest voltage
d) b & c
9. A small disc capacitor marked 100 has a value of:
a) 100mF
c) 100pF
b) .00001F
d) 100F
10. A large electrolytic capacitor marked 100 has a
value of:
a) 100mF
c) 100pF
b) .00001F
d) 100F
11. If a dielectric is changed from air to distilled water
the capacitance will:
a) remain the same
c) decrease
b) increase 81 times
d) drop in half
12. A dielectric that stores energy with no loss:
a) Does not exist
c) Pure Glass
b) Air
d) A perfect vacuum

PRACTICE
Open the bag marked capacitors and fil in the table below.

EXTRA CREDIT
What happens to the total capacitance if you connect two
capacitors as shown in Figure 17. Hint, use water pipe
analogy and try to calculate equivalent if one water pipe.
- 11- 26-

INDUCTORS
INDUCTORS, What do they do?
The electronic component known as the inductor is
best described as electrical momentum. In our
water pipe analogy the inductor would be equivalent
to a very long hose that is wrapped around itself
many times (see Figure 18). If the hose is very long it
will contain many gallons of water. When pressure is
applied to one end of the hose, the thousands of
gallons of water would not start to move instantly. It
would take time to get the water moving due to
inertia (a body at rest wants to stay at rest). After a
while the water would start to move and pick up
speed. The speed would increase until the friction of
the hose applied to the amount of pressure being
applied to the water. If you try to instantly stop the
water from moving by holding the plunger, the
momentum (a body in motion wants to stay in
motion) of the water would cause a large negative
pressure (Suction) that would pull the plunger from
your hands.

Since Inductors are made by coiling a wire, they are

often called Coils. In practice the names Inductor
and Coil are used interchangeably. From the above
analogy, it is obvious that a coiled hose will pass
Direct Current (DC), since the water flow increases
to equal the resistance in the coiled hose after an
elapsed period of time. If the pressure on the
plunger is alternated (pushed, then pulled) fast
enough, the water in the coil will never start moving
and the Alternating Current (AC) will be blocked.
The nature of a Coil in electronics follows the same
principles as the coiled hose analogy. A coil of wire
will pass DC and block AC. Recall that the nature of
a Capacitor blocked DC and passed AC, the exact
opposite of a coil. Because of this, the Capacitor
and Inductor are often called Dual Components.
Table 5 compares the properties of capacitors and
inductors.

Inductor

Capacitor
Blocks Direct Current

Blocks Alternating Current

Passes Alternating Current

Passes Direct Current

Voltage in Capacitor cannot change instantly

Current in an Inductor cannot change instantly

Quick Voltage change produces large Current

Quick Current change produces large Voltage

Stores Energy in Electric Field

Stores Energy in Magnetic Field

Current leads Voltage

Voltage leads Current

Table 5
- 27-

INDUCTORS

INDUCTOR

INDUCTORS, How are they made?

In order to understand how inductors are made, we
have to change our water pipe analogy slightly to
include the effect of magnetic fields. Consider two
pipes filled with water and small magnets attached
to the walls of the pipes with rubber bands as shown
in Figure 19. The moving magnets, due to the
original current, pull the magnets in the second pipe
and force a small current to flow in the same
direction as the original current. When the rubber
bands are fully stretched, the induced current will
stop, even though the initial DC current is still
flowing. If the original current is an AC current
however, it will induce a continuous AC current in the
second pipe because the magnets will move back
and forth, pulling the magnets in the second pipe
back and forth.

a loop, and the amount of water will therefore

increase. More water means a larger apparent
mass. Inductance will also increase in a coil if the
cross sectional area increases. Inductance is
directly proportional to area.

Consider the affect of adding more turns to coiled

pipe. The amount of material to push (mass) is
increased and the amount of linkage is increased
due to more magnets available. This causes the
apparent mass to increase at a greater rate than
would be expected. When making an inductor, the
actual inductance is directly proportional to the
square of the number of turns.
The final factor to consider when making a coil is the
core material at the center of the coil. If our pipe
wrapped around a material that contained many
magnets, they would also link to the magnets in the
pipe. This would increase the apparent mass of
the water in the pipe.
The tiny magnets in the
core would rotate as
shown in Figure 21 and
force the water to keep
moving in the same
direction. Placing an
iron core at the center
of an inductor will
directly increase the
inductance
by
an
amount equal to the
permeability of the core
material.

Consider the two coiled pipes shown in Figure 20.

When the pipe is stretched out (increased length) as
in coil 1, the adjacent turns have little affect on each
other. In coil 2 (decreased length) the magnets in
each turn of the pipe are linking and the amount of
apparent mass in the pipe seems to increase. In
an inductor, pushing the coiled wire closer together
causes the inductance of the coil to also increase,
and stretching the coil out will lower the inductance
of the coil. In other words, the inductance of a coil
is indirectly proportional to its length. If the diameter
of the coil is increased, it will take more hose to form
- 28-

INDUCTORS
INDUCTANCE, How is it calculated?
Reviewing how coils are made will show the
following:

Where:

1. Inductance of a coil is indirectly proportional to

the length of the coil.

N = Number of turns
m = Permeability of core material

2. Inductance is directly proportional to the cross

sectional area.

A = Cross-sectional area of coil, in square inches l

L = Inductance in microhenrys

= Length of coil in inches

3. Inductance is proportional to the square of the

number of turns.

This formula is good only for solid core coils with

length greater than diameter.

