1

1. The definition of the Finite Element Method (FEM)

Nodal Degrees
of Freedom

Node

Elem
ent

Nodal Load
Figure 1.1 Element model.

" Linear-static -analysis

" Numerical method
" Primarily calculating displacements | forces | stress, stain
" Discretization into nodes and elements (springs)
" Degrees of Freedom (DOFs)
" Boundary Conditions (BCs)
" External loading

K(E,A,L,I)

Figure 1.2 Idealization into springs.

2. The equilibrium equations of FEM

u
K

FIgure 2.1 A single DOF (Degree of Freedom) linear spring.

The equilibrium equation of a single DOF linear spring

Ku = F

(2.1)

If the spring constant, K, and the nodal force, F, are known, u can be solved from

u=

F
= K 1 F
K

(2.2)

Note! The spring constant, K, has to be always greater than zero.

Example 2.1: Spring calculations.
In FEM the spring constant for the entire structure can be determined. The structure can have many
unknown displacements and nodal (reaction) forces. For multi-DOF case matrix notation has to be
employed

[ K ]{ u} = [ F ]

(2.3)

where [K] is the stiffness matrix and {F} is the vector of nodal forces. The problem can be solved for
displacements

{ u} = [ K ] 1 { F }
Note! The stiffness matrix cannot be singular.

(2.4)

3. Boundary Conditions (BCs)

3.1 General
The degrees of freedom can be divided into translations and rotations. DOFs can be either free or
fixed.

uy=0

ux=0
uy=0

y
x

Free end

Roller support

Hinged support

Fixed end

The arrows point all free degrees of freedom

Figure 3.1.1 All possible BCs in 2D-case.
Usually the unknowns are both displacements and forces, and for that reason, the equilibrium
equations have to be written in the standard form

[ A]{ x} = [ B]

(3.1.1)

where all the unknowns are in vector {x}. The system of linear equations can be solved by using Gauss
elimination. All unknowns can be solve at once or a reduced problem can be formed.
Example 3.1.1: Spring calculations.
Example 3.1.2: Spring calculations, example of a reduced problem.
Example 3.1.3: Example of Gauss elimination.
3.2 Different element types and stiffness matrices
There exist hundreds of different element types. The most common element types in structural
problems are:

4
A truss element:

F1,u1

F2,u2

E, A, L

EA

[ K ] = LEA

EA
L
EA

L 2 x2

(3.2.1)

A beam element (4x4):

F1 , v1

M 1 , 1

E, I, L

F2 , v2

M 2 , 2

6 L 12 6 L
12

2
6 L 2 L2
EI 6 L 4 L

[ K] = 3
L 12 6 L 12 6 L

2
6 L 4 L2
6L 2 L
4 x4

(3.2.2)

The axial degrees of freedom do not appear in above matrix, since they do not have
interaction with other DOFs. By combining a truss and a beam element the axial DOFs can
be taken into account.

EA
L

0
[ K ] = EA

L
0

12 EI
L3
6 EI
L2

6 EI
L2
4 EI
L

12 EI
L3
6 EI
L2

6 EI
L2
2 EI
L

EA
L
0
0
EA
L
0
0

0
12 EI
L3
6 EI
2
L

0
12 EI
L3
6 EI
2
L

6 EI

L2
2 EI
L

6 EI
2
L
4 EI
L 6 x 6
0

The other elements often used in structural analysis are shell and solid elements.

6 DOFs/Node

Figure 3.2.1 3D-shell.

2 DOFs/Node

Figure 3.2.2 2D-solids.

(3.2.3)

3 DOFs/Node

Figure 3.2.3 3D-solids.

Each element type has active DOFs, which means that they do have resistance=stiffness in direction
of those DOFs.

Example 3.2.1: Beam calculations.

