FPE Theory

5 .
T H E TR A N SONIC FU LL PO TE N TI A L EQ U AT I O N
Preliminary Remarks
In this chapter we will study techniques for solving the full potential equation
(FPE) without making the small disturbance assumptions made in the previous two
chapters. The FPE form is the more common form used in the aircraft industry, in view
of the fact that the supercritical wing sections are thick. The full potential form also
allows interference from adjoining components such as fuselage, nacelle etc. to be
modeled without assuming that such interference effects are small.
The FPE equation in quasi-linear form is given as follows:
(a 2 u 2 ) xx 2uv xy + (a 2 v2 ) yy = 0
(5.1)
where is the (full) potential, u and v are the Cartesian components of velocity and a is
the speed of sound.
The above equation is a nonlinear second order partial differential equation for .
In order to determine the equation type (i.e. elliptic, parabolic or hyperbolic), the
following characteristic equation is usually examined:
dy 2
dy
A + B + C = 0
dx
dx
(5.2)
Here dy/dx is the slope of a characteristic line at a given point, and
A = a 2 u2
B = 2 uv
C = a 2 v2
Solving for dy/dx, we get
dy uv a u 2 + v 2 a 2
=
dx
a 2 u2
(5.3)
48
1995, L.N. Sankar and M. J. Smith, Advanced Compressible Flow II , Georgia Institute of Technology
If the flow speed is greater than the speed of sound, it is clear that the
characteristic slope given by equation (5.3) is a real number. In such a situation, (Mach
number M greater than 1), the FPE is hyperbolic. If M is less than 1, no real
characteristics exist, and the FPE is called elliptic. At sonic points, where M=1, only one
characteristic exists, and the FPE is said to be parabolic.
In supersonic regions, we can manipulate equation (5.3) to arrive at an
equivalent expression involving the slope of the flow velocity and the Mach angle :
dy
= tan( )
dx
where,
v
1
= arctan ; = arcsin
u
M
(5.4)
These two characteristic slopes may be graphically interpreted as the edges of

the Mach cone, drawn symmetrically about the velocity vector as shown below:
V
P
x
The point P will be influenced only by what takes place within the shaded area
within the Mach cone upstream of the point P, whenever the flow is supersonic. In
subsonic flow, on the other hand, the entire domain surrounding a point P will influence
it. Note that the characteristic lines are symmetric about the velocity vector V, and not
about the x- axis. You may recall that in the case of the TSD equation, the characteristic
lines were symmetric with respect to the x- axis.
Any numerical scheme used to solve the full potential equation for must satisfy
the domain of dependence in both the subsonic and supersonic regions. Since the
49
characteristic lines are no longer symmetric about the x-axis, a simple shift of the xderivatives upstream is no longer adequate. This point is illustrated in the figure below:
y
V
x
TSD Equation
FPE Equation
Thus, in general, both the x- and y- derivative terms must be properly shifted
when solving the full potential equation, whether in the quasi-linear form or the
divergence form. Recall that the divergence form of the full potential equation is given
by,
( x )x + ( y )y = 0
where,
1
2 1
u +v
1 2
M 1
= 1 +

2
V2
(5.5)
The precise manner in which both the x- and y-derivatives must be shifted in
supersonic regions was discovered by Jameson (Communications in Pure and Applied
Mathematics , Vol. 27, 1974, pp 283-309). Jameson's technique is called a "rotated
difference scheme" and will shift the x- and y-derivatives correctly so that the numerical
and physical domain of dependence coincide, regardless of the local flow direction.
50
Jameson's Rotated Difference Scheme

For the purpose of discussing Jameson's scheme, we will work with the quasilinear form of the FPE. Eventually, the divergence form of the FPE will be solved. The
divergence form is preferred because it conserves mass in a numerical sense.
The first step in arriving at Jameson's rotated difference scheme is to re-express
the quasi-linear form (5.1) in a new, Cartesian coordinate system s-n, where the s- axis
is aligned with the flow direction, and n-axis is normal to it:
y
s
Streamline
Note that the new coordinate system is Cartesian coordinate system, and not a
curvilinear coordinate system that is always aligned with the flow. In other words, the
angle between the x-axis and s-axis, equal to the flow angle is a constant in our
discussions below, and is not a function of s.
The s and n ordinates are related to the x and y coordinates by the following
transformation:
s = x cos + y sin
n = y cos x sin
and,
x = s cos n sin
y = s sin + n cos
(5.6)
Then, we can express the derivatives with respect to x and y etc. in terms of s and n as
follows:
51
s n

=
+
=
cos
sin
n
x s x n x s
s n

=
+
=
sin +
cos
n
y s y n y s
And,
2
=
=
cos
sin
cos
sin
n
n
x 2 x x s
= cos 2
2
2
2
+
cos
sin
sin
2
sn
s 2
n 2
Also,
2
2
2
= cos 2 + 2 cos sin
+ sin 2
sn
n
y 2
n
=
cos sin
sin + cos
s
xy s
n
n
(5.7)
With these relations, and using the fact that cos is simply u/q and sin is v/q,
the quasi-linear form of the FPE may be expressed as:
(a 2 q 2 )ss + a 2 nn = 0
(5.8)
It may easily be shown that equation (5.8) is elliptic in subsonic regions (where
a > q), and hyperbolic in supersonic regions (where a < q). Thus, our equation
character has not been fundamentally altered by our coordinate transformation. It may
also be shown that the characteristic lines are of slope tan(), and are symmetric
about the s- axis.
Exercise 5.1:
Show that the characteristics of equation (5.8) are real in
supersonic flow, and are symmetric about the s- axis.
Jameson argued that only the terms that contribute to ss need be shifted
upstream, in the direction of the flow vector, in supersonic regions. The term involving
52
nn need not be shifted. This is similar to the Murman-Cole scheme for the TSD
equation in chapter IV, where we shifted the Px derivative upstream, but modeled Qy
using a symmetric, unshifted form. To apply Jameson's scheme, we need to
a)
b)
c)
Identify the terms in the quasilinear form that contribute to ss and nn