4. Inductance is directly proportional to the

permeability of the core material.
From the above information the formula for
inductance of a simple iron core would be:

N 2mA
L = 10 l
TRANSFORMERS, How are they made?
Placing different coils on the same iron core as
shown in Figure 22 produces the electronic
component known as the Transformer. If a DC
current is forced through the center coil, the other
two coils will only produce a current when the
original current is changing. Once the DC current
reaches a constant value, the other two coils will
unlink and produce no flowing current if loaded. If
the generator voltage is continuously changing as in
Figure 22, it will produce a current that changes with
time. This changing current in the center coil will
produce similar currents in both of the end coils.
Since the bottom coil has twice the number of turns
(twice the magnetic linkage), the voltage across this
coil will be twice the generator voltage. The power
in an electronic device is equal to the voltage across
the device times the current through the device
(P=VI). If the voltage doubles on the bottom
winding, then the current must become 1/2 due to
the law of conservation of power (Power cannot be
created or destroyed, but can be transformed from
one state to another). Since the bottom coil is
wound in the same direction as the generator coil,
the voltage across the coil (top wire to bottom wire)
will be the same polarity as the generator voltage.

The top coil is wound in the opposite direction

forcing the core magnet rotation (Called flux by the
Pros) to push the current in the opposite direction
and produce a voltage of the opposite polarity.
Since the number of turns in the top coil are the
same as the generator coil, the voltage and current
(Power that can be taken from the coil) will also be
equal. This ability to transform AC voltages and AC
currents influenced early experimenters to call this
device a Transformer.

Direction
of
Core Magnet
Rotation Due
to Current i

- 29-

INDUCTORS
XL
TWO MORE LAWS ABOUT INDUCTORS

THE Q FACTOR IN COILS

r

Faradays Law states that any time a conductor

The Q (figure of merit) of a coil is the ratio of the

inductive reactance to the internal series resistance
of the coil. Since the reactance and resistance can
both change with frequency, Q must be measured at
the desired frequency. Anything that will raise the
inductance without raising the series resistance will
increase the Q of the coil; for example, using an iron
core. Lowering the series resistance without
lowering the inductance will also raise the Q, more
turns of larger wire for example. Q is important
when the inductor is used in a resonant circuit to
block or select desired frequencies. The higher the
Q, the tighter the selection of frequencies become.

moves through a magnetic field (Figure 23) a

voltage is generated. Because of this principle, it is
possible to attach a magnet (or coil) to a rotating
device and produce large amounts of electrical
power (the Hoover Dam for example).
Lenz Law states that the induced currents in a

conductor passing through a magnetic field will

produce a magnetic field that will oppose the motion
between the magnet and the conductor. To produce
a large amount of electrical power, a large
mechanical force is required (conservation of
power).

SUMMARY
The Inductor prevents current from making any
sudden changes by producing large opposing
voltages. Magnetic coupling can be used to
transform voltages and currents, but power must
remain the same. Coils and transformers can be
used to select frequencies.

INDUCTANCE SYMBOLS AND MARKINGS

Most inductors are custom made to meet the
requirements of the purchaser. They are marked to
match the specification of the buyer and therefore
carry no standard markings. The schematic
symbols for coils and transformers are shown in
Figure 24. These symbols are the most commonly
used to represent fixed coils, variable coils, and
transformers.

- 30-

- 31-

SEMICONDUCTORS
THE TRANSISTOR, what is it?

THE DIODE, what is it?

The diode can be compared to the check valve
shown in Figure 26. The basic function of a check
valve is to allow water to flow in only one direction.
Once the force of the spring is exceeded, the plate
moves away from the stop allowing water to pass
through the pipe. A flow of water in the opposite
direction is blocked by the solid stop and plate. If it
took a pressure of 0.7lb to exceed the spring force,
the flow of water versus pressure might look like
Figure 27. In electronics, this curve would represent
the typical silicon diode if pounds per square inch
equaled volts and gallons per minute equaled
amperes. Of course, the amount of current that
flows through the diode must be limited or the device
could be damaged. Just as too much water through
the check valve could destroy the plate (shorted
diode). If the diode is made of Gallium Arsenide, it
would take approximately twice the voltage to
produce a flow of current (spring in Figure 26 is
twice as strong). The energy level required to turn
on a Gallium Arsenide diode is so high, that light is
generated when current starts to flow. These
diodesare called Light Emitting Diodes, or
simplyLEDs.

The transistor is best described as a device that

uses a small amount of current to control a large
amount of current (Current Amplifier). Consider a
device fabricated as shown in Figure 28. A small
amount of Base Current pushes on the L1 portion
of the lever arm forcing check valve D1 to open, even
though it is reverse biased (pressure is in direction
to keep check valve shut). Keep in mind the base
current would not start to flow until the check valve
D2 allowed current to flow (0.7lb). If the current ratio
through D1 and Base was equal to the lever arm
advantage, then I 1 / Ib = L1 / L2. Call this ratio Beta
(b) and let L1 = 1 inch and L2 = 0.01 inch. Then b =
100 and I1 will be 100 times Ib. Since both currents
must pass through D2, I2 = I1 + Ib. These same
principles apply to a silicon NPN transistor. I 1
becomes collector current (I C), and I2 would be
emitter current (IE). b = IC / IB and IE = IB + IC.