3.3 Symmetry and antisymmetry
Structures to be analyzed can be symmetric (antisymmetric). It means that the geometry, loading and
BCs can be mirrored trough a symmetry plane. In the case of symmetry (antisymmetry) only one half
of the structure needs to be modelled. The symmetric (antisymmetric) behavior is forced by applying
symmetry (antisymmetry) BCs for the nodes in the plane of symmetry.

Figure 3.3.1 A symmetric structure..

The symmetry BCs can be written in the form of a table.

7
If the xy-plane is the plane of symmetry:

x
Translation Fixed
Rotation
Free

y
Free
Fixed

z
Free
Fixed

Only the active DOFs need to taken into account.

ux=0
x

rotz=0

Kuva 3.3.2 Symmetry BCs of above beam structure..

If a nodal force is located in the plane of symmetry, the force has to be divided by two. If a truss
element is located in the plane of symmetry, the cross-sectional area has to be halved. A structure can
has a triple symmetry, the maximum.
For antisymmetric structures the geometry and BCs are symmetric, but the loading is antisymmetric.

Kuva 3.3.3 An antisymmetric structure.

The antisymmetry BCs can be written in a table form as well:

8
If the xy-plane is the plane of antisymmetry:

x
Translation Free
Rotation
Fixed

y
Fixed
Free

z
Fixed
Free

Figure 3.3.4 Antisymmetry BCs.

The other cases of symmetry:

Figure 3.3.5 Cyclic symmetry.

uy=0

Figure 3.3.6 Axisymmetry.

In Fig. 3.3.5 symmetry BCs can be applied, but only in a cylindrical co-ordinate system. Axisymmetry
can be taken into account already in the element formulation.
In some special cases BCs cannot be used to force the symmetric behavior and so-called constraint
equations have to be used instead, Fig. 3.3.7.

Figure 3.3.7 Cyclic symmetry.

Some times the geometry and BCs are symmetric but the loading is not. However, by using the
principle of superposition the loading can be divided into a symmetric and an antisymmetric case, Fig.
3.3.8.

10

F
y
x

F/2

F/2
y
x

F/2

-F/2
y
x

Figure 3.3.8 Combining the load cases.

Note! The reason for using the above BCs is the saving of the analysis time. The analysis time
in most commonly used algorithms is proportional to the square of the number of DOFs.

11

4. Transformation
Element stiffness matrix, [Kj], is written in element or local co-ordinate system. If the element is
rotated, its stiffness is subject to change with respect to the global co-ordinate system.

y, v
y, v

v2

x, u

v2

x, u

u2
u2

v1
v1

u1
u1

Figure 4.1 Rotation of a truss element.

The stiffness of the local system can be transformed to the global system by the below multiplication.

[ K ] = [ T ] T [ K ][ T ]

(4.1)

where [K] is the element stiffness in global and [K] in the local system. [T] is the transformation
matrix.

Transformation matrix of a truss element

0
0
cos( ) sin( )
[T] =

0
cos( ) sin( )
0

(4.2)

12

Transformation matrix of a beam element (6 x 6)

cos( ) sin( )
sin( ) cos( )

0
0
[T ] =
0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0 cos( ) sin( )
0 sin( ) cos( )
0
0
0

0
0

0
0

(4.3)

" stands for the rotation angle. The axial DOFs and forces can be derived from the global results:

{ u'} = [ T ]{ u}
[ K ]{ u } = { F }

(4.4)

Example 4.1: Formulation of the transformation matrix of a truss.

Example 4.2: Numerical example of transformation.
The transformation technique can also be applied in the case of inclined BCs and constraint
equations.

y vj

x,uj

Figure 4.2 Inclined BCs.

Example 4.3: Transformation and constraint equations.
Example 4.4: Transformation and inclined BCs.
Example 4.5: Rotated nodal co-ordinate systems and constraint equations.