Shift only the terms that contribute to ss, in the direction of the flow,
Collect the ss and nn terms
Identification of terms that contribute to ss and nn: These terms are easily found from
(5.6) as follows:
x y
=
+
= cos + sin
s x s y s
x
y
=
u v
+
q x q y
u v u v
=
=
+
+
s 2 s s q x q y q x q y
u2 2
uv 2
v2 2
+
= 2 2 +2 2
q x
q xy q 2 y 2
Likewise,
2
u2 2
uv 2
v2 2
=
2 2
+
n 2 q 2 y 2
q xy q 2 x 2
(5.9)
Using the operators given in equation (5.9) we can write (5.8) as
2 2
uv 2 v 2 2
2 u
a q 2 2 +2 2
+
+
q xy q 2 y 2
q x
2 u
uv 2 v 2 2
a 2 2 2 2
+ 2 2=0
y
q
y
q
q x
(5.10)
Rotated Differences in Supersonic Flow: Now, consider a typical node (i,j). For the sake
of simplicity, let us assume that we are solving the quasilinear form of the full potential
equation (5.1) on a uniform grid (x = constant, y = constant). If the flow is subsonic (q
53
< a), every term in equation (5.10), or in our original equation (5.1) will be computed
symmetrically, using finite difference formulas such as
xx i, j
yy
i, j
xy
i, j
i +1, j 2 i, j + i 1, j
x 2
i, j+1 2 i, j + i, j1
y 2
i +1, j+1 i +1, j1 i 1, j+1 + i 1, j1
4 xy
(5.11)
These finite difference expressions may be derived by expanding i,j about its
neighboring points using a Taylor series.
If the flow is supersonic (q > a), then the xx, xy and yy terms appearing within
ss must be shifted in the direction of the flow, while the terms appearing in nn must be
symmetrically differenced using equation (5.11). For example, if u>0 and v>0 at a node
(i,j) we will use the following form:
a2 q2
u2
2 uv
v2
xx i 1, j
xy i 1 / 2, j1 / 2
yy i, j1
i, j q 2
q2
q2
2 uv
v2
2 u
+ a i, j 2 yy 2 xy + 2 yy = 0
i, j
i, j q
i, j
q
q
(5.12)
Equation (5.12) sums up Jameson's recipe in supersonic regions for u>0, v>0.
We can change this expression for changes in the direction of the velocity easily. For
example, if u < 0, then the xx and xy derivatives are computed at (i+1,j) and (i+1/2,j1/2) rather than (i-1,j) and (i-1/2,j-1/2).
Jameson;'s rotated difference scheme has been used in two popular computer
codes, FLO6 and FLO22. The FLO6 code solves the quasilinear form of full potential
equation for lifting transonic flow past an airfoil. The FLO22 code solves lifting transonic
flow past general swept, tapered wings of finite aspect ratio.
54
Extension of Jameson's Rotated Difference Scheme to Divergence

Form of the Full Potential equation:
We are interested in numerically solving the full potential equation in divergence
form, because it conserves mass in a numerical sense whereas the quasilinear form
does not. In this section, we discuss how Jameson's ideas may be extended to the
divergence form of the full potential equation.
Our starting point is equation (5.12). We note that the various derivatives of that
constitute ss may be expanded about the node (i,j).
( xx )i 1, j ( xx )i, j x( xxx )i, j
( yy )i, j1 ( yy )i, j y( yyy )i, j
( xy )i1 / 2, j1 / 2 ( xy )i, j 2x ( xxy )i, j 2y ( xyy )i, j
(5.13)
If we use these expressions in equation (5.12), after some algebra, we obtain
[(a
(
) ]i , j
u 2 xx 2 uv xy + a 2 v 2 yy
a q
u2
v2
uv
uv
2
2
x 2 xxx + 2 xxy a q
y 2 yyy + 2 xyy = 0
i, j
i, j
q
q
q
i, j
q
i, j
(5.14)
In other words, Jameson's rotated scheme is simply our original PDE (5.1) solved
at the node (i,j) using symmetrical formulas (the set of terms within the first square
bracket in 5.14) plus some additional "artificial" terms required in supersonic flow.
If you multiply (5.14) by /a2, it can be shown that the set of terms within the first
square bracket reduce to our divergence form. In other words, equation (5.14) when
multiplied by /a2 is simply,
55
( x )x + ( y )y +
a2
x uu xx + vu xy
v
+ 2 y uv xy + vv yy = 0
a
where,
=
q2 a2
q2
=1
1
M2
(5.15)
The first two terms in equation (5.15) arise out of physical considerations, namely
conservation of mass. The third and fourth terms are artificial, and are there only to
make the numerical scheme stable, and obey the physical domain of dependence.
Since these additional terms are artificial, they need not be handled with the
same rigor and care as the first two terms. In particular, we can move x- and yderivative operations within these artificial terms around, and replace equation (5.15)
with the following form:
( x )x + ( y )y + ux
uu + vu y )
2( x
a
+ v 2 y uv x + vv y = 0
y
x a
(5.16)
The reason for bringing the x- and y-derivative operations outside the square
bracket is to express these artificial terms also in divergence form.
Finally, we simplify some of the expressions in (5.16) using the u- and vmomentum equations:
2
uu x + vu y =
1 p
1 dp
a
=
=
x
d x
x
Likewise,
uv x + vv y =
Since,
a 2
1 p
1 dp
=
=
y
d y
y
[ ]
dp d C
p
= C 1 = = RT = a 2
=
d
d
(5.17)
56
Using equations (5.17) in (5.16) we obtain the following divergence form of the
Jameson's rotated difference equations:
y) = 0
( x )x + (
y
where,
= x x
= y y
(5.18)
The quantities and are known as retarded densities, or biased densities.

