BRM Study Pack

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS
INTRODUCTION
TO
BUSINESS RESEARCH
Page 1
INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH

A. Session objective:
After the session the student will be able to understand:
Research,
Business Research,
Significance of research,
Some important research terminologies
What is research?
What is business research?
Why to study research?
What is theory? Purpose, Levels, Approaches
Classifications of research
B. Session outline
Page 2
What is Research?
In simple words Re-search means Search again
OR
It is a process if gathering information to answer a question
What is Business Research?

In simple words it is a systematic and objective process of: Gathering, recording and analyzing
data for making good business decisions.
Examples of Business Research
What is the best strategy to promote a particular product? (Marketing)
What are the main reasons for employee turnover? (HRM)
What is the rate of return on particular investment? (finance)
Why to study research

The best reason for learning about research methods is that these methods are used by
Managers to answer questions regarding day to day business problems. Following are some other
implications of the research
1. Management is a Science: Management is a science to gather and interpret information
in order to make effective decisions.
2. Reduce Uncertainty: The prime managerial value of business research is that it reduces
uncertainty by providing the required information and improves the following four stages
of decision making:
a. Identifying problems and opportunity.
b. Diagnosing and assessing problems or opportunities.
c. Selecting and implementing a course of action.
d. Evaluating the course of action.
3. Conducting a study: Research methods course is very useful for you as you have to do
your masters thesis in order to complete your degree requirement and it can be helpful to
you at some time in the future because being a professional everyone wants to read and
understand the most recent research in order to be up-date their profession.
4. Reading and evaluating other peoples study: A grasp of research terminology will
allow you to read and understand research articles and critically evaluate them. Rather
than reading a summary of someone elses research in a magazine, news-paper, or
textbook, you can read the original article your-self and draw your own conclusions.
5. Understanding brief descriptions of studies: A research method course will help you
understand abbreviated descriptions of studies given as evidence supporting some
conclusion or theory.
Page 3
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
6. Thesis is based on Research: Besides all
the business
relatedMETHODS
benefits of the research
studies, it is also useful for your academic requirement of thesis as being compulsory for
your degree.
7. Making decisions in our daily lives: Besides becoming a researcher, to be an effective
participating member of the 21st century one must understand the research process in
order to evaluate and act on research results.
8. Being a better thinker: Research methodology will improve your thinking as it is a
logical and objective method of finding answers to questions which may apply to all
aspects of life.
9. Secrets of success: Finally as described by Aristotle: The secret of success is to know
something nobody else knows.
Theory
Theory is a standardized principle on which basis we can explain the relationship between two
or more concepts or variables.
Purpose of Theory
Prediction about the relationship among the variables and,

Understanding the association among the concept
Levels of Theory
1. Abstract level
At the
abstract level, Concepts and propositions are the elements of theory
2. Empirical level
At the empirical level theory is concerned with variables and testable hypothesis, the empirical
counterparts of concepts and propositions.
Empirical level
Figure 1: levels of Theory
Page 4
THEORY APPROACHES
There are two types of research theory approaches that are as follows:
INDUCTION
Induction involves observation and investigation into the relationship between

meanings and actions of human subjects
Data is collected without proior assumptions about catgorization and measurement
The context of the situation is incorporated into the analysis process as the
research seeks to undersand the internal logic and purposive nature of human
actions.
The outcome of the enquiry is to suggest / build a credible exlanation of
behaviours that have been observed
There is less concern with the need to generalize although further avenues for
research may be identified
DEDUCTION
Deduction involves the formulation of hypotheses (statements which theory suggest as

true)
Hypotheses are then irrationalized such that the variables involved can be identified and
measured in an objective way. Such measurements can be undertaken for the enquiry, but
the same approach could be repeated in a different situation.
Data is then gathered and this information is used to test whether the hypotheses really
does describe reality.
The outcome of the enquiry, as shown against the original hypotheses, is either to modify
or to confirm the theory from which the hypotheses were derived
Page 5
Page 6
Induction
Deduction
Classification of research
1. On the basis of Application
2. On the basis of Objective
3. On the basis of Time Dimension
4. On the basis of Inquiry Mode
On the basis of Application
a) Basic Research: Research done mainly to enhance the understanding of certain
problems that commonly occur in an organizational setting and seeking methods of
solving them is called basic or fundamental research
Basic research contributes to the body of knowledge by generating new ideas, principles
and theories which may or may not be immediately utilized.
b) Applied Research: Research done with the intention of applying the results of the
findings to solve specific problems currently being experienced in the organization is
called applied research e.g. Reasons to find out decline in sale of certain products.
Applied research is frequently descriptive research, less theory, Central and main
strengths are its immediate practicalities.
On the basis of Objective
a) Exploratory Research: The purpose of exploratory research is to seek new insights
Page 7
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODS
and find out what is happening. There is an attempt
to ask
questions
and asses
phenomena in a new light. A more qualitative approach often underpins this sort of
enquiry and the focus is on obtaining new insights into current situations and issues.
b) Explanatory Research: This research explains a situation or problem, usually in the
form of casual relationships. The focus is on 'Why?' and 'How?'.
c) Descriptive Research: This type of research sets out to provide an accurate profile of
situations, people or events. It focuses on 'what?', 'when?', 'where?', and 'who?'.
On the basis of Time Dimension
a) Cross Sectional Research: Cross-sectional survey collects data to make inferences
about a population of interest (universe) at one point in time.
b) Longitudinal Research: Longitudinal is a broad term. It can be defined as research in
which: (1) data are collected for two or more distinct periods;(2) the subjects or cases
analyzed are the same, or at least comparable, from one period to the next; and (3) the
analysis involves some comparison of data betwen or among periods
On the basis of Inquiry Mode
1. Quantitative Research: Is "a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical
data is utilised to obtain information about the world. It is inclined to be deductive, In
that it tests theory.
2. Qualitative Research: Is an informal, subjective research approach that usually
emphasizes words rather than numbers in the collection and analysis of data it is
inductive in nature and generates theory.
3. Mixed Method Research: Mixed methods research focuses on collecting, analyzing,
and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or series of studies.
Its central argument is that the use of quantitative and qualitative approaches in
combination provides a better understanding of research problems than either approach
alone.
Page 8
Page 9
RESEARCH PARADIGMS
Page 10
RESEARCH PARADIGMS
Research Paradigms,
Paradigm philosophy,
Elements of a research
What is meant by research paradigm?

