REQUIREMENTS FOR EFFICIENT TRANSISTOR OPERATION

IE p I Ep n p Ic
I cp
I En I Br I cn
IB

1. WE WANT I E = Ic so that the fundamental basis of transistor action, that of a current

controlled by a small voltage flowing across a large resistor to generate a large voltage is
maintained.
Ic
I G

Rin
Rout
This is not true because,
a. Emitter Injection efficiency, α . I E is composed to two current components,
I Ep and I En . I Ep is desirable because it is the component that injects minority
carriers into the B-C junction and emerges as I c . I En is the electron current
injected into the emitter from the base. This is a parasitic current as it does not
contribute to collector current, Ic. Therefore we define a figure of merit (which we
will calculate shortly) called EMITTER INJECTION EFFICIENCY, α , where
I Ep I Ep
α= =
I E I Ep + I En
The maximum (and desirable value of α is 1 and is achieved when I En → 0 .

I cp
b. BASE TRANSPORT FACTOR, α T = Of the hole flux emitted from the
I Ep
emitter, a certain fraction is lost due to recombination in the n-type base.
However, if the width of the neutral base, WB is made much smaller than the
average distance a minority carrier travels before recombining, Lp , then the
probability of recombination is reduced.

p n p

wB
x=0 x = wB
WB << Lp

55
So what does the charge profile in the base region look like? USE THE CONTINUITY
EQUATION. In the absence of electric field this reduces to the diffusion equation
d 2 pn
Dp = Net recombination ≅ 0 if WB << L p
dx 2
Use a coordinate system shown in the figure above where the neutral base commences at x = 0
and ends @ x = WB . The solution of
d 2 pn d 2∆p n (x )  x 
Dp 2
= 0 is the same as D p 2
= 0 and is ∆pn (0) 1 − .
dx dx  WB 
This is a linear decrease in the charge profile with boundary conditions that
∆pn @ x = 0 is ∆pn (0). Therefore the charge profile in the bipolar transistor can be pictured as

p n p
− x′

∆n p ( x′) = ∆np (0)e Ln

np0
np0  x ′′

x′ = 0 x = 0 x ′′ = 0 ′′
−
n p ( x ) = n p0  1 − e Ln
 
 
 x 
pn ( x ) = ∆pn (0) 1 − 
 WB 

E B C

The salient features are

(i) An exponential drop-off in the injected minority profile as the emitter thickness is
much larger than a diffusion length for electrons
x′
−
∆n p ( x ′) = ∆n p (0)e Ln [like a conventional diode]
(ii) A linear decrease in the minority (hole concentration in the base
 x 
∆pn ( x ) = ∆pn (0) 1 −  because we neglected recombination.
 wB 
(iii) A traditional decrease in the minority carrier concentration n p ( x) in the collector as
x ′′
 − 
determined by reverse biased conditions n p ( x′′) = n p0  1 − e Ln
 
 
NOW WE CAN CALCULATE ALL THE CURRENTS BECAUSE WE KNOW THE
CHARGE PROFILES.
Recall that we want I c = I E which requires α = 1 and α T = 1 . In general the current gain α is
defined as α = α T ⋅α and I c = α I E WE WANT α = 1

56
CALCULATING α ( A = 1cm 2 )

I Ep 1
α= =
I Ep + I EN I
1 + EN
I Ep
dpn dn p
I Ep = qDp x =0 : I EN = qDn x ′= 0
dx dx ′
∆p (0) ∆n (0)
I Ep = qDp n : I En = qDn p
WB Ln
pn 0  qVkTbe   qVkTbe 
OR I Ep = qDp  e − 1 : I En = qD : n p0  e −1
WB    
I En D n W
∴ = n ⋅ p0 ⋅ B
I Ep Dp pn0 Ln
Using the Law of Mass Action
ni 2 n2
np 0 = & pn0 = i
N AE N DB
where N AE = Acceptor concentration in the p-type emitter
& N DB = Donor concentration in the base
I En Dn NDB WB
∴ = ⋅ ⋅
I Ep Dp N AE Ln
I En
For α → 1 we need →0
I Ep
∴ We Need
WB
<< 1
Ln for α → 1
N AE
>> 1
N DB
Calculating BASE TRANSPORT FACTOR, αT .
I cp collected hole current
αT = =
I Ep injected hole current
I Ep − I Br
Also α T =
I Ep
where IBr is the hole current lost due to recombination in the base.