They are simply physical densities, modified by a density gradient term. The factor is
set to be zero in subsonic regions and equation (5.18) reduces to our original
divergence form (5.5). The factor is set to 1- 1/M2 in supersonic regions.
Numerical Solution of the
Transonic Flow over Airfoils:
Full
Potential
Equation
for
Lifting
We next discuss how equation (5.18) may be solved to compute steady transonic
flow past thick airfoils at an angle of attack. As in the case of the TSD equation, the
numerical solution involves the following steps:
(a)
Grid generation, where a set of nodes are chosen surrounding the airfoil. The
FPE is to be solved at these nodes.
(b)
Discretization, where the FPE is converted into a system of coupled nonlinear
algebraic equations,
(c)
Relaxation or iterative solution, where the algebraic equations developed in step
(b) are iteratively solved, and
(d)
Post-processing, where the surface pressure distribution and the airloads are
computed and printed out.
We consider these four steps of the numerical solution in detail.
57
Grid Generation:
In the case of the TSD equation, we applied the boundary
conditions on a slit, parallel to the x- axis. Thus, the grid generation was simple, and a
stretched Cartesian grid system was found to be adequate. In the case of the full
potential equation, the boundary conditions will have to be applied at the actual surface
of the airfoil. A Cartesian grid shown below is not convenient, because the nodes near
the airfoil may not have 4 nodes surrounding it that are outside the airfoil geometry.
these nodes will require special logic, and a search procedure will be needed to identify
these nodes.
In most computer codes, a curvilinear grid is used, composed of two family of

lines that are nearly orthogonal to each other. One of these lines belonging to one of
these two families wraps around the airfoil. For this reason, these grids are called bodyfitted grids. The process by which such grids are generated is called numerical grid
generation. Grid generation techniques are a well-developed field of computational
aerodynamics. Body-fitted grids may be generated around 3-D configurations, as well
as 2-D configurations.
For the two-dimensional flow problem, three grid topologies are popular: the OGrid, C-grid and H-grid. These grid topologies are so-named because of the shape of
their physical boundaries. In each of these grids, there are a series of coordinate lines,
, which wrap themselves around the airfoil. The other coordinate lines, , extend
outward from the airfoil to the outer boundary lines. Examples of each of these grids
are shown on the following pages. These grids are known as curvilinear or body-fitted
grids because the grid lines curve to fit the airfoil contour. In order to solve our present
applications, the grid system does not need to be orthogonal, that is, they need not be
58
perpendicular at all of their intersections. Better numerical results will be generated with
near-orthogonal grids, however, because the grid cells will not be as skewed.
These grids may be generated by any convenient method, including manual
construction. The only concrete requirement is that the grid should be smooth, without
kinks or discontinuities anywhere except at the boundaries. This is called C-0 (CZero) continuity. The grid should also be reasonably fine near the body so that the
rapid rise in the suction pressure and any shocks can be captured accurately.
Most modern grid generation techniques use one of three methods to construct
these grids: conformal mapping techniques, solution of partial differential equations
which control the interior grid, and algebraic techniques.
In the conformal mapping technique, the airfoil is first mapped onto a regular
geometry, say a circular cylinder, using the analytical transformation z=f(), where
z=x+iy and =rei. The concentric circles and radial lines in the circular plane are then
mapped back onto -lines and -lines in the physical plane. One of the most efficient
procedures for mapping airfoils into circles is described by Bauer, Garabedian, Korn
and Jameson in the book Supercritical Wing Sections II (Springer Verlag, 1975).
The partial differential equations approach was made popular by Thompson,
Thames and Mastin (Journal of Computational Physics, 1974 and Numerical Grid
Generation , North-Holland, 1985). In their approach, they first assume a point
distribution on the airfoil and the far-field boundary, for example an O-grid.
59
Close-Up of a NACA0012 Surrounded by an O-Grid
A NACA0012 Airfoil Surrounded by a C-Grid
60
An H-Grid Surrounding a NACA0012 Airfoil

Then the and lines are assumed to be governed by the relationship
xx + yy = P
xx + yy = Q
where P and Q are certain user-defined functions used to control the grid clustering
near the body.
The above equations may be transformed to give the following elliptic equations
for x and y:
x + 2x + x = P1
y + 2y + y = Q1
where = x 2 + y 2
= -x x y y , = x 2 + y 2 and P 1, Q1 are functions of P, Q
and other metric terms such as x, x, y, y, and J.

The above partial differential equations are iteratively solved for x and y, given
the Dirichlet boundary conditions at the airfoil surface and the far-field. Along the cuts,
the values of x and y may be either fixed or determined from the above equations. Note
61
that any one of the relaxation procedures (SLOR, for example) learnt in the previous
chapter may be used to solve iteratively for x and y.
The reason for using the Laplacian operator in the determination of and was
that the Laplace equation (e.g. 2 = 0 ) satisfies the maximum principle. That is, can
reach the maximum value only at the boundary if 2 = 0 . This ensures that -lines will
not cross each other. The Poisson equations for and also satisfy the maximum
principle, provided the function P and Q are not large.
The Thompson-Thames-Mastin approach may be used to construct C-grids, Hgrids and other type of grids around single and multi-element airfoils, three-dimensional
geometries, etc. For this reason, this approach is widely used in the industry today.
The third approach for the construction of the body-fitted grids is the algebraic
approach. This approach is very fast compared with the previous two approaches.
Each of these grid types have advantages and disadvantages. The O-grid
makes the best use of the grid nodes since all of the nodes are directly located on the
airfoil surface. The C-grid and H-grid require more nodes to map the same airfoil
since they must map the wake cut, and in the case of the H-grid, the upstream flow, with
additional points. C- and H-grids are more easily combined with other component
grids to form multi-component grids.
Each of these grids are transformed to the numerical plane using the same
methodology. However, the physical boundaries map differently in the numerical plane,
so we must take care in applying the boundary conditions in the numerical solution. For
each of the grids, a cut must be made to connect the airfoil surface to the outer
boundary. Since there is only one component, only one cut is necessary. This is called
a singly-connected system. The cut is usually applied in the wake, most often along the
same line that the circulation is applied. This cut is known as the wake cut or the vortex
sheet cut.
For an O-grid, the wake cut lies along an -line (j=1,JMAX) where the i=1 and
i=IMAX lines coincide. Along the -line along the surface (j=1), the solid surface
boundary condition is applied. The outer boundary (j=JMAX) has the Dirichlet boundary
conditions applied for the upstream, lateral and downstream boundaries.
62
Dirichlet
B.C.
J=JMAX
Lower Vortex
Sheet Cut
Upper Vortex
Sheet Cut
Solve Governing Equations

for the interior and along the
sides for the vortex sheet boundaries
J=1
I=1
I=IMAX
Airfoil Surface
For a C-grid, the wake cut unwraps the grid so that the airfoil and wake lie along
the constant -line (j=1). The i=1 and i=IMAX lines (constant -lines) are now the
outflow boundaries where the Dirichlet boundary conditions are applied. The outer
boundary (j=JMAX) has the Dirichlet boundary conditions applied for the upstream and
lateral boundaries.
Dirichlet
B.C.
J=JMAX
Dirichlet
B.C.
I=ITEU
I=ITEL
J=1
Dirichlet
B.C.