Different research paradigms?
o Positivism Paradigm
o Interpretivism Paradigm
o Pragmatism Paradigm
Philosophical assumptions of research paradigms
Different Elements of research with reference to each paradigm
B. Session outline
Page 11

RESEARCH PARADIGMS/ WORLD VIEWS
The term paradigm described as essentially a collection of beliefs shared by scientists, a set of
agreements about how problems are to be understood, how we view the world and thus go about
conducting research. These paradigms contain a basic set of beliefs or assumptions that guide
our inquiries (Guba & Lincoln, 2005).During the past century, different paradigms have taken
birth due to the remarkable growth in social sciences research. There are mainly three paradigms
to the verification of theoretical propositions, i.e. positivism, interpretivism and pragmatism
WHY THESE PARADIGMS ARE IMPORTANT: All researchers need a foundation for its inquiry and researchers need to be aware of the
paradigms they bring to their study. Different modes of research allow us to understand different
phenomena and for different reasons (Deetz, 1996). The Paradigm chosen depends on what one
is trying to do rather than a commitment to a particular paradigm (Cavaye, 1996). Thus, the
Paradigm employed must match the particular phenomenon of interest. Different phenomena
may require the use of different
Table: (Three worldviews/paradigms used in research.)
Positivism
Interpretivism
Pragmatism
Determination
Understanding
Reductionism
Multiple participant
meanings
Consequences of
actions
Empirical observation
and measurement
Theory verification
Social and historical

construction
Theory generation
Problem centered
Pluralistic
Real-world practice
oriented
SOURCE: Creswell, 2003
Positivism:Positivist assumes that true knowledge is based on experience of senses and can be obtained by
observation and experiment. Positivistic thinkers adopt scientific methods as a means to
generate knowledge. Positivism is called Scientific Method, Empirical Science, Post Positivism
and Quantitative Research.
Interpretivism: Interpretivism sometimes also called Constructivism, Social Constructivism and Qualitative
Research. In this paradigm, an individual seeks an understanding of the world in which they live
and work. They develop subjective meanings of their experiences or towards certain objects or
things.
Pragmatism: The final paradigm is typically associated with mixed method research. The goal of pragmatic
research is not to replace either of these approaches but rather to draw from the strengths and
Page 12
BUSINESS
minimize the weaknesses of both in single research
studies RESEARCH
and across METHODS
studies (Johnson &
Onwuegbuzie, 2004).
TOWARDS SELECTION OF RESEARCH PARADIGMS AND

PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS
Starting with a certain research paradigm means researchers starts their research with certain
assumptions about how they will learn and what they will learn during the research.
Philosophically, researchers make claim about what are knowledge (Ontology), how we know it
(epistemology), and what value go into it (axiology). How we write about it (rhetoric). What is
the process of research (methodology) etc.
Such assumptions related to what exists, what it looks like, what units make it up and how these
units contrast with each other divide research into the different paradigm details of which is
given below (Creswell, 2003)
Each of the paradigms discussed above has definite research methods which can be used in
carrying out scientific investigation. The question arises: how does a researcher select a research
paradigm and corresponding methodology? The following questions may be raised by the
researcher:
What is the nature or essence of the social phenomena being investigated?

