Study On Mechanism of Strength Distribution Development

Materials and Structures (2010) 43:12831301
DOI 10.1617/s11527-010-9580-1
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Study on mechanism of strength distribution development

in vacuum-dewatered concrete based on the consolidation
theory
Shigemitsu Hatanaka Hiroki Hattori
Eisuke Sakamoto Naoki Mishima
Received: 5 June 2009 / Accepted: 5 January 2010 / Published online: 21 January 2010
RILEM 2010
Abstract The strength and hardness of a concrete

slab surface are considered to be significantly affected
by concrete bleeding. Vacuum dewatering is reported
to be quite effective in imparting high density and
strength. However, in Japan, in contrast with concrete
work in civil engineering applications, concrete work
in the field of building construction has not been
successfully treated by this method. In an earlier
report, the authors pointed out the strong relationship
between strength distribution and density distribution
in vacuum-dewatered concrete, both of which gradually decrease from the top surface to a depth of about
15 cm. The main purpose of the present study is to
discuss the mechanism of the occurrence of such
S. Hatanaka N. Mishima
Division of Architecture, Graduate School of Engineering,
Mie University, 1577 Kurimamachiya-cho, Tsu, Mie,
Japan
e-mail: hatanaka@arch.mie-u.ac.jp
distribution of strength and density, based on consolidation theory. In an experiment, pore water pressure
distribution in concrete is measured by means of an
original measuring system. The results of the experiment confirm that the consolidation theory is quite
effective in explaining the internal properties of
vacuum-dewatered concrete as well as those of
press-dewatered concrete. A prediction method for
the strength improvement of concrete by vacuum
dewatering is also discussed. It was considered likely
that pore water pressure distribution generated by
vacuum dewatering could be attributable to the
influences of capillary tension and viscous resistance.
This mechanism was verified by model experiment.
Keywords Vacuum dewatering method
Press dewatering Consolidation theory
Pore water pressure distribution Concrete
N. Mishima
e-mail: mishima@arch.mie-u.ac.jp
1 Introduction
H. Hattori (&)
Department of Design for Contemporary Life, Gifu City
Womens College, 7-1 Hitoichibakitamachi, Gifu, Gifu,
Japan
e-mail: h-hattori@gifu-cwc.ac.jp
E. Sakamoto
Mie Prefectural Center of Constructional Technology,
3-50-5 Sakurabashi, Tsu, Mie, Japan
e-mail: e-sakamoto@mie-kengi.or.jp
On the surface of a concrete floor slab, a weak layer

is inevitably formed due to bleeding. In many cases,
the quality of finishing work depends on the quality
of the surface layer. The vacuum dewatering method,
which is a construction technique that dramatically
improves the strength and durability of hardened
concrete by removing excess water from the concrete
1284
distribution in concrete induced by vacuum dewatering, by applying the consolidation theory used in the
field of soil engineering, and proposes a technique of
estimating improvement of concrete compressive
strength by vacuum dewatering.
Upper surface of slab
Layer 4
Layer 3
2 Consolidation theory
2.1 Consolidation phenomenon
Layer 2
No processing
Vacuum dewatering
Layer 1
10
20
30
40
50
Compressive strength MPa

Fig. 1 Compressive strength distribution (slab thickness:
24 cm)
with a vacuum pump immediately after concrete

emplacement, is one of the techniques that solve this
problem [111]. The authors have developed a new
vacuum dewatering method and have conducted a
series of experiments [12] in order to contribute to
steady ongoing technological improvements in the
vacuum dewatering method by correcting the known
defects of the conventional method.
As shown in Fig. 1, the greatest improvement
achieved by the vacuum dewatering method is
increased compressive strength in a higher layer.
However, the mechanism of this phenomenon is not
yet known in detail.
Therefore, this paper seeks to clarify the mechanism of compressive strength distribution and density
Fig. 2 Concept of
consolidation phenomenon.
a Before loading (subscript
i), b after loading (subscript:
f). Notes: V volume (cm3),
M mass (g), h height (cm),
S amount of compaction
(cm), f volume ratio,
p consolidation pressure
(MPa)
Figure 2 illustrates the concept of the consolidation

phenomenon. The target specimen is divided into
solid and liquid phases, which are assumed to be
incompressible. The consolidation phenomenon is
that occurs when the liquid phase is discharged with
the passage of time under consolidation pressure,
thereby reducing volume and increasing density. By
decompressing pores in concrete, the vacuum dewatering method produces atmosphere-equivalent pressure on the top surface of a slab where fresh concrete
is consolidated by atmospheric pressure and surplus
water is discharged.
2.2 Press dewatering and vacuum dewatering
Figure 3 illustrates the concept of stresses by press
dewatering and vacuum dewatering [13] in situations
where distribution of pore water pressure by the depth
of specimen is not assumed. Judging from the figure,
if the consolidation pressure is equal to the degree of
decompression by vacuum dewatering, the effective
stress at the end of dewatering is the same. Based on
this result, in the sections that follow the authors
attempt to analyze the vacuum dewatering process as
a phenomenon similar to consolidation by press
dewatering.
Consolidation
Vi
Mi
hi
Vs
Ms
hs
Liquid phase
Solid phase
fi = Vi / Vs
(a)
S
Vf
Mf
hf
Vs
Ms
hs
Liquid phase
S olid phase
ff = Vf / Vs
(b)

Consolidation
pressure
Stress
1285
0
Stress
u0
Us (=S/ Sf) (%)
u0
Depth
Depth
20
0+
Effective stress
Before loading
(self-weight consolidation)
End of dewatering
(a)
Depth
Depth
u0
Effective stress
Before processing
(self-weight consolidation)
60
80
100
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
Time factor Tv [Logarithmic scale]

