AN ESSAY

THE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES AND METHODS

By:
Rizky Yolanda
0203514095
State University of Semarang
2015

The Translation Techniques and Methods

Rizky Yolanda
0203514095
Graduate Program, State University of Semarang
Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia
khieyolanda@yahoo.com

Introduction
Translation typically has been used to transfer written or spoken SL texts to equivalent
written or spoken TL texts. In general, the purpose of translation is to reproduce various kinds of
texts including religious, literary, scientific, and philosophical texts in another language and thus
making them available to wider readers.
If language were just a classification for a set of general or universal concepts, it would be
easy to translate from an SL to a TL; furthermore, under the circumstances the process of
learning an L2 would be much easier than it actually is. In this regard, Culler (1976) believes that
languages are not nomenclatures and the concepts of one language may differ radically from
those of another, since each language articulates or organizes the world differently, and
languages do not simply name categories; they articulate their own. The conclusion likely to be
drawn from what Culler (1976) writes is that one of the troublesome problems of translation is
the disparity among languages. The bigger the gap between the SL and the TL, the more difficult
the transfer of message from the former to the latter will be.

The Definition of Translation

According to Nida (1964) Definitions of proper translating are almost as numerous and
varied as the persons who have undertaken to discuss the subject. This diversity is in a sense
quite understandable; for there are vast differences in the materials translated, in the purpose of
the publication, and in the needs of the prospective audience.
Nevertheless, a definition which is not confined to the mere transference of meaning is
furnished by Nida and Taber (1969) who postulate Translation consists in reproducing in the
receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of
meaning and secondly in terms of style.
Bell (1999) seems to have pursued the same line of emphasis on meaning and style in his
translation of the definition given by the French theorist, According to Dubois (1974) Translation
is the expression in another language (or the target language) of what has been expressed in
another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences.
W idening the above definitions, Sager (1994) maintains that translation should reflect the
environment in which the professional translation activity takes place, Translation is an
extremely motivated industrial activity, supported by information technology, which is
diversified in response to the particular needs of this form of communication. I n a similar vein,
Koller (1995) describes translation as a text processing activity and simultaneously highlights
the significance of equivalence, Translation can be understood as the result of a text processing
activity, by means of which a source-language text is transposed into a target language text..
Between the resulting text in L2 (the target-language text) and the source text L1 (the

sourcelanguage text) there exists a relationship which can be designated as translational, or

equivalence relation.
Translation Techniques
One widely-accepted list of translation techniques is outlined briefly below:
A. Borrowing
This means taking words straight into another language. Borrowed terms often pass into
general usage, for example in the fields of technology ("software") and culture ("punk").
Borrowing can be for different reasons, with the examples below being taken from usage rather
than translated texts: the target language has no (generally used) equivalent. For example, the
first man-made satellites were Soviet, so for a time they were known in English as "sputniks".
the source language word sounds "better" (more specific, fashionable, exotic or just accepted),
even though it can be translated. For example, In English and also Bahasa Indonesia we use
piano, this word is borrowing from Italian.
B. Calque
This is a literal translation at phrase level. Sometimes calques work, sometimes they
don't. For example, English word Skycraper become pencakar langit in Bahasa Indonesia.
C. Literal Translation
Literal translation is the translation of text from one language to another "word-forword", rather than giving the sense of the original. For this reason, literal translations usually
mis-translate idioms. For example, a literal English translation of the German word

"Kindergarten" would be "garden of children," but in English the expression refers to the school
year between pre-school and first grade.
D. Transposition
This is the mechanical process whereby parts of speech "play musical chairs" (Fawcett's
analogy) when they are translated. Grammatical structures are not often identical in different
languages. For example, in English phrase Trade secrets and confidential become rahasia
dagang in Bahasa Indonesia.
E. Modulation
Modulation slightly more abstract than transposition, this consists of using a phrase that
is different in the source and target languages to convey the same idea - "nobody doesnt like it" "semua orang menyukai itu".
F. Reformulation (sometimes known as equivalence)
Here you have to express something in a completely different way, for example when
translating idioms or, even harder, advertising slogans. The process is creative, but not always
easy.
G. Adaptation
Here something specific to the source language culture is expressed in a totally different way
that is familiar or appropriate to the target language culture. Sometimes it is valid, and sometimes
it is problematic, to say the least. For example, as white as snow become seputih kapas.