Is social phenomenon objective in nature or created by the human mind?
What are the bases of knowledge corresponding to the social reality, and how
knowledge can be acquired and disseminated?
What is the relationship of an individual with his environment? Is he conditioned by
the environment or is the environment created by him?
Based on the above questions, researchers can identify whether the research questions pertain
to positivism, Interpretivism, and pragmatism; and choose the appropriate methodology
accordingly. For a concrete understanding of research paradigms and their philosophical
assumptions please see table below:
Page 13
Table: Research Paradigms & Philosophical Assumptions

Sr.
#
Philosophical
assumption
1 Ontology: What is the nature of

reality? OR what is
knowledge?
Positivism
Interpretivism
Pragmatism
Singular reality existing apart

from researchers perception
and cultural biases.
(Objectivism)
Multiple realities shaped by

researchers prior
understanding and
assumptions.
(constructionism).
Singular and multiple

realities.
e.g. researchers reject or fail

to reject hypothesis.
2 Epistemology: What is the

relationship between
the researcher and
that being researched?
e.g. researchers provide

quotes to illustrate different
perspectives.
Distance and impartiality (e.g.

researchers objectively collect
data on instruments.)
Closeness (e.g. researchers

visit participants at their sites
to collect data)
Acceptable knowledge is
gained through sense and is
objectively real. (Objective)
It is cased on the perceptions

of the individuals about the
world. (Subjective)
Unbiased (e.g. researchers

use checks to eliminate bias)
Biased (e.g. researchers

actively talk about their biases
and interpretations)
e.g. researchers test

hypothesis and
provide multiple
perspectives.
Practicality (e.g.
researchers collect
data by what work to
address research
question).
Objective + Subjective
What is regarded as
acceptable knowledge
and how we know it?
3 Axiology: What is the role of

values?
Page 14
Multiple stances. (e.g.

researchers include
both biased and
unbiased perspectives)
4 Rhetoric: -
Formal style (e.g. researchers

use agree on definitions of
variables)
Informal style. (e.g.

researchers write in literary,
informal style)
Formal or informal
(e.g. researchers may
employ both formal
and informal styles of
writing).
Deductive (e.g. researchers

test a priori theory)
Inductive (e.g. researchers

start with participants views
and build up to patterns,
theories and generalizations)
Combining (e.g.
researchers collect
both Quantitative and
Qualitative data and
mix them )
6 Strategies of Inquiry
Surveys, experiments and

field work
Grounded theory,
ethnography, case study and
narratives
Sequential, concurrent
and transformative.
7 Methods
Closed ended questions,

predetermined approaches
numerical data, statistical
analysis (Quantitative)
Open ended questions,

emerging approaches, and text
and image analysis.
(Qualitative)
Both open and closed

ended questions; both
emerging and
predetermined
approaches; both
quantitative and
qualitative data and
analysis.
What is the language

of research?
5 Methodology: What is the process of

research?
Adapted from: Creswell, J. W and Clark, V.P, 2007
Page 15
Elements of interpretivism and Positivism Research in the Process of Research
Interpretivism
Point of view of participants
Understand meaning individuals give to a

phenomenon inductively
Contextual understanding
Paradigm
Intent of the research
Positivism
Point of view of researcher
Test a theory deductively to support or

refute it
Generalization
Major role
Justifies problem
Identifies questions and hypotheses
Ask closed-ended questions
Test specific variables that form

hypotheses or questions
Numbers
From many participants at many

research sites
Sending or administering instruments
Minor role
How literature is used
Justifies problem
Ask open-ended questions
Understand the complexity of a single

idea (or phenomenon)
Words and images
From a few participants at a few research

sites
How intent is focused
How data is collected
Page 16
Studying participants at their location.
Natural setting
Artificial setting
Data is collected at Micro level
Data is collected at Macro level
Text or image analysis
Numerical statistical analysis
Themes
Larger patterns or generalizations.
Rejecting hypotheses or determining

effect sizes
Researcher is close
Researcher is distant
Identifies personal stance
Remains in background
Reports bias
Take steps to remove bias
Using validity procedures that rely on the

participants, the researcher, or the reader
Using validity procedures based on

external standards, such as judges,
past research, statistics
to participants
How data is analyzed
Role of the researcher
Page 17
How data is validated
Table: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methods Approaches
Tend to or typically
Qualitative Approaches
Quantitative
Approaches
Mixed Methods Approaches
Use these
philosophical
assumptions
Constructivist Paradigms
Positivist Paradigms
Pragmatic Paradigms
Employ these
strategies of inquiry
Phenomenology. Grounded
theory, ethnography, case
study, and narrative
Surveys and
Experiments
Sequential, concurrent, and

transformative
Employ these
methods
Open-ended questions,
emerging approaches ,
text or image data
Closed-ended questions,
predetermined
approaches, numeric
data
Both open and closed-ended

questions, both emerging and
predetermined approaches, and
both quantitative and qualitative
data and analysis.
Page 18
Positions himself or herself

Collects participant
meanings
Focuses on a single
concept or phenomenon
Brings personal values into
this study
Use these practices of
research, as the
researcher
Studies the context or

setting of participants
Validates the accuracy of
findings
Makes interpretation of the
data
Creates an agenda for
change or reform
Collaborates with the
participants
Page 19
Tests or verifies theories

or explanations
Identifies variables to
study
Relates variables in
questions or hypothesis
Uses standards of
validity and reliability
Observe and measures
information numerically
Uses undecided
approaches
Employs statistical
procedures
Collects both quantitative and

qualitative data
Develops a rationale for mixing
integrates the data at different
stages of inquiry
Presents visual pictures of the
procedures in the study
Employs the practices of both
qualitative and quantitative
research
References:
Bryman, A. and Bell, E. (2003) Business Research Methods, second edition,