Atmospheric
pressure
0 Stress
Stress
40
0+
End of dewatering
(b)
Fig. 3 Stresses at press dewatering and vacuum dewatering. a
Press dewatering, b vacuum dewatering. Notes: r effective stress
at the end of dewatering (MPa), r0 effective stress before loading
or processing (MPa), u0 pore water pressure before loading or
processing (MPa), Dr increase in effective stress (MPa)
2.3 Consolidation equation

In the vacuum dewatering method, water permeates
only through the top surface, and slab thickness is
generally small enough, relative to the area of a filtering
mat. Therefore, the one-dimensional consolidation
theory is applied here. Since the purpose of the present
study is to quantitatively clarify the generating mechanisms of density distribution and compressive strength
distribution in concrete, the authors decided to use
Eq. 1 as the most basic consolidation equation expressing the relationship between compaction and time. The
unit of time t in the equation is seconds (s) because the
processing time of this proposed method is about 300 s
[12]. Equation 1 applies to a homogeneous specimen
where the effects of changes in the specimen weight and
excessive changes to layer thickness are not considered.
Equation 1 is called Mikasas equation of consolidation. By solving this equation, the relationship
Fig. 4 Relationship between degree of consolidation Us and

time factor Tv
between the degree of consolidation Us and the time

factor Tv is known and can be drawn as single curve,
as shown in Fig. 4 [14]. Where, the degree of
consolidation is the dimensionless amount of compaction S/Sf (S: the amount of compaction, Sf: the
final amount of compaction) and the time factor Tv is
a dimensionless time. That is defined by Eq. 2 for
layer thickness h (= H/2) in the case of single-side
permeation. If the final amount of compaction Sf and
the coefficient of consolidation cv are known, the
relationship between the amount of compaction S and
the time t can be derived from Eq. 2 and Fig. 4.
The coefficient of consolidation cv in Eq. 1
dominates the consolidation speed. Since this study
covers only up to the end of consolidation, the
authors decided to calculate the coefficient using the
curve ruler method. For single-side permeation, the
curve ruler method expresses the coefficient of
consolidation cv by Eq. 3 [15].
oe
o2 e
cv 2
ot
oz
where e is the compressive strain, t is the time (s), cv

is the coefficient of consolidation (cm2/s), and z is the
layer depth (cm).
Tv
cv t
h2
where Tv is the dimensionless time factor, t is the

time (s), and h is the layer thickness in the case of
single-side permeation (cm).
1286
cv
0:197 h2
t50
where h is the average height of specimen (cm), and

t50 is the time when the theoretical degree of
consolidation becomes 50% (s).
3 Experiment concerning density distribution

(Experiment 1)
3.1 Outline of experiment
In Experiment 1, the density distributions of vacuumdewatered and press-dewatered mortar and concrete
were measured to verify the applicability of the
consolidation theory.
3.1.1 Experiment using mortar
Table 1 lists the experimental factors and measurement items, and Table 2 explains the mixture
process. The experimental factors are the dewatering
method and consolidation pressure. Press dewatering
and vacuum dewatering were assumed for the
Table 1 Experimental factors
(Experiment 1: Mortar)
and
measurement
dewatering method, and the consolidation pressure

p by press dewatering was set to two levels,
0.05 MPa (about 1/2 of the atmospheric pressure)
and 0.1 MPa (equivalent to atmospheric pressure).
Figure 5 shows the press dewatering experimental
setup for this experiment. In order to make the
conditions equal to those for vacuum dewatering,
single-side permeation from the top surface was
assumed and a mat used for vacuum dewatering was
used for filtration. Figure 6 shows the vacuum dewatering experimental setup. To ensure a vacuum, the top
surface of each specimen was covered with a vinyl
sheet. The degree of vacuum, as measured with a
vacuum gauge, was about 95%. Specimen size was u
100 9 120 mm for both press dewatering and vacuum
dewatering. Processing was started when bleeding was
near completion (a specimen prepared separately was
measured 120 min after mixing). Immediately before
the processing, the bled water was sampled by means
of a syringe. As in the proposed method, processing
was continued for 300 s [12].
Figure 7a shows a schematic of a core specimen.
Three core specimens of u 25 9 25 mm were
sampled from each specimen. Density was measured
at the material age of about 3 weeks.
items
W/C Dewatering
(%) method
p (MPa) Measurement item
60
0.05
Weight
Displacement gauge
Drain pipe
Press dewatering
Discharged water
by bleeding
0.1
Dewatering amount
by processing
Relationship between
compaction and time
Vacuum dewatering
No processing
Density distribution
(/ 25 mm core)
Filter mat
Specimen
Scale
Frame
Fig. 5 Press dewatering experimental setup (Experiment 1:

Mortar)
W/C water/cement ratio, p consolidation pressure

Drain pipe
Vacuum gauge
Displacement gauge
Table 2 Mix proportions (Experiment 1: Mortar)

W/C (%) s/m (%) Unit weight (kg/m3) FL (mm) Air (%)
Vacuum
pump
Sealing vinyl sheet

Filter mat
60
50
327
546
1300
Drain trap
Specimen
Frame
266
Scale
1.4
W/C water/cement ratio, s/m sand volume/mortar volume,

W water, C cement, S sand, FL mortar flow, Air air volume
Fig. 6 Vacuum dewatering experimental setup (Experiment 1:

Mortar and concrete)
1287
180 mm
50 mm
150 mm
25 mm
100 mm
120 mm
Fig. 7 Core specimens

