Bio Midterm

Ch. 1
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Metabolism- the sum of all chemical reactions in an organism

Homeostasis- the internal maintenance for stable conditions
Gene- the basic unit of heredity
Ecology- branch of bio; studies interactions of organisms w/ non and living parts of env.
Genome- complete genetic material in an individual
HIV- virus that attacks/destroys immune system
Cancer- growth defect in cells; cant control cell division
Mad cow disease- in animals, a disease caused by eating infected animals
Cystic fibrosis- inherited; disorder where mucus clogs passages of organs
Gene therapy- replacement of defective gene w/ normal version
Observation-note taking by using senses
Hypothesis- explanation that might be true; can be tested
Prediction- expected outcome of a test, assuming hypothesis is true
pH- relative measure of hydrogen ion concentration of a solution
experiment- planned procedure to test a hypothesis
control group- group that receives no experimental treatment
independent variable- the factor that is changed
dependent variable- the factor that is measured
theory- a set of related hypotheses that have been tested and confirmed many times
(unites and explains broad range of observations)
- West Nile virus- from mosquitoes
Themes of Bio. : (1) cell structure and functions; (2) reproduction; (3) metabolism; (4)
homeostasis; (5) heredity; (6) evolution; (7) interdependence
Genome: 3 billion individual units; sequence of genetic material; road map
Stages of Scientific Process: observations, questions, hypothesis and prediction, confirming
predictions, conclusions, theory
Ch. 2
- Atom- the smallest unit of matter; cant be broken down by chemical means (protons,
electrons, neutrons)
- Element- pure substance made of only one kind of atom
- Compound- two of more diff. elements
- Molecule- group of atoms held together by covalent bond
- Covalent bond- two or more atoms share electrons to form
molecules
- Hydrogen bonds- a weak chemical attraction between polar
molecules
- Polar molecules- molecules w/ unequal distribution of electron charges; water; dissolve
best in water
- Ion- atom/molecule that gain or lost one/more electrons
- Ion bond- ions of opp. Charge interact w/ each other

Cohesion- attraction between substances of same kind

Adhesion- attraction between diff. substances
Nonpolar molecules-dont dissolve well in water
Acids- compounds that form hydrogen ions when dissolved in
water
Bases- compounds that reduce hydrogen ions when dissolved in
water
Carbohydrates- organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1
ration; building blocks are single sugars called monosaccharide (glucose,
fructose);storehouses of energy
Lipids- nonpolar; insoluble; fats, phospholipids, steroids, waxes; imp. In cell membrane
and store energy; saturated (butter) and unsaturated (oil)
Proteins- building blocks are amino acids (20 diff. kinds); sequence determines protein
shape and function; some proteins are enzymes; contain nitrogen
Nucleic Acid- long chain of nucleotides (the building blocks; sugar, base, and phosphate
group) 2 types: DNA and RNA
ATP- adenosine triphosphate, single nucleotide with two extra energy storing phosphate
groups
Energy- the ability to move or change matter
Activation energy- the energy needed to start a chemical reaction(enzymes decrease
activation energy and increase speed of reaction)
Enzymes- catalysts, help maintain homeostasis, reversible, not changed, reusable,
factors: temp and pH
Energy releasing
(exothermic)-water
freezing
Energy absorbing
(endothermic) - ice
melting

Ch. 3
- Light microscope- used on living cells, low magnification; compound light microscopes
are the ones at school (Hooke)
- Electron microscope- high magnification; forms image by using beam of electrons;
specimen in vacuum; transmission electron microscope/ scanning electron microscope
- Magnification- the quality of making an image appear larger than it is
- Resolution- measure of the clarity of an image
- Micrograph- image produced by a microscope
- Scanning tunneling microscope- uses computer to make 3-D image of object

Figure 1 Cell Theory

Cell Size- micrometers, smaller cells are more

efficient that large cells, as surface area and
volume increase ratio decreases
Common features of cells: membrane, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, ribosomes