Oxford University Press.
Cavaye, A. L. M. (1996). Case study research: A multi-faceted research approach
for IS. Information Systems Journal, 6, 227242.
Cherryholmes, C. H. (1992) Notes on Pragmatism and scientific realism.
Educational Researcher, 14, 13-17.
Creswell, J. W. (2003) Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches (2nd ed.). thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. and Clark, V. L. (2007) Designing and conducting mixed methods
research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Deetz, S. (1996). Describing differences in approaches to organization science:
Rethinking Burrell and Morgan and their legacy. Organization Science, 7, 191207
Guba, E. G. and Y. S. Lincoln. (1994). Competing Paradigms in Qualitative
Research. Handbook of Qualitative Research. N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln.
Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage. Vol : 105-117.
Kuhn, T.S. (1962) The Structure of Scientific Revolution. Chicago : University of
Chicago Press.
Johnson, R.B and Onwuegbuzie, A.J (2004), Mixed Methods Research: A
Research Paradigm Whose Time Has Come, Educational Researcher, Vol. 33, No. 7,
pp. 1426
Murphy, J. P. (1990) Pragmatism: From pierce to Davidson, Boulder, CO: West view
Press.
Slife, B. D., & Williams, R. N. (1995) Whats behind the research? Discovering
hidden assumptions in the behavioural sciences. Thousand oaks, CA: Sage.
Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (1998) Mixed methodology: Combining qualitative
and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Page 20
ACTIVITY
Page 21
Discussion on Short Case Study

Deductive and Inductive Research
Sadie decided to conduct the research project on violence at work and its effects on
the stress levels of staff. She considered the different ways she would approach the
work were she to adopt:
The deductive approach

The inductive approach
If she decided to adopt the deductive approach to her work, she would have to:
1. Start with the hypothesis that staffs working with the public are more likely to
experience the threat or reality of violence and resultant stress;
2. Decide to research a population in which she would have expected to find
evidence of violence, for example, a sizeable social security office;
3. Administer a questionnaire to large sample of staff in order to establish the
extent of violence (either actually experienced or threatened) and the levels
of stress experienced by them;
4. Be particularly careful about how she defined violence;
5. Standardize the stress responses of the staff, for example, days off sick or
sessions with counselor.
On the other hand, if she decided to adopt an inductive approach she might have
decided to interview some staff who had been subjected to violence at work. She
might have been interested in their feelings about the events that they had
experienced, how they coped with problems they experienced, and their views
about the possible causes of violence.
Either approach would have yielded valuable data about this problem (indeed, both
may be used in this project, at different stages). Neither approach should be
thought of as better than the other. They are better at different things. It depends
where her research emphasis lies.
Page 22
LITERATURE
REVIEW
Page 23
LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature Review,
Literature review process,
Referencing
What is literature Review?

How to conduct literature review?
o Select a topic
o Locate resources
o Read the literature
o Analyze the literature
o Annotated bibliography
Literature review writing
APA Referencing style
B. Session outline
Page 24
LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of
current knowledge on a particular topic. Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up
to date with current literature on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such
as the justification for future research in the area. It seeks to describe, summarize,
evaluate, clarify and/or integrate the content of previous researches". Literature
review help researchers limit the scope of their inquiry and convey the importance
of studying a topic to readers.
But before starting on reviewing literature the researchers must select and refine
his research topic and also needs to consider whether the topic can and should be
researched. Then, the discussion moves into the actual process of reviewing the
literature.
Purpose of the Literature Review

The literature review in a research study accomplishes several purposes that are as
follows:
1. Distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done

2. Discovering important variables relevant to the topic
3. Synthesizing and gaining a new perspective
4. Identifying relationships between ideas and practice
5. Establishing the context of the topic or problem
6. Rationalizing the significance of the problem
7. Enhancing and acquiring the subject vocabulary
8.
Topic
understanding
identification:
the structure
(Begin by of
identifying
the subject
the topic that might emerge from
preliminary
readings
in
the
library
or
discussing
9. relating ideas and theory to applications with some experts in concerned
fields) identifying the main methodologies and research techniques that
10.
have been used
11.
placing the research in a historical context to show familiarity with
Locate sources of literature: (Locate related articles, books, journals, and
state-of-the-art
developments
databases
from library
or electronic sources.)
Adapted from Doing Literature Review by Chris Hart
(p.27)
Readto
theconduct
literature:a(Look
over and read
the material (books, journals etc) that
How
Literature
Review
are central to the topic focusing on the fact that whether they will make a useful
contribution
to the
of the literature.)
There
is no one
wayunderstanding
to conduct a literature
review, but many scholars proceed in a
systematic way to capture, evaluate and summarize the literature.
Analyze the literature: (After reading the relevant literature, there is need to
Steps
in conducting literature review
analyze the literature from different selected articles with the help of following
methods that are given in the following pages of this chapter)
Annotated bibliography: (After analyzing the literature, we should use

annotated bibliography that provides a brief account of the available research on
a given topic.)
Writing the literature: (After this detail work, we should write the literature
Page 25
carefully according to specified instructions.)
1.
Topic identification
Adapted from Research Design by Creswell