(Experiment 1). a Mortar,
b concrete
25 mm
25 mm
50 mm
50 mm
(a)
3.1.2 Experiment using concrete
Table 3 lists the experimental factors and measurement items, while Table 4 gives the mix proportions.
The experimental factors are the same as for mortar.
The consolidation pressure p by press dewatering was
set to two levels of 0.1 MPa (equivalent to atmospheric pressure) and 0.5 MPa, which is even greater.
For the press dewatering experiment, dewatering
from the top surface was assumed. A load plate was
placed on a permeable mat covering a specimen, and a
universal tester was used for loading. The setup for the
vacuum dewatering experiment is as shown in Fig. 6.
The measured degree of vacuum was about 85%.
Specimen size was u 150 9 180 mm for both the press
dewatering and vacuum dewatering experiments.
(b)
Processing was started when bleeding was near
completion (90 min after mixing). Bled water was
sampled by means of a syringe. The processing was
continued for 300 s.
Figure 7b shows a schematic of a core specimen.
Three concrete core specimens of u 50 9 50 mm
were sampled from each specimen. Density was
measured at the material age of about 3 weeks.
3.2 Experimental result and discussion
3.2.1 Relationship between compaction and time
Figure 8 shows the relationship between compaction S
and time t. As shown in the figure, higher consolidation
pressure during press dewatering produces a greater
Table 3 Experimental factors and measurement items (Experiment 1: Concrete)

W/C (%)
Specimen shape and size (mm)
Process
65
Cylindrical / 150 9 180
Press dewatering
Box-shaped 300 9 460 9 180
Processing
time (s)
p (MPa)
Measurement item
300
0.10
1000
0.50
Vacuum dewatering
300
Dewatering amount by processing
No processing
Density distribution (/ 50 mm core)
Press dewatering
1000
0.50
No processing
Discharged water by bleeding
W/C water/cement ratio, p consolidation pressure
Table 4 Mix proportions (Experiment 1: Concrete)

W*/C (%)
65
s/a (%)
56
Unit weight (kg/m3)

W*
185
285
993
801
SP/C (%)
SL (cm)
Air (%)
0.9
19.0
3.7
W*/C watercement ratio [W*(water ? superplasticizer)], s/a sand aggregate ratio, C cement, S sand (coarse grain ratio = 2.98),
G coarse aggregate, SP superplasticizer, SL slump, Air air volume
1288
comparatively well in press dewatering with bottomsurface permeation [16].
amount of compaction and faster convergence. Vacuum dewatering (degree of vacuum: about 95%)
produces a smaller amount of compaction than press
dewatering. In Fig. 8, the white circle represents the
theoretical value of press dewatering. To calculate a
theoretical value, an experimental value is entered for
the initial amount of compaction (t = 0.1 s). Regarding the tendency of compaction to increase until the
final stage, the experimental and theoretical values
matched comparatively well at both 0.05 and 0.1 MPa.
Therefore, the consolidation theory is considered
applicable to the mortar dewatering process. The
experimental and theoretical values also matched
3.2.2 Density distribution

Figure 9a, b shows the measured density distributions
of mortar and concrete specimens, respectively.
According to Fig. 9a, which shows mortar density
distributions, the densities of the press-dewatered
specimens (0.05 and 0.1 MPa) are greater than that of
the non-processed specimen, and the gradients in the
depth direction are about equal to that of the nonprocessed specimen. Compared with the 0.05 MPa
specimen, the 0.1 MPa specimen exhibits an almost
proportional increase in density at any depth. Therefore, as compared with the non-processed specimen,
the dewatering amount of the press-dewatered specimen at each layer is estimated to be almost constant
in the depth direction. Thus, the consolidation theory
is considered applicable.
The density distribution of the vacuum-dewatered
specimen is about equal to that of the non-processed
specimen at the bottom layer and about equal to that
of the 0.1 MPa specimen at the top layer. Therefore,
vacuum dewatering is considered to generate depthwise pore water pressure distribution.
According to Fig. 9b, which shows concrete density
distributions, the densities of the press-dewatered
specimens (0.1 and 0.5 MPa) are almost equal, and
Amount of compaction S mm
Vacuum dewatering
1
2
Press dewatering (0.05MPa)

3
4
Press dewatering (0.1MPa)
Solid line Measured value

Theoretical value
6
0.1
10
100
1000
Time t (s) [Logarithmic scale]
Fig. 8 Amount of compaction S and time t (Experiment 1:

Mortar)
Fig. 9 Density distribution

(Experiment 1). a Mortar,
b concrete
Press dewatering 0.5MPa

Vacuum dewatering
No processing
20
30
Specimen depth (mm)
Specimen depth (mm)

Vacuum dewatering
No processing
40
60
80
100
120
2.20
60
90
120
150
2.25
2.30
2.35
3
Density g/cm
(a)
2.40
180
2.20
2.25
2.30
2.35
Density g/cm3
(b)
2.40
1289
greater than those of the non-processed specimen. This

indicates that consolidation reached the limit at about
0.1 MPa. Since the density distributions are constant in
the depth direction, the consolidation theory is considered as equally applicable for concrete as for mortar.
As in the case of mortar, the density distribution of
the vacuum-dewatered specimen is about equal to
that of the non-processed specimen at the bottom
layer and that of the 0.1 MPa specimen at the top
layer. Therefore, vacuum dewatering is considered
likely to generate depth-wise pore water pressure
distribution.
4 Experiment concerning pore water pressure