H. Compensation

Another model describes a technique known as compensation. This is a rather amorphous

term, but in general terms it can be used where something cannot be translated from source to
target language, and the meaning that is lost in the immediate translation is expressed somewhere
else in the TT. Fawcett defines it as: "...making good in one part of the text something that could
not be translated in another". One example given by Fawcett is the problem of translating
nuances of formality from languages which use forms such as tu and usted (tu/vous, du/Sie, etc.)
into English which only has 'you', and expresses degrees of formality in different ways. For
example in English to Bahasa Indonesia, a pair of scissors become sebuah gunting.
Translation Methods
Translation method refers to the way a particular translation process is carried out in
terms of the translators objective, such as a global option that affects the whole text. There are
several translation methods that may be chosen, depending on the aim of the translation:
interpretative-communicative (translation of the sense), literal (linguistic transcodification), free
(modification of semiotic and communicative categories) and philological (academic or critical
translation) (see Hurtado Albir 1999). Each solution the translator chooses when translating a
text responds to the global option that affects the whole text (the translation method) and depends
on the aim of the translation. The translation method affects the way micro-units of the text are
translated: the translation techniques. Thus, we should distinguish between the method chosen by
the translator, e.g., literal or adaptation, that affects the whole text, and the translation techniques,
e.g., literal translation or adaptation, that affect micro units of the text.

Logically, method and functions should function harmoniously in the text. For example,
if the aim of a translation method is to produce a foreignising version, then borrowing will be
one of the most frequently used translation techniques.
Newmark (1988) mentions to the following methods of translation:
1. Word-for-word translation: in which the SL word order is preserved and the words
translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context.
2. Literal translation: in which the SL grammatical constructions are converted to their
nearest TL equivalents, but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context.
3. Faithful translation: it attempts to produce the precise contextual meaning of the original
within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures.
4. Semantic translation: which differs from 'faithful translation' only in as far as it must take
more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text.
5. Adaptation: which is the freest form of translation, and is used mainly for plays
(comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture
is converted to the TL culture and the text is rewritten.
6. Free translation: it produces the TL text without the style, form, or content of the original.
7. Idiomatic translation: it reproduces the 'message' of the original but tends to distort
nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in
the original.

8. Communicative translation: it attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the

original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and
comprehensible to the readership (1988).
The method of translation is introduce by Newmark (1998) as V diagram to show to
different translation polar. In one polar, Newmark state the important of source language system
and culture on the other polar is focusing the importance of target language system and culture.
SL EMPHASIS ON

TL EMPHASIS ON

Word-for-word translation
Literal translation
Faithful translation
Semantic translation

Adaptation
Free translation
Idiomatic translation
Communicative translation

According to Larson (1984) translation method is divided into two categories. First
category is from-based or literal translation. Secondly, it is meaning based or idiomatic
translation. By literal translations, he means, the translation faithfully follows the form of the SL.
On the other hand, the idiomatic translation tries to convey the meaning intended by the SL
writer in a natural form of the receptor language. Larson then adds that in applying the literal
translation, there is rarely a true literal translation. The methods spread in the continuum from
very literal, to literal, to modified literal, to near idiomatic, idiomatic, and unduly free. The
continuum is drawn as follow:

1. Very literal is an interlinear translation. For some purposes, it is desirable to reproduce

the linguistic features of the source text, as for example, in a linguistic study of that
language.
2. Literal translation is a translation which its sounds like nonsense and has little
communicative value. It may be very useful for the purposes related to the study of the
source language, they are of little help to speakers of the receptor language who are
interested in the meaning of the source language text.
3. Modified literal methods are a way to modify order and grammar of the source language
in an acceptable sentence structure in the receptor language. However, the lexical items
are translated literally.
4. Inconsistent mixture mixes literal and idiomatic translation in the final draft of
translation.
5. Near idiomatic reproduces the meaning of the source language (that is the meaning
intended by the original communicator) in receptor language without losing the natural
form of the source language.
6. Idiomatic translation reproduces the meaning of the source language (that is the meaning
intended by the original communicator) in the natural form of receptor language.
7. The unduly free translation adds extraneous information, which is not stated in the
source text. It changes the meaning of SL; it distorts the fact of the historical and
cultural setting of the source text.

Prior to Newmark and Larson, Robet Holmes (1970) cited in Gentzler (1993) mentions
that there are four methods of translation, as follows:

1. First method retains the form of the original.

2. The second attempts to discern the function of the text in the receiving culture and seeks
parallel function within the target language tradition.
3. The third is content-derivative, taking the original meaning of the primary text and
allowing it to develop into its own unique shape in the target language.
4. The fourth deliberately retains minimal similarity for other purposes, for which Holmes
gives no example.

Conclusion
Translation techniques and methods are different in characteristics and uses. Each
technique and method has its own advantages that differ according to the texts under translation.
No one can judge the validity and prevalence of one techniques and methods over the other. It is
up to the translator to choose the one he sees more practical and helpful in his translation task.
Besides, the translator may restrict himself to one technique and method, or exceed it to two,
three, or even four techniques and methods in the same translated text.

References
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