lower vortex sheet boundaries
I=1 Lower Vortex

Sheet Cut
Airfoil Surface
Upper Vortex I=IMAX

Sheet Cut
For an H-grid, the mapping can be done in two ways. The first way maps the grid
similarly to the O-grid. The other method involves breaking the grid into two parts, as
shown below. An =constant line which breaks apart to form the upper and lower
surfaces of the airfoil acts as an interface between the upper and lower airfoil sections.
The solid surface and wake cut boundary conditions are applied along this -line. The
63
lateral boundaries are located at the j=1 and j=JMAX lines, while the upstream and
downstream boundaries are applied at the i=1 and i=IMAX lines.
Dirichlet
B.C.
J=JMAX
Dirichlet
B.C.
Dirichlet
B.C.

interface boundaries
I=ITE
I=ILE
Airfoil Upper Surface

I=1
Airfoil Lower Surface
Vortex Sheet
I=IMAX

interface boundaries
J=1
Dirichlet
B.C.
Transformation of the Governing Equation from the Cartesian

Coordinate System (x ,y) to the Curvilinear Coordinate System (,):
Consider the O- grid generated around an airfoil, generated using the O-Grid
generator computer program distributed in the class. The O- grid lines that wrap around
the airfoil may be viewed as a family of lines = constant, while the radial lines that
originate at the airfoil and end up at the far field boundary may be viewed as a family of
lines = constant. Then, we can assume that our physical plane (x,y) has been
transformed into a computational plane (,) as shown below. Notice that this
transformation is purely numerical. There is no analytical relationship linking these two
planes. Also notice that each and every grid point in the physical plane maps onto a
unique point in the transformed plane.
64
(IMAX-1,JMAX)
(2,2)
Coordinate Cut
(IMAX-1,2)
In the transformed plane, the airfoil surface maps onto the bottom-most line,
while the far field boundary maps onto the top-most line. We have to introduce a cut in
the physical plane from the trailing edge to the far field boundary in order to arrive at a
simply connected domain in the physical plane. The bottom side of this cut maps onto
the left most boundary of our transformed plane, while the top side of this cut maps onto
the right most boundary of our transformed plane.
We will identify each and every node in the physical plane (or the transformed
plane by a two index (i,j) system. The node on the lower-left corner of the computational
domain is given an index (2,2) for an O-grid (This would be (1,1) for an H-grid). The
node to its right is given the index (3,2), the node above is given the index (2,3) and so
on. The node on the top-right corner of the computational plane is given the index
(IMAX-1,JMAX). Note that this is simply a convenient way of labeling these nodes.
We can now view derivatives of any quantity in the physical plane as
= x
+ x
x
= y
+ y
y
(5.19)
Here, x, x, y and y are known as the metrics of transformation that must be

somehow computed. Since we do not have any analytical relationship linking the
65
physical plane (x,y) with the transformed plane (,), these metrics must be numerically
computed.
Since and are functions of (x,y) we can write
d = x dx + y dy
d = x dx + y dy
Or,
d x
=
d x
y dx
y dy
(5.20)
Likewise, since x and y are functions of and , we can write
dx = x d + x d
dy = y d + y d
Or,
dx x
= y
dy
x d
y d
Comparing (5.20) and (5.21) we can state
x
Or,
x =
y =
y =
x =
y x
=
y y
y
x y x y
x
x y x y
x
x y x y
y
x y x y
(5.21)
x 1
y
= Jy
= Jx
= Jx
= Jy
(5.22)
66
The quantity J is called the Jacobian of transformation, and is interpreted as the

ratio of the area of an infinitesimal element surrounding the node (i,j) in the (,) plane
to the area of its image in the (x,y) plane.
Given (5.22), we can now find numerically the metrics of transformation at any
node (i,j) as follows:
(a) Compute the quantities x, x, y and y at an interior node (i,j) as follows:
x =
y =
x =
y =
x i +1, j x i 1, j
2
y i +1, j y i 1, j
2
x i, j+1 x i, j1
2
y i, j+1 y i, j1
2
(5.23)
Since the transformed plane is created to make our job easy, we can assume
that the nodes in the transformed plane are placed uniformly, and that the grid spacing
= = 1. For boundary points, you would apply one-sided differences rather than
central differences.
(b) Find the metrics x, x etc. and the Jacobian J from (5.22).
Computation of the Metrics at the Half-Node
For the sake of illustration, let us consider the point (i+1/2,j), shown in the figure below:
67
i,j+1
i,j
( )
At this point, x 1 =
i+ 2 , j
x i+1, j x i, j
i+1,j+1
X i+1,j
= x i+1, j x i, j and similarly, y = y i+1, j y i, j .
In order to compute the values at the half point (i+1/2,j) for , the average of the
derivatives at the points i+1 and i should be taken :
(x )i+ , j = 12 (x )i+1, j + (x )i, j = 12

1
2
x i+1, j+1 x i+1, j1

2
x i, j+1 x i, j1
and y is similarly defined.

Exercise:
(i,j+1/2).
Show how the metrics may be computed at the half-node
68
Metrics at the Boundaries

The metrics for the nodes in the interior grid have been defined. But what happens
when there is no i-1 or i+1 node? The above metrics equations are no longer useful.
Consider the point (i+1/2,j) located on the body surface:
i+1/2,j
At this point x is still (xi+1,j - xi,j). y is also the same as before. But x cannot be
defined as it was previously since the grid stops at the body surface. For these points,
we can use the Taylor series to derive one-sided expansions for these points. For
example,
(x )i+1, j = 12 (4xi+1, j+1 3xi+1, j xi+1, j+2 )

Once the metrics for the full points (i+1,j) and (i,j) are known, the metrics at the halfnodes can be computed using averaging, as was performed for the interior nodes.
1
( 4 x i +1, j+1 3x i +1, j x i +1, j+ 2 ) about the point (i+1,j)
2
using the Taylor series and show that the above expression
approximates x at (i+1,j) to second order accuracy.
Exercise:
Expand
Once all of the metrics is computed, the flowfield variables which use these conversions
may be calculated. Since these terms are used often, it is convenient to compute the 4
metrics and the Jacobian at the two half points (i+1/2,j) and (i,j+1/2) once and store
them in an array for easy reference. Thus, at each node, ten values for the metric
conversion are required.
69
Computation of the Governing Equation Variables