13

5. The procedure of FEM

A linear-static Fe-analysis can be divided into five steps:

1. Formulation of element stiffness matrices and transformation

Element stiffness matrix formulation in local co-ordinate system

Direct methods: method of unit displacement

Indirect (energy based) methods: [ K ] = V [ B] [ E ][ B]dV
T

[ K ] j

Transformation into global system

[ K] j = [T ]T [ K ] j [T]
2. Assembly of global stiffness matrix
The global stiffness matrix

[ K ]1

[ K] =
[ K]2

O
3. BCs and system of linear equations
All unknowns can be solved or a reduced problem can be formulated by over lining the zero
displacements.

Applying the BCs and forming te system of linear equations.

u1 F1

u2 = F2
M M

14

4. Solving for unknowns

Any suitable technique can be employed. However, Gauss elimination based methods are used
most often.

Solution

[ K ]{ u} = { F }

[ ]

{u } = K 1 { F }
r
r
r
1
{ x} = [ A] { B}

Gauss elimination
5. Solving for member forces
For instance, member forces can be retrieved by applying transformation backwards.

Member forces

{ u'} j = [ T ]{ u} j
[ K ] j { u } j = { F } j
123
?

The programs are typically organized into pre-processor (Steps 1-3), solver (Step
4) and post-processor (Step 5).

15

6. Formulation of element stiffness matrices

6.1. General
A Structure can be either:

A mechanism,
Statically determinate or
Statically indeterminate
A mechanism: The structure does not resist the external loading, i.e non-zero displacements can exist
along with zero strains.

Figure 6.1.1 A mechanism.

A statically determinate structure: All unknown forces (reactions and member forces) can be solved
by using force equilibrium equations. Only one force distribution is possible, i.e. the stiffness
properties of structural members do not affect the force distribution.

Figure 6.1.2 A statically determinate structure.

A statically indeterminate structure: Unknown forces (reactions and member forces) can NOT be
solved by using only force equilibrium equations. Many different force distributions are possible, i.e.
the stiffness properties of structural members DO affect the force distribution.

16

Figure 6.1.3 A statically indeterminate structure.

Determinacy deals with whether or not the reactions and forces in a structure can be analyzed based
solely on static equilibrium or whether principles from strength of materials must be introduced. Put
differently, it deals with whether the forces in a structure can be determined knowing only the
geometry of the structure or whether the stiffness attributes of the individual components must be
known. A statically determinate structure is analyzable based only on its geometry. A statically
indeterminate structure is analyzable based on geometry and component stiffness.
Determinacy consists of internal and external issues. If a structure is externally determinate, it means
that we can solve for the reactions based on static equilibrium. If it is internally determinate, it means
that we can solve for the forces in the individual components based on static equilibrium.

| degree of indeterminacy
Example 6.1: A truss example of degree of indeterminancy
Equations that can be used in stiffness matrix derivations
1. Force equilibrium equations
2. Stress-strain -relations (Hookes law)
3. Strain-displacement -relations (Compatibility conditions)

Any calculated displacement field has to be such that it fulfills the above conditions.
Methods used:
1. Direct methods
2. Indirect methods (Energy based principles)

6.2 Direct method: a method based on unit displacements.

The physical interpretation of stiffness coefficients:

17

The diagonal term Kjj equals to the force required to cause a unit displacement in uj when
other displacement equal to zero. The other stiffness coefficients of the corresponding
row/column equal to the reactions forces.
Example 6.2.1: Formulation of a truss element stiffness matrix, method of unit displacements.
Example 6.2.2: Formulation of a beam element stiffness matrix, method of unit displacements.
A structure can also have a so-called internal hinge, Fig. 6.2.1, which can also be taken into account in
the element formulation. For beams having great bending stiffness the shear deformation should
sometimes be included. Both phenomena can be taken into account int the method of unit
displacements.

A hinge cannot
transmit bending
moment

Figure 6.2.1 An internal hinge.

Example 6.2.3: Internal hinge.
Example 6.2.4: Shear deformation.
Example 6.2.5: Formulation of Timoshenko beam element, method of unit displacement.