0.7
Pressure (lbs per square inch)

Figure 27
- 32-

SEMICONDUCTORS
Since there are no check valves, the current can
flow in either direction. In other words, this device
acts like a variable resistor. The Field Effect
Transistor (FET) also controls current between
source and drain by pinching off the path between
them. The level of voltage on the gate controls the
amount of current that will flow. Since no DC current
flows in or out of the gate (only momentarily a small
amount will flow to adjust to new pressures as in a
capacitor), the power used by the gate is very close
to zero. Remember, power equals voltage times
current, and if the current is zero, the power is zero.
This is why FETs are used in the probes of test
equipment. They will not disturb the circuit being
tested by removing power during a measurement.
When a second gate section is added (pipe and
rubber) between the source and drain it is called a
Dual Gate FET. In our water pipe analogy of the
FET transistor, the rubber must be very thin and
flexible in order to pinch off the current from the
source to the drain. This means it could be easily
damaged by a small spike of high pressure. The
same is true of an electronic FET. A high voltage
spike (Static Electricity) can destroy the gate and
ruin the FET. To protect the FET, they are
sometimes packaged with metal rings shorting their
leads, and a fourth lead may be added to the metal
case containing the transistor.

THE PNP TRANSISTOR

Figure 29 represents the water pipe equivalent of a
PNP transistor. The emitter releases current that
splits into two paths. The base current forces open
the collector check valve which collects all the
current except the small amount that goes into the
base. The direction of current in the PNP transistor
is opposite that of the NPN transistor. Because of
these differences, the emitter of the PNP is usually
referenced to the power supply voltage and the
emitter of the NPN is usually referenced to ground
or zero voltage. In both transistors, the current
amplification factor (I c/Ib) is called Beta (b).

THE FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR

In Figure 30 the center of a small section of a pipe
is made of thin, flexible rubber and that rubber is
surrounded by water from a third pipe called the
gate. When pressure is applied to the gate, the
rubber pinches off the current from the source to the
drain. No current flows from gate to drain or source.
This device uses a change in gate pressure to
control the current flowing from source to drain.
- 33-

SEMICONDUCTORS
THE INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
If the water pipe analogies of the resistor, diode,
transistor, and very small capacitors could be
etched into a single block of steel you would have
the equivalent of the Integrated Circuit in
Electronics. Figure 31 represents such a device.
This block of steel would have to be very large to
include all the mechanical parts needed. In
electronics, the actual size of a diode or transistor is
extremely small. In fact, millions can be fabricated

on a piece of silicon no larger than the head of a pin.

Photographic reduction techniques are used to
generate the masking needed to isolate each part.
These masks are then stepped and repeated in
order to make many separate integrated circuits at
the same time on a single substrate. Using mass
production
techniques,
these
circuits
are
manufactured, packaged, and sold at prices much
lower than the equivalent discreet circuit would cost.

SEMICONDUCTOR SYMBOLS
Figure 32 shows the common symbols used
in electronics to represent the basic
components. Integrated Circuits are usually
drawn as blocks with leads or as a triangle
for operational amplifiers. The Zener diode
(voltage reference diode) is used in the
reverse direction at the point of breakdown.

- 34-

SEMICONDUCTORS
SELF TEST
THEORY
Circle the letter that best fits the description.
1. The diode is best described as:
a) Switch
c) Electrical Storage Device
b) Check Valve
d) Electrical Momentum

6. A diode made of Gallium Arsenide is called:

a) Zener Diode
c) LED
b) Power Diode
d) Detector Diode

2. A silicon diode begins to conduct current at

approximately:
a) 7 volts
c) 0.7 lb.
b) 0.7 volts
d) 7 lbs.

7. A Field Effect Transistor controls Source to Drain

current by:
a) Diode Conduction
c) Base Voltage
b) Base Current
d) Gate Diode

3. NPN transistors have:

a) 2 leads
b) 3 leads

8. A Zener Diode is used as:

a) Voltage Reference
b) Current Reference

c) 2 diodes
d) b & c

4. NPN and PNP transistors are used to:

a) Create Power
c) Control Current
b) Change Resistance d) Control Capacitance

c) Resistance Control
d) b & c

9. An Integrated Circuit contains:

a) Diodes and Resistors c) Inductors
b) Transistors and Small d) a & b
Capacitors

5. The ratio of collector current to base current in a

transistor is called:
a) Beta (b)
c) Current Control
b) Amplification
d) FET

10. If the arrow in the symbol for a transistor points

toward the base lead, the transistor is a:
a) NPN Transistor
c) FET Transistor
b) PNP Transistor

PRACTICE
Open the Semiconductor bag and answer the folowing questions.
How many of the devices are diodes? _____________________________________
How many of the devices look like transistors? ______________________________
How many integrated circuits are included? ________________________________
Was a Light Emitting Diode included? _____________________________________
How are the diodes marked to show which end current will not go into? __________

EXTRA CREDIT
Connect the LED (light emitting diode) to a 9 volt battery
(not provided) as shown in Figure 33. Why is the resistor
necessary? If the LED does not light up reverse the
battery leads. Why does the LED only light when
connected a certain way?