(Experiment 2)
pressure gauge depicted in Fig. 11 was developed

by the authors. The pressure-receiving surface is
covered with a dewatering mat. In the experiment, in
u150-mm acrylic vessels like the one shown in
Fig. 11, specimens were emplaced to heights of 105
and 180 mm and processed by ordinary vacuum dewatering for about 300 s. During the dewatering period, the
time histories of pore water pressure were measured.
Pore water pressure gauges were secured to piano
wire frames at depths of 10 and 50 mm for the
105-mm-high specimen and at depths of 10, 50, 90,
and 130 mm for the 180-mm-high specimen. By
burying the gauges in each specimen, the suction
pressure by the vacuum pump and the pore water
pressure in the specimen could be measured.
4.2 Experimental results and discussion
Judging from the experimental results in Sect. 3.2,

vacuum dewatering may generate pore water pressure
distribution in the depth direction of concrete, as
shown in Fig. 10. In Experiment 2, the pore water
pressure distribution in vacuum-dewatered concrete
was measured and the mechanism of density distribution obtained by experiment is discussed by
reference to the measurement result. Pore water
measurement using a sealed vessel proved that the
pore water pressure estimate was reliable [17].
4.1 Outline of experiment
Table 5 lists the experimental factors, and Table 6
gives mixing proportions. Figure 11 shows a schematic of the specimen vessel. The small pore water
Pressure
Pressure
- pa
pa
Elapsed time
Pore water pressure
Depth
Depth
Elapsed time
Effective stress
Fig. 10 Predicted pore water pressure distribution (isochrone).

Notes: u pore water pressure (MPa), re effective stress (MPa),
Pa suction pressure (MPa)
4.2.1 Mortar
Figure 12 shows the time histories of the pore water
pressure and suction pressure of the mortar specimen.
In the figure, the negative pressures of both pore
water and suction are shown as positive.
According to Fig. 12a, the suction pressure in a
specimen subjected to vacuum dewatering immediately after casting increased quickly after the start of
processing and after 15 s became almost constant at
0.09 MPa. At the depth of 10 mm, the pore water
pressure decreased quickly after the start of processing, became 0.04 MPa after 10 s, and then decreased
gradually. At the depth of 50 mm, the pore water
pressure began to decrease gradually after 50 s of
processing and became about 0.02 MPa after 300 s.
According to Fig. 12b, the suction pressure and
pore water pressure of vacuum dewatering after
bleeding show similar tendencies to those of the
specimen that had been subjected to vacuum dewatering immediately after specimen casting. At the
depth of 50 mm, however, the pore water pressure
gradually increased immediately after the start of
processing. At this depth, the pore water pressure
increase start timing differs, probably because the
speed of reaching depth-wise pore water pressure
differs depending on the degree of specimen compaction before and after bleeding.
According to Fig. 12c, the pore water pressure of
the 180-mm-high specimen showed a similar small
increase at depths of 90 and 130 mm. This fact is
1290
Table 5 Experimental factors (Experiment 2)

Factor:
series
Specimen
Specimen height (mm)
Processing start timing
Experiment 2
Mortar concrete
105
Immediately after casting
180
Measurement item
At the end of bleeding
Pore water pressure
At the end of bleeding
Suction pressure
Table 6 Mix proportions (Experiment 2)

W/C (%)
Unit weight (kg/m3)
s/m (%)
468
1360
FL (mm)
Air (%)
212
2.6
(a) Mortar
60
W/C (%)
55
s/a (%)
281
3
Unit weight (kg/m )

W*
185
285
993
801
SP/C (%)
SL (cm)
Air (%)
0.9
19.0
3.6
(b) Concrete
65
56
W*/C watercement ratio [W*(water ? superplasticizer)], s/a sand aggregate ratio, C cement, S sand (coarse grain ratio = 2.98),
G coarse aggregate, SP superplasticizer, SL slump, Air air volume
Fig. 11 Sample vessel.
a specimen height 105 mm,
b specimen height 180 mm
Tube connection bracket

Sealing vinyl sheet
40 40 10
Dewatering mat
105
Pore water
pressure gauge
Acrylic vessel
(150 200 mm)
150
(a)
consistent with the findings from a past study that
indicated the dewatering effect reaches a depth of
about 15 cm [12].
4.2.2 Concrete
Figure 13 shows the time histories of concrete pore
water pressure and suction pressure.
According to Fig. 13a, b, the time history of
concrete tends to decrease gradually at the depth of
200
180
200
40 10
Specimen
[Unit : mm]
150
[Unit : mm]
(b)
10 mm, compared with that of mortar. This is mainly
because, when compared with mortar, concrete is
denser, having a smaller unit water content and a
greater aggregate ratio. These factors make the
conduction of pore water pressure difficult.
According to Fig. 13c, the 180-mm-high specimen
showed a quick decrease in pore water pressure at a
depth of 10 mm after about 120 s and at a depth of
50 mm after about 90 s. A possible reason is that the
air passage disturbing a decrease in pore water pressure
0.08
0.1
1291
0.02
0.04
0.06
Suction pressure
Depth: 10 mm
Depth: 50 mm
is blocked by the dewatering process. However, the

details are unknown. Although not illustrated here,
other specimens show similar phenomena. At the
depths of 50, 90, and 130 mm, some pore water
pressure is maintained even after the end of vacuum
dewatering, probably because the mortar above the
pore water pressure gauges was sufficiently compacted
by dewatering so as to prevent the release of the pore
water pressure even after vacuum dewatering.
Pore water pressure or suction

pressure (MPa)
100
200
300
4.2.3 Pore water pressure distribution
Time (sec)
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Figures 14 and 15 show the time histories of pore