Rec
eptor Protein- binds specific things outside cell
Marker Protein- attached to carbohydrate adverse cell type
Enzymes- for biochemical reactions in cell
Transport Protein- aid movement of substances in/out of cell
Prokaryotes- single-celled, no nucleus organelles or internal compartments; broad range
of environmental conditions; cell wall; flagella
Eukaryotes- has nucleus; organelles; flagella used in single celled eukaryotes and
sometimes cilia
Cell wall: surrounds cell membrane in plants and bacteria; provides structure and
protection
Flagella: few, long; made of microtubules; attached to outside of cells helps it move
Cilia: many, short; made of microtubules; attached to outside of cells, helps movement
Cytoskeleton: network of microtubules (big) and microfilaments (small) that give cell
shape, support, and help move cell parts

Smooth ER; network of membranes WITHOUT ribosomes; regulate calcium, makes

lipids, break down toxins
Rough ER: membrane system with ribosomes attached which modifies and transports
molecules; cells Highway
Vesicle: small membrane bound sac that transports substances in cells
Golgi Apparatus: stacked like pancakes; modifies, sorts, and packages molecules for
export
Mitochondria: own DNA, inner and outer layer, powerhouse of cell that burns glucose
and stores energy as ATP
Chloroplasts: photosynthesizing organelle found in plants that contains chlorophyll in
thylakoid sacs and has its own DNA
Lysosomes: sac of digestive enzymes that breaks down food, unwanted cells, or cell parts
Ribosomes: center of protein production, small structures which synthesize proteins
Vacuoles: storage space for food, waste, enzymes, and water that is larger in plant cells
and smaller in animals cells
Selectively Permeable- describes membranes which allow certain substances to pass
through but keeps others out

Ch. 4
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Passive Transport- movement across the cell membrane that doesnt require energy
Concentration gradient- diff. in the concentration of a substance
Equilibrium- condition in which concentration of a substance is equal throughout space
Diffusion- movement from high to low
Osmosis- the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
Hypertonic solution- water moves out
Hypotonic solution- water moves in
Isotonic solution- no net water movement
Channels- transport proteins that provide polar passageways through which ions and
polar molecules can move across the cell membrane (aquaporin- water, osmosis; ion
channel- transport protein with a polar pole through which ions can pass; carrier- others)
Inside of cell is usually negative
Carrier Proteins- bend and change shape to allow something to pass
Facilitated Diffusion- uses carrier proteins to move substances like sugars and amino
acids
Active Transport- movement across the cell membrane that requires energy
Sodium Potassium Pump- 3 sodium ions out, 2 potassium in; prevents sodium ions
from accumulating in cells and helps maintain concentration gradients of sodium ions and
potassium ions while also transporting substances like glucose
Endocytosis- moving a substance into cell by vesicle (phagocytosis and pinocytosis)
Exocytosis- moving a substance by a vesicle outside of cell
Signal Molecules- carry info to nearby cells and throughout body
Receptor proteins- in cell membrane; binds to specific signal molecule enabling the cell
to respond to signal molecule

Beta blockers- bind to receptor protein to interfere with signal molecule to slow down
heart rate
Binding of signal molecules can change cell by:
1. Changes in permeability (can be coupled with ion channel)
2. Formation of second messenger which acts as a signal molecule in the
cytoplasm; amplifies 1st signal molecule
3. Acting as enzyme

Ch. 5
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Autotrophs- use energy from sunlight or chemical bonds in inorganic substances to make
organic compounds
Heterotrophs- get energy from food instead of directly from sunlight or inorganic things
ATP- portable form of energy currency inside cells; delivers energy where it is needed
Pigments- light absorbing substances
Chlorophyll- primary pigment in photosynthesis, absorbs mostly blue and red light,
reflects green and yellow ( a and b)
Carotenoids- pigments that produce yellow and orange
Thylakoids- disk-shaped structures in chloroplasts, membranes contain pigments
Electron Transport Chain- series of molecules through which excited electrons are
passed along a thylakoid membrane
- Carbon Dioxide Fixation- transfer of
carbon dioxide to organic compounds
(common method is Calvin Cycle)
- Photosynthesis- two parts- Light
Dependent and Light Independent aka as
Calvin Cycle
- Light Dependent: uses light and water