- 35-

HAZARDS OF ELECTRICITY
The primary hazards associated with electricity and its use is:
1. SHOCK. Electric shock occurs when the human body becomes part of a path
through which electrons can flow. The resulting effect on the body can be either
direct or indirect.
A. Direct. Injury or death can occur whenever electric current flows through the
human body. Currents of less than 30 mA can result in death. A thorough
coverage of the effects of electricity on the human body is contained in the
section of this module entitled Effects of Electricity on the Human Body.
B. Indirect. Although the electric current through the human body may be well
below the values required to cause noticeable injury, human reaction can result
in falls from ladders or scaffolds, or movement into operating machinery. Such
reaction can result in serious injury or death.
2. BURNS. Burns can result when a person touches electrical wiring or equipment that
is improperly used or maintained. Typically, such burn injuries occur on the hands.
3.

ARC-BLAST. Arc-blasts occur from high-amperage currents arcing through air. This
abnormal current flow (arc-blast) is initiated by contact between two energized
points. This contact can be caused by persons who have an accident while working
on energized components or by equipment failure due to fatigue or abuse
Temperatures as high as 35,000F have been recorded in arc-blast research. The
three primary hazards associated with an arc-blast are:
A. Thermal Radiation. In most cases, the radiated thermal energy is only
part of the total energy available from the arc. Numerous factors,
including skin color, area of skin exposed type of clothing have an
effect on the degree of injury. Proper clothing, work distances and
overcurrent protection can improve the chances of curable burns.
B. Pressure Wave.

high-energy arcing

fault

can

produce a

considerable pressure wave. Research has shown that a person 2 feet

-36-

C. away from a 25 kA arc would experience a force of approximately 480

pounds on the front of their body. In addition, such a pressure wave
can cause serious ear damage and memory loss due to mild
concussions. In some instances, the pressure wave may propel the
victim away from the arc-blast, reducing the exposure to the thermal
energy. However, such rapid movement could also cause serious
physical injury
D. Projectiles. The pressure wave can propel relatively large objects over
a considerable distance. In some cases, the pressure wave has
sufficient force to snap the heads of 3/8 inch steel bolts and knock
over ordinary construction walls.
E. EXPLOSIONS. Explosions occur when electricity provides a source of
ignition for an explosive mixture in the atmosphere. Ignition can be
due to overheated conductors or equipment, or normal arcing
(sparking) at switch contacts. OSHA standards, the National Electrical
Code and related safety standards have precise requirements for
electrical systems and equipment when applied in such areas
F. FIRES. Electricity is one of the most common causes of fire both in the
home and workplace. Defective or misused electrical equipment is a
major cause, with high resistance connections being one of the
primary sources of ignition. High resistance connections occur where
wires are improperly spliced or connected to other components such
as receptacle outlets and switches. This was the primary cause of fires
associated with the use of aluminum wire in buildings during the 1960s
and 1970s.
G. 2
Heat is developed in an electrical conductor by the flow of current at
the rate I R. The heat thus released elevates the temperature of the
conductor material. A typical use of this formula illustrates a common
electrical hazard. If there is a bad connection at a receptacle, resulting
in a resistance of 2 ohms, and a current of 10 amperes flows through
that resistance, the rate of heat produced (W) would be:
W' I 2R ' 102x2 ' 200 watts

-37-

If you have ever touched an energized 200 watt light bulb, you will
realize that this is a lot of heat to be concentrated in the confined
space of a receptacle. Situations similar to this can contribute to
electrical fires.

EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON THE HUMAN BODY

The effects of electric shock on the human body depend on several factors. The major factors
are:
1.

Current and Voltage

2.

Resistance

3.

Path through body

4.

Duration of shock

The muscular structure of the body is also a factor in that people having less musculature and
more fat typically show similar effects at lesser current values.
Current and Voltage
Although high voltage often produces massive destruction of tissue at contact locations, it is
generally believed that the detrimental effects of electric shock are due to the current actually
flowing through the body. Even though Ohm's law (I=E/R) applies, it is often difficult to correlate
voltage with damage to the body because of the large variations in contact resistance usually
present in accidents. Any electrical device used on a house wiring circuit can, under certain
conditions, transmit a fatal current. Although currents greater than 10 mA are capable of
producing painful to severe shock, currents between 100 and 200 mA can be lethal.
With increasing alternating current, the sensations of tingling give way to contractions of the
muscles. The muscular contractions and accompanying sensations of heat increase as the
current is increased. Sensations of pain develop, and voluntary control of the muscles that lie in
the current pathway becomes increasingly difficult. As current approaches 15 mA, the victim
cannot let go of the conductive surface being grasped. At this point, the individual is said to
freeze" to the circuit. This is frequently referred to as the "let-go" threshold.

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As current approaches 100 mA, ventricular fibrillation of the heart occurs. Ventricular fibrillation is
defined as "very rapid uncoordinated contractions of the ventricles of the heart resulting in loss of
synchronization between heartbeat and pulse beat." Once ventricular fibrillation occurs, it will
continue and death will ensue within a few minutes. Use of a special device called a de-fibrillation
is required to save the victim. Heavy current flow can result in severe burns and heart paralysis. If
shock is of short duration, the heart stops during current passage and usually re-starts normally
on current interruption, improving the victim's chances for survival.
Resistance
Studies have shown that the electrical resistance of the human body varies with the amount of
moisture on the skin, the pressure applied to the contact point, and the contact area.
The outer layer of skin, the epidermis, has very high resistance when dry. Wet conditions, a cut
or other break in the skin will drastically reduce resistance.
Shock severity increases with an increase in pressure of contact. Also, the larger the contact
area, the lower the resistance .Whatever protection is offered by skin resistance decreases
rapidly with increase in voltage. Higher voltages have the capability of "breaking down" the outer
layers of the skin, thereby reducing the resistance

Path through Body

The path the current takes through the body affects the degree of injury. A small current that
passes from one extremity through the heart to the other extremity is capable of causing severe
injury or electrocution. There have been many cases. Where an arm or leg was almost burned
off when the extremity came in contact with electrical current and the current only flowed
through a portion of the limb before it went out into the other conductor without going through
the trunk of the body. Had the current gone through the trunk of the body, the person would
almost surely have been electrocuted.
A large number of serious electrical accidents in industry involve current flow from hands to feet.
Since such a path involves both the heart and the lungs, results can be fatal.