6.3 Indirect methods

Principle of minimum of total potential
Principle of virtual work
(Principle of real work)
Above principles replace the use of equilibrium equations.

Example 6.3.0: Energy principles.

Principle of the minimum of the total potential
As one of the energy principles in structural mechanics, the minimum total potential energy
principle asserts that a structure or body shall deform or displace to a position that minimizes
the total potential energy = force equilibrium.

18

Figure 6.3.1 Minimum/maximum of a function.

The total potential A of an element model, Eq. (6.3.1):

1
{ u} T [ K ]{ u} { F} T { u}
2

(6.3.1)

Taylor series expansion can be used to derive the minimum conditions. Taylor series expansion at x*
for a single variable function f(x) :

f ( x) = f ( x * ) +

1
1
1
f ( x * )( x x * ) + f ( x * )( x x * ) 2 + f ( x * )( x x * ) 3 + R 4 (6.3.2)
1!
2!
3!

where R4 denotes the reminder. At the minimum

1. The first variation, i.e. f (x*) = 0 (necessary condition)

2. The second variation, i.e. f (x*) > 0 (sufficient condition)
For multi-variable function the expansion can be written:
(6.3.3)
The Hessian matrix [H] is the matrix of second derivatives of a multi-variable function. That is, the
gradient of the gradient of a function.
The necessary condition in for multi variable case (FEM): The gradient vector equals to zero:

19

= [ K ]{ u} { F } = 0

(6.3.4)

The sufficient condition for multi variable case

[ K ] > 0, stiffness matrix is positive definite

(6.3.5)

Steps involved in the stiffness matrix formulation, when using the principle of the minimum of the
total potential:

1. The polynomial approximation of the displacement field

2. The use of nodal displacements
3. The use of shape functions
4. Strain-displacement -relations applied
5. Stress-strain -relations applied
6. The total potential can be expressed by nodal displacements
Note! Strain energy Wint can be written as follows:

W int =

1
1
{ u} T [ K ]{ u} = {} T { } dV
2
2V

(6.3.6)

7. Necessary condition for minimum (gradient vector = 0):

[ K ]{ u} = { F }

(6.3.7)

Based on the result the stiffness matrix can be written in the integral form

[ K ] = [ B] T [ E ][ B]dV

(6.3.8)

where [B] is the strain-displacement matrix and [E] is the elasticity matrix. A numerical
integration algorithm (Gauss quadrature) has to be utilized in Eq. (6.3.8).

Example 6.3.1: A truss element formulation (minimum of total potential)

Example 6.3.2: A truss element formulation (virtual work)
Example 6.3.3: A beam element formulation (minimum of total potential)
(Example 6.3.4: A Timoshenko beam element formulation (minimum of total potential))
Example 6.3.5: A triangular 2D-solid element formulation (minimum of total potential)
Example 6.3.6: A rectangular 2D-solid element formulation (minimum of total potential)

20
The displacement fields for linear 4-node solids are

u~ ( x , y) = Ax + By + Cxy + D
v~ ( x , y ) = Ex + Fy + Gxy + H

(6.3.9)

And for the triangular element

u~ ( x , y ) = Ax + By + C
v~ ( x , y ) = Dx + Ey + F

(6.3.10)

Similarly, the strains can derived from displacements for rectangular elements

and for triangular elements

u~( x , y )
x =
= A + Cy
x

(6.3.11)

u~ ( x , y )
x =
= A
x

(6.3.12)

Based on the above equations, it can be stated that the x-strains are linear in y for rectangular elements.
Triangular elements have always constant strains and, for that reason, they are not very accurate in FEanalysis. Even rectangular elements may behave bad when subject to pure bending. The bending will
introduce high shear strains, even though they should be zero. Consequently, the element is all too stiff
in bending and its said to be shear locking.

y
x

Figure 6.3.2 Shear locking.

So-called incompatible element is developed to overcome this difficulty.