We are now ready to transform our governing equation, i.e. the divergence form of the
FPE from the physical plane to the transformed plane. In order that the transformation
techniques we learn may be applied to other partial differential equations (e.g.
incompressible viscous flow, heat conduction etc.), let us consider a very general
equation
F G
+
=0
x y
(5.24)
Many physical phenomena may be expressed in the above form, where F and G
are appropriately defined. In our specific case, F = u and G = v.
We can express the x- and y- derivatives in (5.24) as - and - derivatives using
chain rule.
F x + F x + G y + G y = 0
(5.25)
Equation (5.25) is known as the weak conservation form. It is not in divergence
form because the metrics that vary from node to node lie outside the derivatives. We
need to bring these metrics within the - and - derivatives somehow.
Multiplying (equation (5.25) by 1/J and using relations given in (5.22), we get
F y F y G x + G x = 0
(5.26)
We next use integration by parts, to express Fy as (Fy) - Fy. The other
terms in equation (5.26) may similarly be integrated by parts. Assembling all the terms,
and grouping the terms that belong within the and derivatives together we can
show:
70
(Fy Gx ) + (Fy + Gx ) = 0
Or,
F x + G y
Fx + Gy
+
=0
J
J

(5.27)
Equation (5.27) is known as the strong conservation form of our original equation
because the metrics have been brought within the derivative, and the entire equation is
in divergence form.
In our specific case, F = u and G = v. In this case, equation (5.27) becomes
U + V = 0
J J
(5.28)
where U and V are contravariant components of velocity, given by
U = u x + v y
V = ux + vy
(5.29)
Boundary Conditions
Just as the governing equation was expressed in the transformed plane (,), it is also
necessary to express the boundary conditions in the transformed plane. This may be
accomplished in the following manner:
Solid Surface Boundary Condition : At the solid surface, the flow must be tangential to
the surface. As mentioned in the previous chapter, this means
v y dy
=
=
u x dx solid
71
Since dy=yd+yd and dx=xd+xd where d=0 on the solid, we get
v y
=
u x
or
uy vx = 0
J uy vx = 0
ux + vy = 0
V=0
Thus, at the solid surface, the contravariant component of velocity V equals 0.
Since
= + qx
where q = 1
x = x + 1 = x + x + 1
and
y = y = y + y
Thus the condition at the solid surface becomes
V = x x + y y
= x x + y y + 2x + 2y + x
=0
or
=
[ (
x x + y y + x
2x + 2y
at the solid.
Note that the grid need not be orthogonal at the boundary.
72
Far-field Boundary Condition: For the sake of simplicity, let us assume that the flow is
subsonic at infinity. We also restrict our consideration to closed two-dimensional
geometries such as airfoils.
For nonlifting flows, if the far-field boundary is reasonably far away from the body, the
flow is undisturbed. Then, the velocity potential is given by =x or =0. If the airfoil
generates lift, the circulation around the airfoil is given by . This may be viewed by
the farfield as a single vortex of strength . The farfield boundary condition for lifting
flows is then
=x+
y
tan 1 1 M 2
2
x
or
=
tan 1 1 M 2
y
x
We next consider supersonic freestream conditions. The far-field boundary may be

divided into the a) inflow boundary and the b) outflow boundary. These two sections of
the far-field boundary are shown for a typical body-fitted coordinate system (C-grid)
below:
73
Outflow
Boundary
Inflow Boundary
At the inflow boundary, for supersonic freestreams, the disturbances are zero. Thus
=x or =0 is the correct boundary condition. Note that the disturbances generated by
the body can not travel upstream in supersonic flows and thus influence the boundary
conditions.
At the downstream boundary, the governing equation itself may be applied in
quasilinear form.
Discretization of the Governing Equation
(5.30)
Thus far we have addressed issues such as how a body-fitted grid may be
constructed, how the metrics may be numerically computed, and how the boundary
conditions may be updated at the four boundaries of the computational plane. We now
discuss how equation (5.30) may be discretized (i.e. converted into a nonlinear
algebraic equation for ) at a typical node (i,j).
74
(i,j+1)
(i+1,j)
(i,j)
(i,j-1)
(i-1,j)
Consider the node (i,j) and its four surrounding half-nodes (i+1/2,j), (i-1/2,j),
(i,j+1/2) and (i,j-1/2) shown in the above figure. Using an approach similar to what was
done in the TSD theory, we can discretize equation (5.30) as follows:
U
U
J i +1 / 2, j
J i 1 / 2, j
V
V
J i, j+1 / 2
J i, j1 / 2
+
=0
(5.43)
It must be noted that the spacing = = 1 for convenience.

The various components of the above equation may be evaluated if we know the
disturbance potential and the grid (x,y) at all the interior and boundary nodes.
Consider for example the term U/J in (5.43). This term may be computed at the half
node (i+1/2,j) as follows.
a) We first compute the metrics at the half node (i+1/2,j).
75
x i +1, j x i, j
= x i +1, j x i, j
y y i +1, j y i, j
x
y
J
x i +1, j+1 x i +1, j1 + x i, j+1 x i, j1

1
x
+ x =
i, j
2 i +1, j
4
y i +1, j+1 y i +1, j1 + y i, j+1 y i, j1
4
1
x y x y
x = Jy
y = Jx
x = Jy
y = Jx
(5.44)
(b)
We next compute the Cartesian components of velocity (u,v), the contravariant
component of velocity U, the density and the Mach number M at the half point
(i+1/2,j):
u = u + x = V cos + x + x
v = v + y = V sin + y + y
a 2 = a 2 +
1 2
u + v 2 u 2 v 2
2
where,
a = V / M and V = 1
1
2
a 1
=
a 2
where = 1
2
M =
u2 + v2
a2
U = u x + v y
(5.45)
76
(c)
When the density and the Mach number M are available at all the half nodes
(i+1/2,j), (i-1/2,j) etc. we bias the density at the half node (i+1/2,j) as follows:
If U >0 bias density towards (i-1/2,j)
(i+3/2,j)
(i+1/2,j)
(i-1/2,j)
If U < 0, bias density towards