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Duration of Shock
The duration of the shock has a great bearing on the final outcome. If the shock is of short
duration, it may only be a painful experience for the person.
If the level of current flow reaches the approximate ventricular fibrillation threshold of 100 mA,
shock duration of a few seconds could be fatal. This is not much current when you consider that
a small light duty portable electric drill draws about 30 times as much.
At relatively high currents, death is inevitable if the shock is of appreciable duration; however, if
the shock is of short duration, and if the heart has not been damaged, interruption of the current
may be followed by a spontaneous resumption of its normal rhythmic contractions.

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Summary of Effec ts
We can sum up the lethal effects of electric current as follows:
1) Current flow greater than the "let-go" threshold of an individual may cause a person
to collapse, become unconscious and can result in death. The current flow would
most often have to continue for longer than five seconds. Although it may not be
possible to determine the exact cause of death with certainty, asphyxiation or heart
failure are the prime suspects.
2) Current flow through the chest, neck, head or major nerve centers controlling
respiration may result in a failure of the respiratory system. This is usually caused
by a disruption of the nerve impulses between the respiratory control center and the
respiratory muscles. Such a condition is dangerous since it is possible for the
respiratory failure to continue even after the current flow has stopped.
3) The most dangerous condition can occur when fairly small amounts of current flow
through the heart area. Such current flow can cause ventricular fibrillation. This
asynchronous movement of the heart causes the hearts' usual rhythmic pumping
action to cease. Death results within minutes.
4) When relatively large currents flow through the heart area, heart action may be
stopped entirely. If the shock duration is short and no physical damage to the heart
has occurred, the heart may begin rhythmic pumping automatically when the
current ceases.
5) Extensive tissue damage, including internal organ damage due to high
temperatures, occurs when very large currents flow through major portions of the
body.
6) There are recorded cases of delayed death after a person has been revived
following an electrical shock. This may occur within minutes, hours or even days
after the event has occurred. Several assumptions for such delayed effects are:
A. Internal or unseen hemorrhaging
B. Emotional or psychological effects of the shock
C. Aggravation of a pre-existing condition
In many accidents, there is a combination of the above effects, or additional effects may develop
after the initial accident, thus making an accurate diagnosis quite difficult.

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COMMON WORKPLACE CIRCUITS

Following are simplified descriptions of typical circuits to which workers are most commonly
exposed.

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-43-

ELECTRICAL PROTECT IVE DEVICES

Introduction:

As a power source, electricity can create conditions almost certain to result in bodily harm,
property damage, or both. It is important for workers to understand the hazards involved when
they are working around electrical power tools, maintaining electrical equipment, or installing
equipment for electrical operation.
The electrical protective devices we will discuss include fuses, circuit breakers, and ground-fault
circuit-interrupters (GFCIs). These devices are critically important to electrical safety.
Overcurrent devices should be installed where required. They should be of the size and type to
interrupt current flow when it exceeds the capacity of the conductor. Proper selection takes into
account not only the capacity of the conductor, but also the rating of the power supply and
potential short circuits.
Types of Overcurrent
There are two types of overcurrent:
1.

Overload - When you ask a 10 hp motor to do the work of a 12 hp motor, an overload

condition exists. The overcurrent may be 150 percent of normal current.

2.

Fault - When insulation fails in a circuit, fault current can result that may be from 5
times to 50 times that of normal current.

When a circuit is overloaded, the plasticizers in the insulation are vaporized over a long period
of time, and the insulation becomes brittle. The brittle insulation has slightly better electrical
insulating properties. However, movement of the conductors due to magnetic or other forces
can crack the insulation, and a fault can. Result. Conductors should be protected from overload
and the eventual damage that results.
Faults occur in two ways. Most of the time a fault will occur between a conductor and an
enclosure. This is called a ground fault. Infrequently, a fault will occur between two conductors.
This is called a short circuit, and was discussed earlier in this module.
In order to predict what will happen in a normal circuit and a ground-fault circuit, we first need to
understand the terminology used to describe electrical systems. The figure below should aid in
this discussion. The dashed lines represent the enclosures surrounding the electrical system.

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These enclosures include the service panel, conduit, and boxes enclosing switches, controllers,
equipment terminals, etc. The conduit bonds all of the enclosures together such that there is no
electrical potential between them. It also provides an emergency path for ground-fault current to
return to the voltage source which in this case is shown as secondary windings of a transformer.