21

6.4.1 Incompatible element

In general, a linear element is too stiff in bending, i.e. linear displacement field cannot approximate
bending deformation. In order to increase the degree of polynomes used for the displacement fields, socalled nodeless DOFs u5, u6 v5 and v6 can are utilized:

u~ ( x , y ) = Ax + By + Cxy + D + Ex 2 + Fy 2
v~ ( x , y ) = Gx + Hy + Ixy + J + Kx 2 + Ly 2

(6.4.1.1)

or by using the shape functions

u~( x , y ) = N 1 u1 + N 2 u2 + N 3 u3 + N 4 u4 + N 5 u5 + N 6 u6
v~ ( x , y ) = N 1 v1 + N 2 v 2 + N 3 v 3 + N 4 v 4 + N 5 v5 + N 6 v 6

(6.4.1.2)

The nodeless DOFs do not represent displacement values at any specific location, rather the average
values at x = 0 and y = 0..

v4

v3

2a
u4
u6, v6

u3
y
x

v1

u5, v5

u1

2b
v2
u2

Figure 6.4.1.1 An incompatible 2D-sold.

The shape functions, N5 ja N6, corresponding to the nodeless DOFs are often called the extra shape
functions. The derivation of the incompatible element is very similar to the derivation of a linear
element. However, finally the nodeless DOFs have to be eliminated from the stiffness matrix by using
static condensation (Gauss elimination): nodeless DOFs are lacking the physical meaning, and
consequently, no BCs can be applied to them.
For incompatible elements the displacement field at the element edge depends on all DOFs, not only
the DOFs corresponding to that edge. Consequently, gaps may occur between elements, and the
displacement field over the element edge is incompatible. However, this element type behaves better
than the linear one (more flexible, but does not converge monotonically).

Example 6.4.1.1: Incompatible rectangular 2D-solid element formulation (minimum of total

potential)

22

7. Other FEM-related topics

7.1 Numerical integration
The stiffness matrix formulation always involves integration

[ K ] = [ B] T [ E ][ B]dV

(7.1.1)

In most case numerical methods have to be employed. The idea of the numerical integration in 1Dcases can easily be understood by first linking the area A to the value of the integral, Figure 7.1.1.
A=

x1

f ( x)dx

x0

f(x)
y

A
x0

x1

Figure 7.1.1 Integral vs. area.

Next, the area between f(x) and x-axis can be graphically estimated

f(x)
y
A0

x0

x1

x1

A f ( x)dx
0

x0

Figure 7.1.2 Approximation of an integral.

There are many different ways to perform the graphical estimation:

23

Trapezoidal Rule
x1

f (x0 + 12 x) x f (x)dx
x0

f(x)
y

x0

x1 = x0 + x

Figure 7.1.3 Trapezoidal rule by using the mid-value.

An alternative method
x

1
f (x0 ) + f (x1)
x f (x)dx
2
x0

f(x)

x0

x1 = x0 + x

Figure 7.1.4 Trapezoidal rule by using the average of the end values.
Simpson's Rule
The accuracy can be increase by adding points, where the function is evaluated::
x0 + 2 x

x0

f ( x)dx

x
( f ( x0 ) + 4 f ( x0 + x) + f ( x0 + 2x) )
3

The integral can also be divided into smaller areas in order to improve the accuracy:

(7.1.2)

24

Figure 7.1.5 Subdivisions.

Gauss Quadrature
The Gauss integration procedure can be written in the following formula (weighting factor wn,
= width of a rectangular area and value f(xn) = height of a rectangular area)

1
1

f ( x )dx w1 f ( x1 ) + w2 f ( x2 ) + ...+ wn f ( xn )

(7.1.3)

The locations of the sampling points xn (Gauss integration points) are optimized to achieve the
best possible accuracy in integration of polynomials. Polynomial of degree (2n-1) can be
integrated exactly by using n integration points. For integration between -1 and +1 the locations
of the integration points and weighting factors can be tabulated:

Figure 7.1.6 Integration points.