(p.34)
Before considering what literature to
use in a project first we identify topic of the
study. The topic should be simple, straight forward, brief, and researchable (i.e.
willing participants, resource availability and value adding to the body of
knowledge)
2.
Sources of Literature
To build on key points in Literature Review Process, we will first consider techniques
useful in accessing the literature quickly through databases. The literature sources
available to help you to develop a good understanding of and insight into previous
research. The sources of literature can be divided into three following categories
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tertiary Sources
The different categories of literature resources represent the flow of information

from the original resources. Often as information flows from primary to secondary to
tertiary sources it becomes less detailed and authoritative but more easily
accessible. Recognizing this information flow helps you to identify the most
appropriate sources of information for your needs.
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tertiary sources
Indexes
Reports
Abstracts
Thesis
Newspapers
Catalogues
Emails
Books
Conference
reports
Encyclopedia
Primary
literature sources (also
known as
grey literature) are theJournals
first occurrence
Dictionnaires
Company reports
Bibliographies
Page 26 publications
Some government
Internet
Some government
publications
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODS
of a piece of work. They include published
sources
such as reports
and some central
and local government publications such as white papers and planning documents.
They also include unpublished manuscript sources such as letters, memos and
committee minutes that may be analyzed as data in their own right.
Reports
Conference proceedings
Thesis
Secondary literature sources such as books and journals are the subsequent
publication of primary literature. These publications are aimed at a wider audience.
They are easier to locate than primary literature as they are better covered by the
tertiary literature
Journals
Books
Newspapers
Sources
Frequency
of publication
Format of
publication
Coverage by
abstracts and
indexes
(Tertiary
resources)
Quarterly,
weekly, Monthly
Mainly printed
but also
available online
or on CD-ROM
Academic
journals are well
covered but
others need to
browse actual
copies of journals
> library
holding
> Internet
Once but
subsequent
editions may be
published
As same for
academic
journals
well covered by
abstracts and
indexes
Widely
available
Likely
availability
Journals
>Academic
Journals
>Professional
Journals
>Trade
Journals
Books
Page 27
Newspapers
Conference
proceedings
Daily or Weekly
Mainly printed
but also in
internet format
>Specialized
indexes available
>CD-ROM and
Internet format
are easy to
search.
Dependent on
conference
> As for
academic
journals
> May be
published in
books form
> May be
published on
internet
Limited but
Depends on
conference.
Specialized
indexes
sometime
available
Not widely
available or
held by
library
Poor compared
with most
secondary
sources although
some specialized
indexes exist
Not widely
available or
held by
library
Good for PhD and

MPhil research
degrees,
otherwise poor
> library
holding
> Internet
Reports
Once
As for academic
journals
Thesis
On the awarding
of the research
degree
Mainly printed
but increasingly
available on
microfiche
> library
holding
> Internet
Tertiary literature sources, also called search tools, are designed either to help
to locate primary and secondary literature or to introduce a topic. They therefore
include indexes and abstracts as well as encyclopedias and bibliographies. Tertiary
resources available at superior can be accessed via following address:
www.digitallibrary.edu.pk/superior.html
Or
Through Superior website www.superior.edu.pk by clicking on Digital Library link
on the right bottom of the web page.
Some other sources are as follows:
Name
Type
Internet address
Google
Search engine
www.google.com
Page 28
Google Scholar
Search engine for

scholarly material
www.scholar.google.com
Yahoo
Search engine
www.yahoo.com
Ebscohost
Database
Springer link
Database
Blackwell synergy
http://www.springerlink.com
http://www.blackwell-synergy.com
Oxford press
Publisher
http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/public/inde
x.html
University Of
Chicago Press
Publisher
http://www.journals.uchicago.edu
3.
How to read Literature
Reading analytically in research is a process that progresses from the general to the
particular. At first skimming through the material is most effective. But before
reading we must be clear about the purpose of reading in order to identify the
information components in a literature to be extracted. Following are the purposes
of reading
Arguments
Concepts
Conclusions
Definitions
Ethics
Events
Evidence
Hypothesis
Interpretations
Justification
Motives
Perspective
Politics
problem
Questions
Standpoint
Styles
Techniques
Theory
Ways of thinking
Reading Process
1. Initially skim through the material (Book, article) noting its structure,
topic, style, general reasoning, data and bibliographical references.
2. Survey the main parts this means quickly glancing through each part to
Page 29
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODS
get a general idea of the structure
of the material
(Book,
article) as a
whole and to identify the key chapters.