Notice that there must be a wire between the grounded conductor and the enclosure to allow the
fault current to return to its source. This wire is called the main bonding jumper. If there is no
wire, then the electrical system is isolated and requires extra safety features.
The basic idea of an overcurrent protective device is to make a weak link in the circuit. In the
case of a fuse, the fuse is destroyed before another part of the system is destroyed. In the case
of a circuit breaker, a set of contacts opens the circuit. Unlike a fuse, a circuit breaker can be reused by re-closing the contacts. Fuses and circuit breakers are designed to protect equipment
and facilities, and in so doing, they also provide considerable protection against shock in most
situations. However, the only electrical protective device whose sole purpose is to protect
people is the ground-fault circuit-interrupter. These various protective devices are further
discussed below.

Fuses
A fuse is an electrical device that opens a circuit when the
current flowing through it exceeds the rating of the fuse. The
"heart" of a fuse is a special metal strip (or wire) designed to
melt and blow out when its rated amperage is exceeded.
Overcurrent devices (fuses, circuit breakers) are always placed
in the "hot" side of a circuit (usually a black wire) and in series
with the load, so that all the current in the circuit must flow
through them.

If the current flowing in the circuit exceeds the rating of the fuse, the metal strip will melt and
open the circuit so that no current can flow. A fuse cannot be re-used and must be replaced
after eliminating the cause of the overcurrent.

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Fuses are designed to protect equipment and conductors from excessive current. It is important
to always replace fuses with the proper type and current rating. Too low a rating will result in
unnecessary blowouts, while too high a rating may allow dangerously high currents

Circuit Breaker:
Circuit breakers provide protection for equipment and conductors from excessive current without
the inconvenience of changing fuses. Circuit breakers trip (open the circuit) when the current
flow is excessive.
There are two primary types of circuit breakers based on the current sensing mechanism. In the
magnetic circuit breaker, the current is sensed by a coil that forms an electromagnet.
When the current is excessive, the electromagnet actuates a small armature that
pulls the trip mechanism - thus opening the circuit breaker. In the thermal-<xpe circuit
breaker, the current heats a bi-metallic strip, which when heated sufficiently bends
enough to allow the trip mechanism to operate. The symbol for a circuit breaker is
shown in the accompanying figure.
Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupter
A ground-fault circuit-interrupter is not an overcurrent device. A GFCI is used to open a circuit if
the current flowing to the load does not return by the prescribed route. In a simple 120 volt
circuit we usually think of the current flowing through the black (ungrounded) wire to the load
and returning to the source through the white (grounded) wire. If it does not return through the
grounded wire, then it must have gone somewhere else, usually to ground. The GFCI is
designed to limit electric shock to a current- and time-duration value below that which can
produce serious injury. The operation of the GFCI will be discussed later in this module.
GROUNDING:
Grounding must be taken into account wherever electrical current flows. It can never be
stressed too strongly that proper grounding and bonding must be correctly applied if the system,
the equipment, and the people that come in contact with them are to be protected.
Effective grounding means that the path to ground: (1) is
permanent and continuous, and (2) has ample current-carrying
capacity to conduct safely any currents liable to be imposed on it,
and (3) has impedance sufficiently low to limit the potential above ground and to facilitate the

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operation of the overcurrent devices in the circuit.

Effective bonding means that the electrical continuity of the grounding circuit is assured by
proper connections between service raceways, service cable armor, all service equipment
enclosures containing service entrance conductors, and any conduit or armor that forms part of
the grounding conductor to the service raceway.
The requirement for effective grounding is one of the most frequently cited violations of OSHA's
electrical standards. Effective grounding has no function unless and until there is electrical
leakage from a current-carrying conductor to its enclosure. When such a ground fault occurs,
the equipment grounding conductor goes into action to provide the following.
A. It prevents voltages between the electrical enclosure and other enclosures or
surroundings.

B. It provides a path for large amounts of fault or overload current to flow back to the
service entrance, thus blowing the fuse or tripping the circuit breaker.
: How does grounding do its job?
Proper grounding requires connecting all of the enclosures (equipment housings, boxes,
conduit, etc.) together, and back to the service entrance enclosure. This is accomplished by
means of the green wire in the cord (portable equipment), and the conduit system or a bare wire
in the fixed wiring of the building.
When a ground fault occurs, as in a defective tool, the grounding conductor must carry enough
current to immediately trip the circuit breaker or blow the fuse. This means that the ground fault
path must have low impedance. The only low impedance path is the green wire (in portable
cord) and the metallic conduit system (or an additional bare wire if conduit is not used).
Note that the normal useful current flows in the "current-carrying" loop from the transformer over
the black wire, through the tool motor and back over the white wire to the transformer. Th e
grounding conductor carries no current. See the figure below.

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However, when the insulation on the black (ungrounded) conductor fails and the copper
conductor touches the case of the tool, the ground-fault current flows through the green
(grounding) conductor and the conduit system back to the service entrance. This is shown in the
figure below.

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If the equipment-grounding conductors are properly installed, this current will be perhaps 10 times
or more greater than normal current, so the circuit breaker will trip out immediately.

But what happens if the grounding does not do the job?

If the ground-fault path is not properly installed, it may have such high impedance that it does not
allow a sufficiently large amount of current to flow. Or, if the grounding conductor continuity has
been lost (as when the "U"-shaped grounding prong has been broken off the plug), no fault
current will flow. In these cases, the circuit breaker will not trip out, the case of the tool will be
energized, and persons touching the tool may be shocked. See figure below

The hazard created is that persons touching the tool may provide a path through their body and
eventually back to the source of voltage. This path may be through other surfaces in the vicinity,
through building steel, or through earth. The dangerous ground-fault current flowing through this
high-impedance path will not rise to a high enough value to immediately trip the circuit breaker.
Only the metallic equipment-grounding conductor, which is carried along with the supply
conductors, will have impedance sufficiently low so that the required large amount of fault current
will flow. So the only way to ensure that the equipment grounding conductor does its job is to be
certain that the grounding wire, the grounding prong, the grounding receptacle, and the conduit
system are intact and have electrical continuity from each electrical tool back to the service
entrance. This is illustrated in the figure below.