As an example, the use of two integration points, Figure 7.1.7.

25
+1

1 f (

1
3

) + 1 f (+

1
3

f ( x)dx

f(x)

1
3

-1

-0.577

+0.577

+1

Figure 7.1.7 Two integration points.

In Gauss integration the subdivisions are not necessarily equal in width, and the sampling
points are not necessarily in the mid-points of the divisions. A line integral can easily be
extended to areas
+1 +1

1 1

f ( x , y )dxdy

ww
i =1 j =1

(-1,1)

f ( xi , y j )

(7.1.4)

(1,1)

0.577

x
-0.577

(-1,-1)

(1,-1)

-0.577

0.577

Figure 7.1.8 A 2D-integral.

The integration is called full, if the number of integration points corresponds the best
obtainable accuracy. If the number of integration points is less than that, the integration is
called reduced. Sometimes the reduced integration can improve the behavior of the elements.
However, in some cases the reduced integration may introduce so-called zero energy modes.

26

Rectangular shape Free shape

1

2 x 2 (2 x 2)

2x2

Maximum

2x2

3x3

Minimum

2x2

2x2

2 x 2 (3 x 3)

3x3

3x3

4x4

Minimum
Best

Best
Maximum
Figure 7.1.9 Full vs. reduced integration.
7.2 Equivalent nodal forces

In FEM, equilibrium equations are based on nodal forces, and, for that reason, distributed loads (line
loads, pressure loads, etc.) have to be transformed into equivalent nodal forces. Either a direct or
indirect method can be used..

q(x)

M1

M2

F1

F2

Figure 7.2.1 Replacing q(x) by equivalent reaction forces.

In direct method, the distributed load is replaced by the opposite reaction forces. In indirect method,
the distributed load is replaced by nodal forces having the same potential energy (Principle of
minimum of total potential). It is highly recommended to let program to calculate the equivalent nodal
forces, since its very easy for the user to make mistakes even in very simple cases, Figure 7.2.2.

27
F = q ( x) L

F/4

F/4

F/4

F/4

F/6

F/3

F/3

F/6

Figure 7.2.2 Correct equivalent nodal forces?

Example 7.2.1: Calculation of equivalent nodal forces by using both direct and indirect method.
7.3 Stress calculations in FEM
For the plate type structures the total stress (non-linear stress, notch stress) can be divided into three
components, Figure 7.3.1:
A) Membrane stress
The average stress in the thickness direction.
B) Bending stress
Linearized stress in the thickness direction excluding the membrane stress. Bending stress does
not cause any axial force.
C) Non-linear stress peak
Total stress excluding membrane and bending stress. The peak stress does not cause any axial
or bending force.

+
A
Figure 7.3.1 Stress components..

28
In design terms nominal and structural stress are often used.

Nominal stress, i.e the average and global stress, can often be calculated by simple hand
formulas. Local stress concentrations are excluded, however, not macro geometric ones. The
nominal stress is assumed to be constant in the thickness direction, and its distribution cannot
change much when material is subject to yielding
Structural stress includes the nominal stress and the local shell bending (caused by
eccentricity). Also the in-plane stress concentrations are included, and the yielding of structural
stress is relatively local, and consequently, the stress can be re-distributed. The structural stress
equal to the linearized (in thickness direction) total stress.
The total stress is used in design very rarely.
It has to be emphasized that stress accuracy and stress categories obtained from the analysis depends
on the element types used in calculations. For instance, shell elements can capture only linear stress
distribution in the thickness direction as well as one layer of solid elements. This feature is often used
in the analysis, if only structural stress has to be studied. Similarly, if only nominal stress is needed in
design, one should avoid too fine element mesh.
The stress values can be derived from the assumed displacement field of each element. If each node is
read an individual value, the term nodal stress is used. If each element only the average stress value is
retrieved, the term element stress is to be used., Figure 7.3.2.