(i+3/2, j)
If U > 0
2
i +1 / 2, j = i +1 / 2, j Max 0,1 2
i +1 / 2, j i 1 / 2, j
2
M i +1 / 2, j + M i 1 / 2, j
)
(5.46)
else
2
i +1 / 2, j = i +1 / 2, j + Max 0,1 2
i +3 / 2, j i +1 / 2, j
2
M i +1 / 2, j + M i +3 / 2, j
(d)
The quantity U / J is next assembled.
(e)
Finally, compute and save the quantity x + y / J at the half point (i+1/2,j).
This quantity will be needed later, when we solve (5.43) by an iterative process.
Computation of the remaining terms in equation (5.43) is done in a similar
fashion, using the five-step process (a)-(e) described above. When computing V/J at
2
2
(i,j1/2), be sure to save the quantity x + y / J at these two half points, as this
information is later needed.

Exercise: Describe how V/J will be computed at (i,j1/2)
77
Computation of Densities and Contravariant Velocities

For the sake of illustration, lets take another look at the node (i+1/2,j). The computation
of the quantities at the other three half-nodes are similar.
In this discussion, we use the reduced potential while computing the densities and the
velocities. Note that u=x+1 and v=y for this examination. Therefore,
u 1 = x
i+ , j
2
1 +1
i+ , j
2
= x + x 1 + 1
i+ , j
2
The above expression requires , , x , x at the half-node point (i+1/2,j). We have

already discussed computation of x and x at half-node points. Thus we need to look
at only the computation of and at the point (i+1/2,j).
The point (i+1/2,j) may be located in the interior of the grid, on the body surface or on
the coordinate cut (vortex sheet), as seen in the figure below. Each one of these points
must be handled with a different method.
i+1/2,j
X
X
i+1/2,j
X
i+1/2,j
At all of these points, is computed in an identical manner. At these points
( )i+ 1, j = i+1, j + i, j
2
78
i,j+1X
i,j X
i+1,j+1
X i+1,j
Differences arise only in the way that values are computed.

At an interior point, is computed in the same manner as x or y is computed. Thus,
( )i+ 1 , j = 12 i+1, j + i, j
2
1
i +1, j+1 i +1, j1 + i, j+1 i, j1
4
We now consider the point (i+1/2,j) on the vortex sheet. For a C-grid, this will
correspond to a j=1, and i>ITEU and i<ITEL. Across the sheet, is discontinuously a
value , where is the circulation. This discontinuity may be removed in the calculation
for . For an O-Grid, is written as
( )i+1, j = i+1,JU ( i+1,JL + )

( )i, j = i,JU ( i,JL + )
For a C-grid, is
( )ITEU+i+11, = ITEU+i+11, ( ITELi11, + )

( )ITEU+i,1 = ITEU+i,1 ( ITELi,1 + )
79
I=ITEU
I=ITEU+2
J=2
X
X
J=1
J=2
I=ITEL-2
I=ITEL
( )
Knowing these two quantities, i + 1 , j may be computed.

2
Consider next the point (i+1/2,j) on the surface boundary.
i+1/2,j
We can compute from one-sided Taylor series expansions as done in the
( )
calculations of x and y . But a more satisfactory way of computing i + 1 , j is to

2
use the boundary condition V=0 at (i+1/2,j). Thus,
V i+ 1 , j = u i+ 1 , jx 1 + v i+ 1 , jy 1 = 0
2
2
2
i+ ,j
i+ ,j
2
Or
x x + y y + x
1 =
2
2
i+ , j
1
x + y
2
i+ , j
( )
Knowing
( )i+ 1, j and the various metrics, we can evaluate ( )i+ 12, j.
2
Thus, we can compute the derivatives of at the half-nodes everywhere.
Then,
80
u 1 = x + x + 1 1
i+ , j
i+ , j
2
v 1 = y + y 1
i+ , j
i+ , j
2
can be evaluated. Then the density is found from the isentropic relationship
1
1
2
1 = 1 +
M 1 u 2 1 v 2 1
2
i+ , j
i+ , j
i + , j
2
2
2
The contravariant component of velocity
U 1
i + , j is evaluated at this point. This quantity

2
is computed as u x + v y 1 .
i+ 2 , j
1 , U 1 ,
1 , V 1 ,
1 ,V 1 ,
i , j i , j i, j
i, j
i, j+
i, j+
We can compute
2
2
2
2
2
2 , etc. using relations
similar to the procedure just described for the node (i+1/2,j).
we need the local Mach number information at each node
In order to compute and ,
so that the operator ij can be determined. So that we can use the parameters that
were computed above, we write
1
M 2i, j = M 2 1 + M 2 1
2 i + , j
i , j
2
2
Since we know the values of u and v at (i+1/2,j) and (i-1/2,j), we can find a2 at these
points from the energy equation:
a2
u2 + v2
1
1
+
=
+
1
2
( 1)M 2 2
81
Once a2 is known at the half-point, M 2 can be computed using (u 2 + v2 ) / a 2 . From M2

at (i,j), i,j can be computed as 0. if M2 is less than 1, or 1
1
M 2i, j
if M2 is greater than
or equal to 1. Then the biased densities can be computed from the parameters just
calculated.
Now we have all the components needed to compute equation (5.43) at all of the
interior points and at the points along the vortex sheet (wake cut). At points on the solid
surface, however, the grid stops at the surface, and there is no (i,j-1/2) point. We need
) 1
(V
i , j
2
to determine
i , j
1
2
in equation (5.43).
i,1/2
This information is obtained from the boundary condition Vi,j=0.0, or
i, j+
1 = V 1
i , j
2
2
or
V
V
J i, j+ 1
J i , j 1
2
(5.47)
at the solid surface. Thus, equation (5.43) at the solid surface becomes
U
U
V
+
=0
2
J i+ 1, j J i 1, j
J i, j+ 1
2
(5.48)
82
Thus far we have learnt to construct the coordinate system, to compute the metrics
anywhere in the grid, and to evaluate all the terms in the discretized equation (5.43).
But equation (5.43) is non-linear. It also involves at several points in the flowfield. We
need to develop a relaxation procedure that will solve for systematically, in a manner
suitable for solving on digital computers. The development of the relaxation procedure
is considered next.
Relaxation Procedures for Solving the Full Potential Equation
For the sake of illustration, lets consider the C-grid.
rectangular, and is arranged as shown below:
Dirichlet
B.C.
The computational grid is
J=JMAX
Dirichlet
B.C.
Dirichlet
B.C.