3. Skim over and then read the preface and introduction, trying to identify
the ideas, aims and logic for the work. Look for signposts the author
provides for the logic of the work. These might be found in overviews /
abstracts of the material.
4. Read the parts that you have identified as being important to your needs.
You do not need to read the whole yet focus those which provide the
rationale for the study.
How to read Books
How to read articles
Skim Through the Book
Read abstract of the article
Survey the parts of the book
Skim through the article
Read the preface and

introductions
Survey the main parts of the

article
Read in detail the selected

important parts
Read in detail the selected

important articles
Adapted from Doing Literature Review by Chris Hart

(p.53)
4. Analysis and Synthesis
Analysis is the job of systematically breaking down something into its constituents
parts and describing how they relate to each other it is not random dissection but
a methodological examination. There is a degree of exploration in analysis. You can
play around with the parts, rearranging them in various configurations to explore
possible leads.
If a range of arguments is being analyzed, you will need to explicate the claim, data
and warrant for each argument. In this way, the identification of the individual and
similar elements in a range of items can be compared and contrasted.
Page 30
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODS
The kinds of analysis relevant to literature
reviewing
are those
which have
systematically extract key ideas, theories, concepts and methodological
assumptions from the literature.
The foundation of analysis is thinking in various ways about what you are reading.
This process will enable you to dig beneath the surface of an argument and be able
to see the origins of the pieces of research or theory. In other words you will come
to know the typology of origins and assumptions which most authors on a subject
employ, but rarely state, in their work.
Synthesis is the act of making connections between the parts identified in analysis.
It is not simply a matter of reassembling the parts back into the original order, but
looking for a new order. It is about recasting the information into a new or different
arrangement. That arrangement should show connections and patterns that have
not been produced previously. Synthesis requires you to have a comprehensive
knowledge of the subject and a capacity to think in broad terms, because a range of
viewpoints, methodologies stances often require connecting. This means that as an
analyst you will usually find yourself battling to keep control of a large amount of
information.
As analyst-cum-evaluator you will be seeing how others have managed information
and ideas in order to construct what they take to be a plausible argument. Before
knowing how to analyze and synthesize, first know the concept of some terms that
are as follows.
Analysis
Select,
differentiate,
dissect, and
break up.
Unpacking a thing into its constituent

parts in order to infer or determine the
relationship and/or organizing principle
between them; thereby isolating the
main variables.
Synthesi
s
Integrate,
combing recast,
formulate,
reorganize.
Rearranging the elements derived from

analysis to identity relationship or show
main organizing principle or show how
these principles can be used to make a
different phenomenon.
Page 31
Comparing and Contrasting
A common practice in the social sciences is to make comparisons between the

works and ideas of different authors. This usually involves finding common points of
interest between, definitions of main concepts, kinds of data collected and the
interpretations of findings. The practice can be useful in identifying common areas
of interest and differing positions on similar topic areas. Following figure points out
the levels of comparison and contrast. The point to note, however, is that
comparing theorists has inherent difficulties, mainly to do with the selection of
criteria or points of reference that are valid and comparable
Theorist A
Ontology
Epistemology
Morality
Politics
Interpretation
Data
Methodology
Axiology
Rhetoric
Theorist B
Area of difference
Area of similarity
Ontology
Epistemology
Morality
Politics
Interpretation
Data
Methodology
Axiology
Rhetoric
Area of difference
Points of reference for making a comparison between theorists
Page 32
Argumentation
An argument involves putting forward reasons to influence someones belief that

you are proposing in the case (Hinderer, 1992). Whichever way someone makes an
argument they are attempting to convince others of way someone makes an
argument they are attempting to convince others of the validity (or logic) of how
they see the world and convince us that we should see it the way they do. An
argument has therefore at least two components: a point and a reason
Making a point (or statement)
Providing sufficient reasons (or evidence) for the point to be accepted by

others
These elements are related and the movement can go either way to form the
arguments;
A movement form either a point to reason
From evidence to conclusion (the point).
Or
Analyzing and evaluating arguments

There are many ways to analyze and evaluate arguments but here we will discuss
only two that are as follows
a) Toulmins method of argumentation analysis
b) Fishers method of critical reading
a) Toulmins method of argumentation analysis.
Toulmin developed an approach to argumentation analysis that was rooted in the
practice rather than the theory of logic. Toulmin provides a flexible approach to the
examination of actual procedures used in practical argument.
He proposes that an argument can be broken up into a number of basic elements
that are as follows:
Claim
an arguable statement
Evidence
Data used to support the claim
Warrant (or permit) an expectation that provides the link between the
evidence and claim
Backing
Context and assumptions used to support the
validity or the warrant
and evidence
A challenge can be made to any or all elements. Is the claim justified? What the
evidences, warrant and backing justified? Added to these we can ask whether the
claim stands up to major challenges. Is it sufficiently robust or does it needs to be
Page 33
reworded?
For example a challenge to the warrant might be made on any or all of these
grounds: the research was out of date; the conclusions in the reports did not
logically follow from the data collected; the evidence was inappropriate; or the datacollection techniques were unreliable.
Example
Following is an example from everyday life. In dry summers consumers are asked
and expected to save water through careful and limited use. This is normally taken
to mean water should only be used for essential things-watering lawns, filling
swimming pools and washing cars are prohibited. The argument for this could have
the following structure:
Data
Car washes can use upto 250,000 gallons of water in the main summer weeks. This quantity depletes water re
Car owners should restri
Water is essential and people
Water shortage cause inconvenience, ar