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As we have discussed, effective grounding along with overcurrent devices (fuses and circuit
breakers) are used to protect equipment and facilities, and in so doing, they may also provide
considerable protection against shock in most situations. However, the only protective device
whose sole purpose is to protect people is the ground-fault circuit-interrupter. The GFCI is
discussed in the next section of this module.

GROUND-FAULT CIRCUIT-INTERRUPTERS
In most cases, insulation and grounding are used to prevent injury from electrical
wiring systems or equipment. However, there are instances when these recognized
methods do not provide the degree of protection required. To help appreciate this, let's
consider a few examples of where ground fault circuit interrupters would provide
additional protection.

A. Many portable hand tools, such as electric drills, are now manufactured
with non-metallic cases. If approved, we refer to such tools as double

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insulated. Although this design method assists in reducing the risk from grounding
deficiencies, a shock hazard can still exist. In many cases, persons must use such
electrical equipment where there is considerable moisture or wetness. Although the
person is insulated from the electrical wiring and components, there is still the possibility
that water can enter the tool housing. Ordinary water is a conductor of electricity.
Therefore, if the water contacts energized parts, a path will be provided from inside the
housing to the outside, bypassing the double insulation. When a person holding a hand
tool under these conditions touches another conductive surface in their work environment,
an electric shock will result.
B. Double-insulated equipment or equipment with non-metallic housings, that does not
require grounding under the National Electrical Code, is frequently used around sinks or in
situations where the equipment could be dropped into water. Frequently, the initial human
response is to grab for the equipment. If a person's hand is placed in the water and
another portion of their body is in contact with a conductive surface, a serious or deadly
electric shock can occur. In construction work and regular factory maintenance work, it is
frequently necessary to use extension cord sets with portable equipment. These cords are
regularly exposed to physical damage. Although safe work procedures require adequate
protection, it is not possible to prevent all damage. Frequently, the damage is only to the
insulation, exposing energized conductors. It is not unusual for a person to handle the
cord often with the possibility of contacting the exposed wires while holding a metal case
tool or while in contact with other conductive surfaces

The amount of current which flows under such conditions will be enough to cause serious human
response. This can result in falls or other physical injury and in many cases death. Since neither
insulation (double insulation) nor grounding can provide protection under these conditions, it is
necessary to use other protective measures. One acceptable method is a ground fault circuit
interrupter, commonly referred to as a GFCI.

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How Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters Work

A ground-fault circuit-interrupter is not an overcurrent device like a fuse or circuit breaker.
GFCI's are designed to sense an imbalance in current flow over the normal path.
The GFCI contains a special sensor that monitors the strength of the magnetic field around each
wire in the circuit when current is flowing. The magnetic field around a wire is directly
proportional to the amount of current flow, thus the circuitry can accurately translate the
magnetic information into current flow.
If the current flowing in the black (ungrounded) wire is within 5 (1) mill amperes of the current
flowing in the white (grounded) wire at any given instant, the circuitry considers the situation
normal. All the current is flowing in the normal path. If, however, the current flow in the two wires
differs by more than 5 mA, the GFCI will quickly open the circuit. This is illustrated in the figure
below

Note that the GFCI will open the circuit if 5 mA or more of current returns to the service
entrance by any path other than the intended white (grounded) conductor. If the equipment
grounding conductor is properly installed and maintained, this will happen as soon as the faulty

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tool is plugged in. If by chance this grounding conductor is not intact and of low-impedance, the
GFCI may not trip out until a person provides a path. In this case, the person will receive a
shock, but the GFC should trip out so quickly that the shock will not be harmful.

Types of Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters

There are several types of GFCI's available, with some variations to each type. Although all
types will provide ground-fault protection, the specific application may dictate one type over
another.
1. Circuit-Breaker Type
The circuit-breaker type includes the functions of a standard circuit breaker with the
additional functions of a GFCI. It is installed in a panel board and can protect an entire
branch circuit with multiple outlets. It is a direct replacement for a standard circuit breaker of
the same rating.
2. Receptacle Type
The receptacle style GFCI incorporates within one device one or more receptacle outlets,
protected by the GFCI. Such devices are becoming very popular because of their low cost.
Most are of the duplex receptacle configuration and can provide GFCI protection for
additional non-GFCI type receptacles connected "downstream" from the GFCI unit.
3. Permanently Mounted Type
The permanently mounted types are mounted in an enclosure and designed to be
permanently wired to the supply. Frequently they are used around large commercial
swimming pools or similar wet locations.
4. Portable Type
Several styles of portable GFCI's are available. The portable types are designed to be
easily transported from one location to another. They usually contain one or more
integral receptacle outlets protected by the GFCI module. Some models are designed to
plug into existing non-GFCI protected outlets or in some cases, are connected with a
cord and plug arrangement. The portable type also incorporates a no-voltage release
device which will disconnect power to the outlets if any supply conductor is open. Units
approved for use outdoors will be in enclosures suitable for the environment. If exposed
to rain, they must be listed as rainproof.