water pressure distribution for mortar and concrete,
where, the value at the depth of 0 mm surface level is
the suction pressure. According to the figures, both
mortar and concrete generate depth-wise pore water
pressure distribution at each time. The higher the
layer, the greater the pressure. The density distributions in Fig. 9a, b show similar tendencies. Therefore,
it may be possible to estimate density distribution by
applying the consolidation theory while taking pore
water pressure distribution into account.
0.02
0

pressure (MPa)
(a)
100
200
300
Time (sec)
4.3 Discussion about the causes of pore water

pressure distribution
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Suction pressure
Depth: 10 mm
Depth: 50 mm
Depth: 90 mm
Depth: 130mm

pressure (MPa)
(b)
100
200
300
Time (sec)
(c)
Fig. 12 Time histories of mortar pore water pressure (Experiment 2). a Immediately after casting (specimen height: 105
mm), b at the end of bleeding (specimen height: 105 mm), c at
the end of bleeding (Specimen height 180 mm)
The pore water pressure is found to be less in lower

concrete during vacuum dewatering. The authors
conjecture that the water pressure distribution is
generated mainly by the influences of capillary
tension and liquid-phase viscous resistance.
The influence of capillary tension can be considered as follows. As the enlarged figures in Fig. 16
show, when vacuum dewatering occurs, pore water
pressure becomes negative. As the distance between
solid particles progressively decreases, pore water
pressure decreases, causing air bubbles to inflate and
increase their area of contact with solid particles.
Consequently, in the pores between capillary voids
that are surrounded by solid particles, meniscus is
easily formed and generates tension within the
capillary. Once meniscus has been formed, the
gravity on water above the meniscus and the capillary
tension may become resistant to suction pressure by
vacuum processing and reduce the amount of suction
pressure that is transmitted to lower levels.
0.1
0.08
Pore water pressure (MPa)

Sample depth (mm)
0.02
0.04
0.06
Suction pressure
Depth : 10 mm
Depth : 50 mm
0.04
100
200
0.06
0.08
25
0.1
t=10 s
t=50 s
50
t=150 s
Elapsed time
t=300 s
(a)
300
Time (sec)
(a)
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.1
Processing end position
0.04
0.06
Sample depth (mm)
0.08
25
0.02
0

pressure (MPa)
0.02
75

pressure (MPa)
1292
100
200
300
t=10 s
t=50 s
50
t=150 s
t=250 s
75
100
Elapsed time
400
125
Time (sec)
(b)
150
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Processing end position
0.02
0
(b)
Fig. 14 Time histories of mortar pore water pressure distribution (at the end of bleeding). a Specimen height: 105 mm,
b Specimen height: 180 mm

pressure (MPa)
Suction pressure
Depth : 10 mm
Depth : 50 mm
Depth : 90 mm
Depth : 130 mm
100
200
300
400
Time (sec)
(c)
Fig. 13 Time histories of concrete pore water pressure (Experiment 2). a Immediately after casting (specimen height:
105 mm), b at the end of bleeding (specimen height: 105 mm),
c at the end of bleeding (specimen height 180 mm)
The influence of viscous resistance can be considered as follows. The liquid phase moves through
capillary voids surrounded by solid particles and
reaches the drain face. This may generate viscous
resistance between the capillary wall (solid phase)
and the liquid phase, consequently reducing the
suction pressure. With the advance of consolidation,
capillaries become more complicated. Therefore, the
contact area between the liquid and solid phases may
grow and increase the degree of influence of the
liquid-phase viscous resistance.
To confirm the influences of the above two factors,
the authors conducted a vacuum dewatering experiment using the following model materials.
1293
4.3.1 Experimental factors and materials

Capillary tension increases as pore dimensions
between solid particles become smaller. To vary the
Sample depth (mm)
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
25
0.1
t=10 s
t=50 s
50
t=150 s
Elapsed time
75
t=300 s
(a)
0.02
0.04
Sample depth (mm)
25
0.06
0.08
0.1
t=10 s
t=50 s
50
t=150 s
t=300 s
75
100
pore size between solid particles, the solid-phase

particle size was taken as an experimental factor.
Regarding viscous resistance, liquid-phase viscosity
was taken as an experimental factor. Table 7 provides
the experimental factors and testing levels and
Table 8 lists the materials used and their characteristic values. Silica sand and silica powder were used
as the solid-phase particles to eliminate the influence
of cement hydration. The liquid-phase viscosity was
measured with a B-type rotational viscometer in an
environment of 20C.
Elapsed time
125
150
(b)
Fig. 15 Time histories of concrete pore water pressure

distribution (at the end of bleeding). a Specimen height:
105 mm, b Specimen height: 180 mm
Fig. 16 The assumed
appearance inside concrete.
a Initial state, b Vacuumdewatered state
Cement particles
(solid phase)
4.3.2 Experimental method and measurement items

For the vacuum dewatering experiment in this
section, the same method described in Sect. 4.1 was
used. However, the specimen height was set to
180 mm and the vacuum dewatering time was set to
20 min. The measurement items were the time
histories of suction pressure, pore water pressure,
and the amount of air.
Specimens were made as follows. For both
specimens of silica sand and silica powder mixed
with water, silica sand and silica powder were
immersed in water for 24 h, after which they were
cast in molds by jigging. After casting, the silica
sand was left to settle for 30 min and the silica
powder for 8 h, respectively. In the next step, the
surplus specimen material and the water that had
collected at the top were removed in order to make
each specimen 180 mm high. For both of the silica
sand and silica powder specimens mixed with oil,
the immersion time was set to 12 h and the settling
time to 60 min. The heights of those specimens
were finalized using the same method.
Air bubbles
(gas phase)
Movement of liquid phase
Water
(liquid phase)
Coarse aggregate
(solid phase)
Air bubbles inflate,

increasing the area
of contact with solid
particles
Fine aggregate
(solid phase)
(a)
(b)
1294
Table 7 Experimental factor levels