Adapted from Doing Literature Review by Chris
Hart (p.87)
b) Fishers method of critical reading
Fisher (1993) provides a method for a systematic reading of texts. This initial
reading technique enables the reader to systematically extract the main elements
(words) of any argument for the purpose of evaluation. It enables the evaluation of
any argument to be done by analysis of its formal structure. Words that are used to
structure an argument are the focus for the analysis. Words such as thus and
Page 34
BUSINESS
METHODS
therefore are highlighted, because they
are usedRESEARCH
to link evidence
with claims and
suggest inference, reasons and conclusions. Form this, the structure of the
argument can be seen or even rewritten as an argument diagram. The purpose of
the following procedure, adapted from Fisher (1993), is to extract the conclusions
(C) and reasons (R) of an argument.
1.
First look quickly through the text in order to get an initial sense of
the authors project and purpose
2.
Read the text again circling

therefore, etc.) as you read.
3.
Look for conclusions and any stated reasons for theses. Underlines
the conclusion and place in brackets <> any reasons.
4.
Attempt at this stage to summarize the authors argument. If there

is no clear argument, ask what point(s) the author is trying to make and why.
5.
Identify what you take to be conclusions by marking them up with a

C remember that there may be interim conclusions as well as the main one.
Typical indication of a conclusion is the use of the following words: therefore,
thus, hence, consequently, and so on. Be careful not to assume that a summary
or formulation provided by the author of their argument so far must be the
conclusion.
6.
Taking the main conclusion, ask yourself what reasons are

presented in the text for believing this conclusion or why you are being asked to
accept this conclusion. Typical indication of reasons is words and phrases such
as: because, since, it follows, and so on.
7.
The reasons provided for the argument can be ranked into a

structure go through each reason (R) asking whether it is essential or secondary
reasons for the argument. You will then be able to construct an argument
diagram with the following structure:
any inference indicators (thus,
R1 + R 2
(Therefore) C (Interim conclusion)
R1 or R2
(Therefore) C [for dependent reasons]
Variations on these structures are common. For example, a main conclusion might
be supported by an interim conclusion and several basic reasons. So, taking the first
equation above
R1 + R 2
C1 or R3
=
=
(Therefore) C1 (Interim conclusion)
(Therefore) C2 (main conclusion)
Fisherman method is base on assertability question involving questioning both the

premises and conclusions of an argument. The main assertability question is: what
argument (what you would need to believe) or evidence (what you would need to
know) would justify the acceptanceAdapted
of the conclusions.
from Doing Literature Review by Chris
Hart (p.79-95)
Page 35
5. Annotated bibliography
The word annotated is the past tense form of the verb to annotate which means
to summarize. An annotation is simply a summary of a book, article, or some
other written source. A bibliography is a list of sources on a particular topic. Put
together, an annotated bibliography is a list of sources on a topic that offers a
summary for each source. An annotated bibliography provides a brief account of the
available research on a given topic. It is a list of research sources that includes
concise descriptions and evaluations of each source.
The annotation usually contains a brief summary of content and a short analysis
or evaluation. Depending on your assignment you may be asked to reflect,
summarise, critique, evaluate or analyse the source.
An annotated bibliography may be a component of a larger assignment or it may
be a stand-alone assignment. While an annotation can be as brief as one
sentence, the standard annotated bibliography consists of a citation followed by a
short paragraph.
Purpose of an Annotated Bibliography

An annotated bibliography may serve to:
Review the literature of a particular subject;
Demonstrate the quality and depth of reading that you have done;
Exemplify the scope of sources availablesuch as journals, books, web sites

and magazine articles;
Highlight sources that may be of interest to other readers and researchers;
Explore and organize sources for further research.
What does an annotated bibliography look like?

An annotated bibliography has two parts. The first part is the bibliography
line which should be written according to the format your teacher requires, which
could be MLA format, APA format, or some other format. . The second part is the
summary paragraph. Both parts taken together are called an entry. Entries
are typically organized in alphabetical order according to the bibliography
information, such as the last name of an author or the title of a book. As with a
normal reference list or bibliography, an annotated bibliography is usually
arranged alphabetically according to the authors last name. An annotated
bibliography summary should be about 100 - 200 words per citation.
Contents of an Annotated Bibliography

An annotation may contain all or part of the following elements depending on the
Page 36
BUSINESS
word limit and the content of the sources
you areRESEARCH
examining.METHODS
Provide the full reference and citation
Indicate the background of the author(s)
Indicate the content or scope of the text
Outline the main argument
Indicate the intended audience
Identify the research methods (if applicable)
Identify any conclusions made by the author/s
Discuss the reliability of the text
Highlight any special features of the text that were unique or helpful (charts,
graphs etc.)
Discuss the relevance or usefulness of the text for your research
Point out in what way the text relates to themes or concepts in your course
State the strengths and limitations of the text
Present your view or reaction to the text
Contents of annotated bibliography