57
We assumed for calculating the hole profile in the base the recombination was zero. This gave us
a linear profile. In actuality, the finite (through very small) recombination that does occur (as
WB
<< 1 but not 0 ) causes the hole profile to sag as shown below because holes are lost to
Lp
recombination.
I Ep pn ( x )
No
recombination
With
recombination

Difference is
because of
holes lost to I Cp
recombination

Bottom line: the loss of holes perturbs the profile a bit but it is essentially linear therefore
validating our assumption.
Or Neglecting recombination is fine to calculate the collector current as the slope of the profile
(which determines I cp ) is not perturbed substantially.
∆pn (0)
i.e. I cp ; I Ep = qD p
WB
But to calculate I Br we have to account for recombination. This is done elegantly using charge
control analysis.
I Br , the recombination current arises from the re-supply of electrons in the base lost to
Q
recombination with the holes. The rate at which holes recombine is given by p .
τp

∆pn (0)

Base

Qp
WB
Where Q p is the stored charge of holes in the base and τ p is the lifetime of the minority holes.
1
Q p can be calculated as Q p = ⋅ ∆pn (0) ⋅ WB
2
Area of the
charge triangle
58
 Qp 1  qVb e  W
∴ I Br = = ⋅ pn0  e kT − 1 ⋅ B
τp 2   τp
Ic I cp
We now define current gain, β , to be β = = neglecting I En (by properly designing
I B I En + IBr
I cp ∆pn (0)
δ → 1) gives us β = . But I cp ≅ I Ep = qD p
I Br WB

I cp ∆p (0)   1 W 
∴β= =  qD p n  ÷  ∆pn (0) ⋅ B 
I Ep  WB   2 τp 
Dτ
∴ β = 2⋅ p 2 p
WB
L2p
β =2 2
as D pτ p = Lp
WB
for δ → 1
The relationship between β and α
β= COMMON-EMITTER CURRENT GAIN
α= COMMON-BASE CURRENT GAIN

E C
Vout
Vin I E = I in I out = I c RL

COMMON-BASE
Note:
Vin = Input voltage between Emitter and Base
α = αT ⋅ δ
Vout = Output voltage measured between Collector and Base
If δ → 1
BASE is the common terminal then α = αT
I in = IE ; Iout = I c I c = α I E

RL Common Emitter Configuration

C Here Vin is applied between the base and emitter and the
B I out
output voltage measured between collector and emitter.
I in = I B = Ic The emitter is the common terminal. The input current,
E Vout I in = I B and the output current, I out = I c
Vin : I out I c
∴ = =β
I in IB

59
In general

Ic I E − IB = Ic (Kirchoff's Law)
IB
Ic I
using I E = & IB = c
α β
IE Ic Ic
=
= Ic
α β
1 1
− =1
α β
α
OR β = Typically: β >10, α >0.9
1 −α

α β
Therefore if δ = 1 then since α = αT we get from β = , α= ≅ αT
1− α β +1
L2p
2
WB2 2 L2p
∴ αT = =
2L2 2L2p + WB2
1 + 2p
WB
as WB → 0 α T → 1 as expected because recombination → 0

SUMMARY DESIGNING GOOD BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS

N AE
δ →1 ⇒ >> 1
N DB
WB
<< 1
Lp
WB
α →1 ⇒ << 1
Lp
DECREASE THE BASE THICKNESS, INCREASE THE BASE MINORITY CARRIER
LIFETIME, INCREASE EMITTER DOPING.

60