Factor
Level
Solid-phase particle size
Silica sand (No. 63),

silica powder
Liquid-phase viscosity (Pa s)
0.002 (water), 0.061 (oil)
Table 8 Materials and characteristics

Materials
Characteristics
Solid phase
Silica sand
(No. 63)
37.4% remaining on a sieve with a peak

aperture of 106 lma
Silica powder
Absolute dry density: 2.60 g/cm3

Specific surface area: 3,300 cm2/g, Absolute
dry density: 2.66 g/cm3
of 0 to 10 mm may be due to the resistance of the

dewatering mat and hose.
The influence of viscous resistance is discussed
next. By comparing Fig. 17a and c, we see no
depthwise pore water pressure distribution when the
liquid phase is water but pore water pressure
distribution is generated when it is oil. The value of
E is smaller when the liquid phase is water than when
it is oil. Figure 17d shows this tendency more
markedly. Judging from these results, it is considered
likely that vacuum dewatering may have generated
pore water pressure distribution because the forced
movement of the liquid phase caused viscous resistance, gradually reducing the transmission of suction
pressure applied to the lower layers.
Liquid phase
Water
Tap water (viscosity: 0.002 Pa s)
Oil
Edible rapeseed oil (viscosity: 0.061 Pa s)
Refer to JIS G 5901-1974
5 Estimation of density distribution

and compressive strength distribution
5.1 Estimation flows
4.3.3 Experimental results and discussion

Figure 17 shows time histories of pore water pressure
distribution. At the specimen depth of 0 mm surface
level, the pore water pressure indicates the suction
pressure. Accordingly, the pore water pressure area
(MPa min) of each layer was divided by the suction
pressure area (MPa min) and the average quotient
was defined as the ratio of pore water pressure to
suction pressure (E). This value is shown in (i) of
each figure (a) to (d). The value of E indicates the
degree of influence by capillary tension or viscous
resistance. As the value becomes greater, the capillary tension or viscous resistance becomes less
influential.
The influence of capillary tension is discussed first.
By comparing Fig. 17a and b, we see no pore water
pressure distribution in silica sand but find that pore
water pressure distribution is generated in silica
powder. The value of E is smaller for the silica
powder than for the silica sand. This indicates that
vacuum dewatering may generate capillary tension
due to inflation of air bubbles caused by negative
pore water pressure. This gradually decreases the
transmission of suction pressure to lower layers and
thus generates pore water pressure distribution. The
decrease of pore water pressure at the specimen depth
Past experimental results [18] indicated that the

vacuum dewatering process is characterized by
movement of only water but almost on solids (cement
and aggregate). As mentioned previously, vacuum
dewatering was confirmed to generate depth-wise
pore water pressure distribution. Considering these
findings, if the pore water pressure at each layer is
measured, the density distribution in vacuum-dewatered concrete can be calculated.
If the consolidation properties and pore water
pressure distribution properties of various kinds of
concrete are known, the estimation flows shown in
Fig. 18 will enable estimation of the qualitative
changes to concrete imposed by vacuum dewatering.
The amount of water removed from each layer at the
end of vacuum dewatering can be calculated by
considering the linear relationship between the logarithmic value of consolidation pressure (equal to
pore water pressure) and the final amount of
compaction as shown in Fig. 18c.
By applying the equation of consolidation theory
(time history of the amount of compaction shown in
Fig. 18d) to each layer, even the time histories of
density distribution and compressive strength distribution in vacuum-dewatered concrete can be estimated (broken-line estimation flow in Fig. 18a).

0.00
0
0.10
Sample depth (mm)

pressure (MPa)
Depth 90 mm
Depth 50 mm
Suction pressure
Depth 10 mm
Depth 130 mm
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
Ratio of pore water pressure to

suction pressure E = 93.5%
10
15
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
30
t=1
min
t=1m
in
60
t=2
min
t=2m
in
90
t=5 min
t=5m
in
120
t=10 min
t=10m
in
t=15 min
t=15m
in
150
t=20 min
t=20m
in
180
20
Time (min)
(i) Continuous time history
(ii) Discrete time history
(a)
0.00
0
0.10
Sample depth (mm)

pressure (MPa)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00

10
15
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
30
60
90
120
150
180
20
Time (min)
(b)
0.00
0
0.10
Sample depth (mm)

pressure (MPa)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00

10
15
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
30
60
90
120
150
180
20
Time (min)
(c)
0.00
0
0.10
0.08
Sample depth (mm)

pressure (MPa)
Fig. 17 Time histories of

pore water distribution.
a Water ? silica sand
(Air = 1.5%).
b Water ? silica powder
(Air = 0.2%).
c Oil ? silica sand
(Air = 4.9%).
d Oil ? silica powder
(Air = 2.5%)
1295
0.06
0.04

0.02
0.00
10
15
20
Time (min)
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
30
60
90
120
150
180
(d)
0.10
1296
Upper layer
Pore water pressure

Degree of vacuum
Layer n
At the end of processing

Time history
Upper layer
Lower layer
Division by layer
Depth
Fig. 18 Estimation of
density distribution and
compressive strength
distribution (no change in
pore water pressure with the
passage of time)
Layer n
Lower Layer
Time t = t + t
Pore water pressure distribution