lower vortex sheet boundaries
I=ITEU
I=ITEL
J=1
I=1 Lower Vortex
Sheet Cut
Airfoil Surface
Upper Vortex I=IMAX

Sheet Cut
The governing equation is to be solved at the interior points and on the J=1 boundary
(the airfoil surface and wake cut). The boundary conditions are to be specified on the
other three boundaries (I=1, I=IMAX and J=JMAX). We will use the SLOR procedure
described in Chapter 4 as illustration. Recall that there are other relaxation procedures
such as approximate factorization that are more efficient than the SLOR procedure.
However, the SLOR procedures are the simplest and the most reliable in practice.
Therefore, it is the procedure studied here.
In the SLOR procedure, we solve the full potential equation one i=constant line at a
time. Each line will have JMAX number of points, as shown here:
83
(i,JMAX)
(i,2)
(i,1)
The point (i,1) will be located on the solid surface or on the wake cut (also known as the
vortex sheet). The point (i,JMAX) is located on the outer boundary. All of the other
points from 2 to IMAX-1 are interior points. We will consider how to solve the interior
points first.
Interior Points : The discretized equation which we want to solve is :

U
V
U
+
J i+ 1 , j J i 1 , j J
2
=0
1
1
J
i, j+ 2
i, j 2
(5.49)
The contravariant velocities, U and V, can be evaluated as
U = u x + v y
= x + x + 1 x + y + y y
= ( 2x + 2y ) + ( x x + y y ) + x
and
U = ( 2x + 2y ) + ( x x + y y ) + x
Using these definitions, we can write equation (5.49) as
84
(A1 )i+ 1, j (A1 )i 1, j + ( A3 )i, j+ 1 ( A3 )i, j 1

2
= A 2
)i+ 1 , j + (A 2 )i 1 , j ( A 2 )i, j+ 1 ( A 2 )i, j 1

2

x
+ x
x
+ x
J i + 1 , j J i 1 , j J i , j + 1 J i , j 1
2
(5.50)
2x + 2y
x x + y y
2x + 2y
, A2 =
, A3 =
where A1 =
.
J
J
J
Equation (5.50) is nonlinear because it contains products of (which is a function of ),
as well as derivatives of . We will therefore solve it using iterations. To do this, we set
up an iteration counter, n. The iteration n = 0 corresponds to the starting solution. The
first iteration is n = 1, etc.
At the completion of each iteration (consisting of solving a tridiagonal solution at each
i=constant line), will be known at all of the grid nodes, and thus everywhere. The
density is then computed. The value of the density at the iteration n will be used for
the density at the iteration n+1 when solving for the values at n+1. Thus, a quantity
A1 1 is computed as n A1 n +1 1
such as
i+ , j
i+ , j.
2
2
The entire right hand side of equation (5.50) is evaluated at the n iteration level, where
n +1
all of the variables are known. We next define a correction vector i, j as
in, +j 1 = in, +j 1 in, j
n
n +1
may be written as
Then quantities such as A1
n A1 ( )n +1 + n A1 n
where the second term is known.
85
By replacing the n+1 terms on the left hand side in equation (5.50) with the known terms
at n and the terms yields the following equation:
(A () )
1
i+ 1 , j
2
A1( )
i 12 , j
3 ( )
+ A
i, j+ 12

U
V
V
J i+ 12 , j J i 12 , j J i, j+ 1 J i, j 1
2
2
3 ( )
A
i, j 12
(5.51)
Note that the right hand side of equation (5.51) is simply the governing equation in
discretized form evaluated at the n iteration level.
Writing
n +1
n +1
n +1
( ) 1 = ( )i +1, j ( )i, j and grouping the like indices together, we get
i+ , j
2
Bi, j in+11, j + C i, j in, +j11 + D i, j in, +j 1 + E i, j in, +j+11 + Fi, j in++11, j = R n
(5.52)
where Rn is the right hand side of equation (5.51), and
Bi, j = ( A1 ) i 1 , j
2
Fi, j = ( A1 ) i + 1 , j
2
C i, j = ( A 3 ) i, j 1
2
E i, j = ( A 3 ) i, j+ 1
D i, j = Bi, j + C i, j + E i, j + Fi, j
Let us assume that we are marching in the increasing i-direction (from 1 to IMAX) in the
n +1
n +1
SLOR procedure. Then, i 1, j is already known, but i 1, j is not known. We
n +1
therefore neglect the term Fi, j i +1, j . The equation (5.52) now becomes
C i, j in, +j11 + D i, j in, +j 1 + E i, j in, +j+11 = R n Bi, j in+11, j
(5.53)
86
This equation is valid for all interior nodes, and can be obtained for all of these nodes.
For each constant i line, this results in a tridiagonal system of equations for .
At the boundary J=JMAX, the values of are lagged behind the interior points by one
n +1
iteration. This is equivalent to saying i,JMAX = 0 in the SLOR procedure. At the
J=1 boundary, the equation to be solved is different from the interior points. For
example, if (i,1) is a solid surface point, the discretized equation is given as
V
U
U
+
2

J i+ 1, j J i 1, j
J
2
1
i, j+
2
=0
at j = 1
using the same definitions of A1, A2, A3 and n+1 as before, and lagging density by
one iteration, the discretized equation at the boundary becomes :
U
Bi, j in+11, j + D i, j in, +j 1 + E i, j in, +j+11 =
J
where
V
U
+
2