1
2

1
2
1

3
3

Figure 7.3.2 Nodal vs. element stresses.

Since each element produces a different value for the common node, these values are normally
averaged in the post-processor, Figure 7.3.3.

29
22
2 =

12 + 22
2

21

2
2

Figure 7.3.3 Averaged stresses..

The peak stress occurs normally in the local discontinuities. However, due to the averaging procedure
it may seem that the highest value is located somewhere else (= averaging error), Figure 7.3.4.

true

FEM
3
1

Figure 7.3.4 Averaging error.

Normally, the averaging is performed in the FEM-programs among the elements that are active
(selected) at that moment. By unselecting some of the elements the error may be corrected, Figure
7.3.5.

FEM true

3
1

Figure 7.3.5 Unselecting elements..

In FE-modelling the real geometry is somewhat simplified, i.e the discontinuities are modelled having

30
sharp corners. In such locations the stress is infinitely high, i.e .singular. In real structures singular
stress cannot occur. However, in FE-analysis these false stress values can be obtained quite often.

L0

true
R=0

Figure 7.3.6 Singular stress.

The nodal stresses could be read directly at the nodes. However, more accurate results can be obtained,
if the stresses are first read at the integration points and then linearly extrapolated to the corner nodes,
Figure 7.3.7.

FEM

true
lin. ext.
Figure 7.3.7 Extrapolated stresses.
In the most FE-programs the linear extrapolation is used regardless of the degree of the assumed
displacement filed.

31

8. Errors in FEM
Errors can be divided into two categories: errors in modelling (human errors), and errors based on the
method itself or the numerical procedures used in the analysis.

8.1. Typical Errors in Modelling

Rigid body motion can occur
The reason for the rigid body motion, i.e singular stiffness matrix, is most often caused by
missing or improper BCs.
Coincident nodes
Overlapping nodes are very difficult to see visually. However, in most programs there are
commands for merging coincident nodes within certain distance.
Element mesh is too coarse
With a coarse mesh accurate stress results are impossible to capture.
Element mesh is too fine
Too high number of elements makes the calculations and post-processing very slow. In
addition, some times even too accurate stresses can be obtained (nominal vs. total stress).
Wrong type of simplifications are made (geometry, BCs)
Many times some simplifications have to be made, and as a result, the element model may
behave in totally wrong way. The users has to make sure that the simplifications are
conservative.
Wrong type of FE-model for a particular analysis
For instance, for design tasks proper stress components have to be obtainable from the analysis.
Wrong interpretation of results (singular stress, nodal/element stress, etc.)
Many times singular stresses may mislead the user. Also the averaging error may cause wrong
interpretation of the results.
- Errors in units
Very common type of error. In some analysis only meters and Newtons can be used (vibrations).
- Other human errors
This list is endless.
8.2 FEM-based errors
Displacement field approximated
Due to the approximative nature of FEM the behavior of an element model is never quite
correct. In addition with the displacement field also other simplifications are applied. (Eulers

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beam theory, linear material models, etc.)

Secondary results (stresses) obtained from the primary results (displacements)

For the above reason displacements are more accurate than stresses, and additionally, values of
the results can be too high or too low even with a coarse element model.
Incorrect geometry by element discretization
The geometry is always simplified (arcs, holes, etc.). However, so-called isoparametric
formulation corrects this thing in some cases. For some element types only the overall behavior
and results can be captured, since idealization into beam and shell elements simplifies, for
instance, the geometry of the connections.
Numerical errors
There are many reason for numerical errors: problems with stress calculations (nodal stress,
elements stress, stress averaging). It has to be noted that the stiffness matrix formulation
requires numerical integration in most cases. In addition, if an iterative solution technique is
used, there is an additional error in the results. Also computers make some round-off errors.
Still, it can be stated that the results do converge towards to the correct values when the element size
gets smaller.