(Constant, irrespective of t)
(b) Pore Water pressure distribution

Final amount of
compaction
Start ( Time t = 0 )
Value of layer n
Pore water pressure [Logarithmic scale]
(c) Relationship between final amount of

Calculation of dewatering amount
by layer
compaction and pore water pressure

Time[Logarithmic scale]
Time t
Calculation of air
volume
Density
distribution
Compressive strength
distribution
Amount of
compaction
Calculation of C/W
Layer n
(d) Relationship between amout of

compaction of Layer n and time
(a) Estimation flow
The estimation flow in Fig. 18a is based on the

assumption that the pore water pressure does not
change with the passage of time. If the pressure were
to change with the passage of time, the broken-line
estimation flow in Fig. 18a would be equally applicable because it accurately evaluates the time history
of pore water pressure distribution and the amount of
compaction corresponding to pore water pressure.
5.2 Verification of estimation flows using mortar
The estimation flows concerning mortar were verified
using past experimental results [18]. Here, the authors
attempted to estimate the density and compressive
strength distributions that occurred only at the end of
processing where comparison with measured values
was possible. The attempt concerning density distribution was limited to verification by comparison with
component analysis results where the air volume was
not considered.
5.2.1 Pore water pressure distribution

Pore water pressure changes constantly from the start
of processing until its end. For simplification, pore
water pressure was estimated by using the average
(marked s). Figure 19 shows the average pore water
pressure. In Fig. 19, the authors determined that the
pore water pressure is greater in higher layers and
becomes equal to suction pressure at the surface. To
calculate pore water pressure at an arbitrary depth
z (cm), Eq. 4 is used. The pore water pressure used for
estimation was calculated from four layers as the depthwise average of each layer and expressed by Eq. 5.
u u0 eaz
ij
u0 h
uave eaz =j i
i
a
4
5
where u is the pore water pressure (MPa), uave is the

average pore water pressure by layer (MPa), u0 is
the degree of vacuum (MPa), z is the depth (cm), a is
1297
0.08
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Sample depth z (cm)
u = 0. 091e ( - 0. 45 z)
Final amount of compaction Sf /H
Pore water pressure u (MPa)
12
0.04
0.02
Experimental value
Estimated value [Equation(6)]
0.00
0.04
0.10
0.14
Consolidation pressure p (MPa)

[Logarithmic scale]
Measured value (At the end)

15
S f /H = 0. 063 +0. 018 l ogp
0.06
Measured value (Average)

Estimated value (Equation(7))
Fig. 20 Relationship between final amount of compaction and

consolidation pressure
18
Fig. 19 Pore water pressure distribution
the coefficient (a = 0.45), and i, j are the depths of

the upper and lower layers (cm).
5.2.2 Final amount of compaction
Sf =H = 0
8
c Up =1 Sf =H
9
nX

o
c
Up Sf =H w c1000 =1Sf =H =1000
c Uv
Figure 20 shows the relationship between the final

amount of compaction and consolidation pressure.
Since the final amount of compaction and the
logarithmic value of consolidation pressure are
assumed to be linear within the range of consolidation pressure p from 0.013 to 0.132 MPa [19], their
relationship can be expressed by Eq. 6. With the pore
water pressure uave (MPa) calculated by Eq. 5 as the
consolidation pressure p (MPa) in Eq. 6, the final
amount of compaction of each layer can be calculated. In Fig. 20, the volume ratio of fine aggregate in
mortar is 50%.
Sf =H b c log p
7
W=C w Uv =c Uv 100

w Uv w Up Sf =H w c 1000 =1 Sf =H
where Sf is the final amount of compaction (cm), H is

the layer thickness (cm), p is the consolidation pressure
(MPa), and b, c are the coefficient (b = 0.063, c = 0.018).
5.2.3 Watercement ratio distribution and density
distribution
To estimate watercement ratio and density, Sf/H of
each layer is calculated by Eq. 6 and the unit quantity
is substituted from the mixing table for Eq. 810.
10
where W/C is the watercement ratio (%), c is the
density (g/cm3), wUp, wUv are the unit water contents
for no processing and vacuum dewatering (kg/m3),
cUp, cUv are the unit cement contents for no
processing and vacuum dewatering (kg/m3), RUp is
the total sum of non-processed unit contents (kg/m3),
and wc is the water density (= 1.0 g/cm3).
Figures 21 and 22 compare the measured and
estimated values of watercement ratio distribution
and density distribution. The measured density distributions are from the values of component analysis
where the air volume is not considered. In both figures,
the measured and estimated values match comparatively well at the upper, middle, and lower layers.
Therefore, this technique for estimating watercement
ratio distribution and density distribution by vacuum
dewatering seems rather appropriate. In the surface
layer, however, measured and estimated values differ
greatly. This is probably because of the great increase
of water content in the surface layer due to bleeding
(vacuum processing started at the final stage of