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5. Cord Connected Type

The power supply cord type GFCI consists of an attachment plug which incorporates the
GFCI module. It provides protection for the cord and any equipment attached to the cord.
The attachment plug has a non-standard appearance and is equipped with test and reset
buttons. Like the portable type, it incorporates a no-voltage release device which will
disconnect power to the load if any supply conductor is open.

Classes of Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters

Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters are divided into two classes: Class A and Class B. The Class A
device is designed to trip when current flow, in other than the normal path, is 6 milliamperes or
greater. The specification is 5 milliamperes 1 milliampere. The Class B device will trip when
current flow, in other than the normal path, is 20 milliamperes or greater. Class B devices are
approved for use on underwater swimming pool lighting installed prior to the adoption of the 1965
National Electrical Code.

Testing Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters

Due to the complexity of a GFCI, it is necessary to test the device on a regular basis. For
permanently wired devices, a monthly test is recommended. Portable type GFCI's should be
tested each time before use. GFCI's have a built-in test circuit which imposes an artificial ground
fault on the load circuit to assure that the ground-fault protection is still functioning. Test and
reset buttons are provided for testing.

REVERSED POLARITY
One potentially dangerous aspect of alternating current electricity is the fact that many pieces of
equipment will operate properly even though the supply wires are not connected in the order
designated by design or the manufacturer. Improper connection of these conductors is most
prevalent on the smaller branch circuit typically associated with standard 120 volt receptacle
outlets, lighting fixtures and cord- and plug-connected equipment. Section 1910.304(a) (2) of the
OSHA standards and Section 200-11 in the National Electrical Code cover the requirements for
the connection of the grounded conductor. It is from these sections that the so-called "reversed
polarity" expression comes. Although these sections are addressing the connection of the
grounded conductor, it is extremely important to realize that improper termination of any
conductor can introduce a serious hazard. The figure below shows correct wiring of a standard

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medium base screw-shell lamp. It is not unusual for persons to place their fingers close to or on
the screw-shell when removing a lamp. When connected as shown in the figure below,

the screw-shell of the lamp would be at 120 volts with reference to other
conductive surfaces in the surroundings. Touching such a conductive surface in
the area while in contact with the screw-shell would pose a serious shock hazard.
Although it is recommended that power be turned off before doing such work,
history shows that this is frequently not done. This is especially serious when
persons are using cord- and plug-connected portable work lights with grounded
metal guards or reflectors. Notice that a person may think that the power has
been turned off by the integral switch on the hand-lamp; however, due to the
"reversed polarity" the switch is not located in the energized wire and does not
remove power from the screw-shell of the lampholder. Typically a person will hold
the fixture by the grounded metal guard. If the person's fingers come in contact
with the screw-shell of the lamp under such conditions, 120 volts will be applied to
the body from hand to hand

TYPICAL 120 V OLT BRANCH CIRCUIT WITH CORRECT WIRING

MEDIUM B ASE S CREW -S HELL L AMP

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The figure below shows the correct wiring for the common 120 volt outlet with a
portable hand tool attached.

T YPICAL 120 V OLT BRANCH C IRCUIT WITH C ORRECT W IRING

Suppose now that the black (ungrounded) and white (grounded) conductors are
reversed as shown in the figure below. This is the traditional reversed polarity.
Although a shock hazard may not exist, there are other mechanical hazards that
can occur.

120 V OLT B RANCH C IRCUIT WITH B LACK AND W HITE W IRES R EVERSED

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For example, if an internal fault should occur in the wiring as shown in the figure
below, the equipment would not stop when the switch is released or would start
as soon as a person plugs the supply cord into the improperly wired outlet. This
could result in serious injury.

120 V OLT B RANCH C IRCUIT WITH B LACK AND W HITE W IRES R EVERSED
I NTERNAL F AULT IN E QUIPMENT W IRING
The figure below shows the white (grounded) and green (grounding) conductors
reversed. Although it is not fitting, considering OSHA or code terminology, to call
this reversed polarity, a hazard can still exist. In this case, due to the wiring error,
the white wire is being used to provide equipment grounding. Under certain
conditions, this could be dangerous

WH I T E

AND

G R E E N W I R E S RE V E R S E D

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The figure below shows an extremely dangerous situation. In this example, the
black (ungrounded) and green (grounding) conductors have been reversed. The
metal case of the equipment is at 120 volts with reference to the surroundings. As
soon as a person picks up the equipment and touches a conductive surface in the ir
surroundings, they will receive a serious, or even deadly, shock.
Although the equipment will not work with this wiring error, it would not be unusual
for a person to pick up the equipment before realizing this. The person may even
attempt to trouble-shoot the problem before unplugging the power cord

BL A C K

AND

G R E E N WI R E S RE V E R S E D

Correct polarity is achieved when the grounded conductor is connected to the

corresponding grounded terminal and the ungrounded conductor is connected to
the corresponding ungrounded terminal. The reverse of the designated polarity is
prohibited. The figure below illustrates a duplex receptacle correctly wired.
Terminals are designated and identified to avoid confusion. An easy way to
remember the correct polarity is "white to light" - the white (grounded) wire should
be connected to the light or nickel-colored terminal; "black to brass" - the black or
multi-colored (ungrounded) wire should be connected to the brass terminal; and
"green to green" - the green or bare (grounding) wire should be connected to the
green hexagonal head terminal screw.

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