to make oxygen and ATP and NADPH; oxygen leaves through stoma; happens in
thylakoid
Electron Transport Chain: thylakoid membrane; light goes into PS II and PS I; water
splits (enzyme) and electrons go through membrane; oxygen leaves; hydrogen stays;
hydrogen go through ATP synthase and makes ATP; 2nd electron transport chain takes
electrons and combines with hydrogen ions and NADP+ to make NADPH
Calvin Cylce- named after Melvin Calvin; uses energy from light reactions and carbon
dioxide; makes glucose; happens in stroma of chloroplast; 3 carbon dioxide molecules
enter Calvin Cycle (18) and split into 6 3-carbon compounds
Phosphate from ATP and NADPH are added to from 3-carbon sugars
One of those 3 sugars leaves (glucose)

The other 5 3-carbon sugars regenerate to the initial 5 carbon compounds

Factors that affect photosynthesis; light intensity- saturation point; carbon dioxide
level; most efficient in a certain range of temp.
Cellular Respiration: 38 ATPs
Stage 1 : Glycolysis
1. Breaks down glucose into 2
pyruvates, makes 2 ATP and 2
NADH; cytoplasm
Stage 2: Production of ATP
When oxygen is present, pyruvate enters into mitochondria and is converted to a twocarbon compound;
makes one carbon
dioxide, one NADH
and one two-carbon
acetyl (attached to
coenzyme A forming
acetyl-CoA) (two
times)
Krebs Cycle:
1. Named after Hand Krebs; in matrix
2. Makes in total after two cycles 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2
Every NADH= 3 ATP; every FADH2 = 2 ATP
Electron Transport Chain: 34 ATP
1. Inner membrane (cristae)
2. Electrons from NADH and FADH2 go through ETC; hydrogen ions are pumped out,
diffuse back into inner compartment through carrier protein (ATP synthase) which
adds a phosphate group to ADP making ATP
3. Hydrogen ions and electrons combine with oxygen to form water
Fermentation during anaerobic conditions: Lactic acid (lactate) and alcoholic (ethanol
and carbon dioxide) ; recycle NAD+

Ch. 7
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Gametes- organisms reproductive cells

Binary fission- from of asexual (single parent) reproduction that produces identical
offspring
Gene- segment of DNA that codes for a protein of RNA molecule
Chromosomes- the DNA and the protein associated with the DNA
Chromatids- the two exact copies of DNA that make up each chromosome
Centromere- the point where the two chromatids are attached
Homologous chromosomes- chromosomes that are similar in size, shape and genetic
content
Diploid- cell contains two sets of chromosomes (somatic cells) (not gametes)

Haploid- cell contains one set of chromosomes (gamete)

Zygote- fertilized egg cell, the first cell of a new individual
Autosomes- chromosomes that are not directly involved in the determining the sex of an
individual
Sex chromosomes- one of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans, contains genes that
will determine the sex of the individual
Karyotype- a photo of chromosomes in a dividing cell that shows the chromosomes
arranged by size
Types of Mutations:
1. Deletion- loss of one or a piece of chromosome
2. Inversion- piece of chromosome comes off and attaches back on upside down
3. Translocation- piece of DNA comes off a chromosome and attaches to another
chromosome
4. Nondisjunction- one of the sex cells will have one too many or one too short
Cell Cycle- repeating sequence of cellular growth and division
Interphase- first 3 phases of cycle, cell spends 90% of its time here
1. G1- cell grows rapidly (G0)
2. S DNA is copied
3. G2- preparations are made for nucleus to dived, microtubules rearrange
Mitosis- Nucleus divides
Cytokinesis- cytoplasm divides (in plants a cell plate appears)
Prophase- chromosomes become visible, nuclear envelope dissolves, spindle
(kinetochores) form
Metaphase- chromosomes line up along equator
Anaphase- centromeres dived, chromatids (chromosomes) move toward opposite poles
Telophase- nuclear envelope forms at each pole, chromosomes uncoil, spindle dissolves,
cytokinesis begins
Centrioles- only in animal cells, star like