1
1
J
i+ , j J i , j
2
1
i, j+
2
Bi, j = ( A1 ) i 1 , j
2
E i, j = ( A 3 ) i, j+ 1
D i, j = Bi, j + E i, j ( A1 ) i + 1 , j
2
If the point (i,1) is on the coordinate cut (i<ITEL or i>ITEU), then equation (5.53) is used,
1 are evaluated explicitly at the n iteration

but all of the contributions from J
i , j
2
This is equivalent to setting Ci,j in equation (5.53) to 0 while leaving the
remainder of the terms alone.
level.
87
The total number of equations which make up the diagonals, if we consider all of the
points including the boundaries is JMAX. The equations are arranged as
n + 1
i,1
D
E
i,1

i,1
+
1
n
i, 2
D
E
i,2
i,2
i,2

n + 1 RHS OF
i, j
EQN. (5.53)
Bi,JMAX 1 Di,JMAX 1 E i,JMAX 1

.
0
1
n + 1
0
i, JMAX
The above system of equations may be solved by Thomas Algorithm for each
i=constant line. Then we move on to the next i-line, solve for +1,j, and so one until
we reach i=IMAX-1, and solve for IMAX1,j for j=1,JMAX.
After all of the i,j values have been computed, the new values are computed from
the relation:
in, j+ 1 = in, j + in, j+ 1
It is possible to introduce an over-relaxation factor in the SLOR scheme, as we

indicated for the Laplaces equation and the TSD equation. The over-relaxation factor
may be built into the above system of equations. A simpler approach would be to
n +1
redefine i, j as
in, +j 1 = in, j + in, j where 1 < 2
Thus the over-relaxation factor will appear in the calculations only at the very last step,
n +1
after i, j values have been calculated. For fast convergence should be close to
2.
88
n +1
After i, j is computed, the new circulation may be computed. That is
= ITE upper,1 ITE lower,1
Once the new value of is computed, the farfield values of (along the lines i=1,
i=IMAX and j=JMAX) may be computed as
tan 1 1 M 2
y
.
x
n +1
After the new values of i, j are available, we go through the process of computing
densities, contravariant velocities and the RHS of equation (5.53) once again, using the
new values of . A new set of coefficients are computed based on the most recent
values of the density at each i,j point. Using these new parameters, a new set of
in, +1
j is computed using the SLOR procedure. This entire process is continually
n +1
repeated until the i, j everywhere is reduced below a prescribed tolerance (a good
value is 10-6).
OVERVIEW OF THE SOLUTION PROCEDURE
The basic steps involved in the iterative solution of the full potential equation on a
curvilinear grid are :
1. Construct the grid. The grid must be smooth, with adequate resolution near the
airfoil surface.
2. Compute the metrics at the half-points of the grid and store them in arrays.
3. Initialize everywhere to 0.0. Set n=0.
4. Compute n and n , Un and Vn at the appropriate half-points. Evaluate the right
hand side of Equation (5.53).
n +1
5. Solve for i, j everywhere using the SLOR procedure.
n +1
n
n +1
6. At each i line, update i, j as i, j + i, j .
7. Compute the new and update the farfield .
89
n +1
8. Compare i, j
for all i,j to the arbitrarily prescribed tolerance. If the
max
in, +1
j is less than the tolerance, go to step 9. If not, go to step 4.
9. Compute the Cps at all nodes along the airfoil. Integrate the Cps to determine
the airfoil loads.
90

FPE Theory

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

FPE Theory

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

5 .

Here dy/dx is the slope of a characteristic line at a given point, and

Solving for dy/dx, we get

These two characteristic slopes may be graphically interpreted as the edges of

Jameson's Rotated Difference Scheme

Identify the terms in the quasilinear form that contribute to ss and nn

Using the operators given in equation (5.9) we can write (5.8) as

Extension of Jameson's Rotated Difference Scheme to Divergence

( xx )i 1, j ( xx )i, j x( xxx )i, j

( yy )i, j1 ( yy )i, j y( yyy )i, j

( xy )i1 / 2, j1 / 2 ( xy )i, j 2x ( xxy )i, j 2y ( xyy )i, j

If we use these expressions in equation (5.12), after some algebra, we obtain

The quantities and are known as retarded densities, or biased densities.

In most computer codes, a curvilinear grid is used, composed of two family of

Close-Up of a NACA0012 Surrounded by an O-Grid

A NACA0012 Airfoil Surrounded by a C-Grid

An H-Grid Surrounding a NACA0012 Airfoil

= -x x y y , = x 2 + y 2 and P 1, Q1 are functions of P, Q

and other metric terms such as x, x, y, y, and J.

Solve Governing Equations

Solve Governing Equations

I=1 Lower Vortex

Upper Vortex I=IMAX

Solve Governing Equations

Airfoil Upper Surface

Airfoil Lower Surface

Solve Governing Equations

Transformation of the Governing Equation from the Cartesian

Here, x, x, y and y are known as the metrics of transformation that must be

Likewise, since x and y are functions of and , we can write

Comparing (5.20) and (5.21) we can state

The quantity J is called the Jacobian of transformation, and is interpreted as the

= x i+1, j x i, j and similarly, y = y i+1, j y i, j .

(x )i+ , j = 12 (x )i+1, j + (x )i, j = 12

x i+1, j+1 x i+1, j1

and y is similarly defined.

Show how the metrics may be computed at the half-node

Metrics at the Boundaries

(x )i+1, j = 12 (4xi+1, j+1 3xi+1, j xi+1, j+2 )

Computation of the Governing Equation Variables

Since dy=yd+yd and dx=xd+xd where d=0 on the solid, we get

Thus the condition at the solid surface becomes

We next consider supersonic freestream conditions. The far-field boundary may be

It must be noted that the spacing = = 1 for convenience.

x i +1, j+1 x i +1, j1 + x i, j+1 x i, j1

If U >0 bias density towards (i-1/2,j)

If U < 0, bias density towards

The quantity U / J is next assembled.

information is later needed.

Computation of Densities and Contravariant Velocities

The above expression requires , , x , x at the half-node point (i+1/2,j). We have

Differences arise only in the way that values are computed.

( )i+1, j = i+1,JU ( i+1,JL + )

( )ITEU+i+11, = ITEU+i+11, ( ITELi11, + )

Knowing these two quantities, i + 1 , j may be computed.

We can compute from one-sided Taylor series expansions as done in the

calculations of x and y . But a more satisfactory way of computing i + 1 , j is to

( )i+ 1, j and the various metrics, we can evaluate ( )i+ 12, j.

The contravariant component of velocity

i + , j is evaluated at this point. This quantity

Once a2 is known at the half-point, M 2 can be computed using (u 2 + v2 ) / a 2 . From M2

This information is obtained from the boundary condition Vi,j=0.0, or

The computational grid is