0
30
30
Specimen depth (mm)
Specimen depth (mm)
1298
60
90
No processing
120
Vacuum
(Measured)
150
60
90
No processing
120
Vacuum
(Measured)
150
Vacuum
Vacuum
(Estimated)
180
30
(Estimated)
40
50
60
70
Water-cement ratio (%)
180
30
40
50
60
70
Compressive strength (MPa)
Fig. 21 Comparison of measured and estimated watercement

ratio distributions (Mortar)
Fig. 23 Comparison of measured and estimated compressive

strength distributions (Mortar)
5.2.4 Compressive strength distribution

Compressive strength was assumed to be expressed
by Eq. 11, which is the primary equation for cement
water ratio.
Fc d C=W e
Specimen depth (mm)
30
where Fc is the compressive strength (MPa), C/W is

the cementwater ratio, and d, e are the experimental
coefficient (d = 45.9, e = 38.8).
Figure 23 compares the measured and estimated
values of compressive strength distribution. According to the figure, the measured and estimated values
match comparatively well at every layer. Therefore,
this technique of estimating compressive strength
distribution by vacuum dewatering seems appropriate. The figure also gives the value of the surface
layer for reference.
60
90
No processing
120
Vacuum
(Measured)
150
Vacuum
(Estimated)
180
2.10
2.15
2.20
11
2.25
2.30
2.35
Density (g/cm3)
Fig. 22 Comparison of measured and estimated density
distributions (Mortar)
bleeding), and the coefficients b and c in Eq. 6 are very

different from those of the inside of concrete, or Sf/H is
great at the surface layer. This tendency should be
studied in more detail.
5.3 Estimated values for varied pore water

pressure
As previously mentioned, the improvement of vacuum-dewatered concrete may be susceptible to pore
water pressure distribution. The proposed method
tends to reduce pore water pressure distribution in
lower layers, as shown in Figs. 14 and 15. The causes
of this tendency may be capillary tension and viscous
resistance, as explained in Sect. 4.3. If the decrease
1299
Pore water pressure u (MPa)

0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
No processing
(a)Estimated value (a=0.45)
(b)Estimated value (a=0.075)
(c)Estimated value (a=0.001)
0.1
(a) a=0.45
30
6
9
(b) a=0.075
12
15
(c) a=0.001
18
Specimen depth (mm)
Sample depth z (cm)
60
90
120
150
180
2.10
2.15
2.20
2.25
2.30
2.35
Density (g/cm3)
Fig. 24 Assumed pore water distribution
Fig. 25 Estimated density distribution
of pore water pressure could be suppressed by some

other method, further improvement could be
expected. The greatest improvement effect may be
available when the pore water pressure distribution
becomes uniform in the depthwise direction (as in the
final state after consolidation). Using the estimation
flows given in Sect. 5.1, this section explains the
relationship between pore water pressure distribution
and expected improvement.
5.3.1 Assumption of pore water pressure distribution
Figure 24 shows the assumed pore water pressure
distribution, values being between the experimental
and idealistic ones as follows, in order to examine the
improvement effect from the current state to the
maximum state
(a)
Approximated value to the experimental one

(Fig. 19, a = 0.45)
(b) Almost average of both curves of (a) and (c)
(a = 0.075)
(c) Idealistic value in the case of depthwise uniformity (a = 0.001)
5.3.2 Density distribution and compressive strength
distribution
Under the same conditions used for the verification of
estimation flows in Sect. 5.2, the density distribution
and compressive strength distribution in concrete
were estimated with only the pore water pressure

distribution value as assumed in Fig. 24. Figures 25
and 26 show the estimated values. In Fig. 25, the pore
water pressure in the middle layer (9 cm deep) is
almost uniform in (a) 0 MPa, (b) 0.045 MPa, and (c)
0.9 MPa. The density increase rate is greater in (b)
than in (a) but smaller in (c) than in (b). This
tendency is more marked in lower layers. According
to Fig. 26, the compressive strength distribution
shows a similar tendency. In an area of comparatively
small pore water pressure, therefore, the density and
compressive strength may show significant comparative improvement even when the pore water pressure
increase rate is small. In other words, if the capillary
tension and viscous resistance from the middle to low
layers of concrete can be reduced to suppress even a
minor decrease of pore water pressure, the effect of
vacuum dewatering can be expected even deep in
concrete.
6 Conclusion
This paper reported the applicability of the onedimensional consolidation theory to the estimation of
density distribution in vacuum-dewatered concrete.
Based on a conjecture that pore water pressure
distribution in concrete generates concrete density
distribution at vacuum dewatering, the pore water
1300

No processing
(a)Estimated value (a=0.45)
(b)Estimated value (a=0.075)
(c)Estimated value (a=0.001)
5.
Specimen depth (mm)
30
60
performance and the consolidation properties

depend on bleeding.
The pore water pressure distribution generated
by vacuum dewatering may be attributable to
capillary tension and viscous resistance. This
mechanism was verified by model experiment.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge

financial support provided by the FY2004 Category B of
Scientific Research Grants (research representative:
Hatanaka Shigemitsu) of Japan Society for the Promotion of
Science for supporting our research study. The authors also
thank Mr. Hiroshi Wato (Mie University).
90
120
150
180
30
References
40
50
60
70
Compressive strength (MPa)

Fig. 26 Estimated compressive strength distribution
pressure was measured as reported here. From the

results, estimation flows for density distribution and
compressive strength distribution by applying the
one-dimensional consolidation theory was proposed.
The acquired data can be summarized as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
According to results of the press dewatering

experiment using mortar, the relationship
between the amount of compaction and the time
matched that estimated by the consolidation
theory comparatively well.
The density increases of press-dewatered mortar
and concrete became almost constant in the depth
direction. This tendency matched that estimated
by the consolidation theory.
The density distributions in vacuum-dewatered
mortar and concrete were about equal to those of
non-processed mortar and concrete at the bottom
layer and equal to those of 0.1 MPa (equivalent
to atmospheric pressure) press-dewatered specimens at the top layer.
The technique based on the consolidation theory
was found to enable estimation of density and
compressive strength distributions generated by
vacuum dewatering in mortar. However, the
technique should be further studied in order to
improve the accuracy of estimation concerning
the surface layer where the amount of accumulated cement varies with the filter mat
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Study On Mechanism of Strength Distribution Development

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Materials and Structures (2010) 43:12831301