Sample Annotation
The citation goes first and is followed by the annotation. Make sure that you follow
your facultys preferred citation style. The summary needs to be concise (please
note the following example is entirely fictitious).
In the sample annotation below, each element is described:
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Reference
AIM/ PURPOSE
RQs./Hypotheses
Important
Themes
Paauwe.J. Boselie.P., (2005) HRM and Performance; What

next? Human Resource Management journal, vol 15, no 4,
pages 68- 83.
A linkage between HRM and performance, multi-dimensional concepts of HRM
RQ:
RQ1: what is HRM?
RQ2: What is performance?
RQ3 : what is the nature of link between HRM and performance
HRM theories
Top four HRM practices
Individual and bundle HRM practices
Page 37
METHOD/APPROA
CHES
FINDINGS/CONCL
USION
RELATIONSHIP
TO TOPIC/SUBTOPIC & OTHER
ARTICLES
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES

4 different fits
HRM and employee perception
Indicators of performance
HR competitive advantage
HRWP & HIWP
(1) Paradigm and Approach
(2) Population and sampling:
(3) Measures:
(4) Method:
Literature based
(5) Analysis:
Empirical evidence supported best practice approach rather than best fit
approach
Other articles you annotated:
Your topic :HRM and Performance
Defines HRM
Measurement of performance
Linkages HRM with performance
Prior researches:
1.Different theories are defined
2.Different fits and bundles of hr given
3.Best 12 HR practices
1.only models are proposed
2. no measures or assumptions define
Referencing
Referencing is a way of crediting all sources of information and ideas that you have
used in any piece of academic work. Referencing means systematically showing
what information or ideas you are quoting or paraphrasing, and where they come
from.
Why reference?
In your assignment, you will use ideas and information from other sources to
support points and arguments you want to make. If you use someone elses ideas in
your work, either by using your own words or making a direct quotation, you must
reference the source, in order to:
Acknowledge other peoples ideas,

Show you are aware of other peoples ideas and are including them,
Allow the reader to find the original material you have used,
Avoid plagiarism
What must I reference?

You must reference whenever you copy (diagrams, illustrations, tables) or directly
quote from someones work. You must also reference when you summarise ideas
and information from someones work, or when you paraphrase by putting someone
elses ideas in your own words. Failure to do any of the above is considered
plagiarism.
All work done by other researchers
Other writers' words
Page 38
What is Plagiarism?
The presentation by an individual of another persons ideas or work (in any medium,
published or unpublished) as though they were his or her own (Queen Margaret
University 2005, p.49). Plagiarism is considered to be a major breach of academic
regulations. If you are unsure about how to reference, and fail to reference correctly
in an assignment, it will still be regarded as plagiarism, even though you did not set
out with the intention of plagiarizing.
WHAT DO I NOT NEED TO REFERENCE?
General knowledge
Common knowledge in your field
Ideas that are definitely your own
Findings or insights from your own research.
DIFFERENT REFERENCING SYSTEMS
APA Referencing
Harvard Referencing
Oxford-Cambridge Referencing
MLA
AMA
APA (American Psychological Association) Style: This system is
primarily used by those writing in the social sciences.
Components of referencing
Referenci
ng
Intext
Referencing
(Citation)
End list
Referencing
In-Text Reference:
An in-text reference to show that a piece of information, idea, quotation, etc. It is
Page 39
RESEARCH
METHODS
always designed to be short because itBUSINESS
is interrupting
the text.
Example:
Much of this research has demonstrated that there is a relationship between HR
practices and firm profitability (Allen, 1996).
Author name
year
End list reference

An End list reference to show the detailed information of source. It includes
following contents
Contents
Example
Author Name
Allen, N. J. & Meyer, J. P. (1996)
Year
1996
Title
Affective, continuance and normative commitment and turnover
Journal
Academy of Management Journal
Volume no
37
Page no
670-87
Example:
Author last name,. Initials. , (year), title, Journal (or Publisher), Volume (issue
if given), Page number
Allen, N. J. and Meyer, J. P. (1996) Affective, continuance and normative

commitment and turnover, Academy of Management Journal, 37: 670-87.
Sourc
e
In-text Example
End-List Example
Article
Wharton (1996)
Wharton, N. (1996). Health and safety in outdoor

activity centers. Journal of Adventure Education
and outdoor Leadership, 12(4), 8-9
Book
Comfort (1997, p. 58)
Comfort, A. (1997). A good age. London: Mitchell
Page 40

Beazley.
Websi
te
Dawson & Smith,

(2002)
Dawson, J., Smith, L., (2002). Retrieved october

31, 2002, from
http://studytrekk.lis.curtin.edu.au/
How to write the literature review

The literature review as a piece of academic writing must be clear, have a logical
structure and show that you have acquired a sufficient range of skills and
capabilities at an appropriate level. As a whole, the literature review should show all
relevant documents, published and unpublished, have been identified and analyzed.
These means demonstrating that all the main concepts, theories, and
methodological approaches relevant to the topic that have been identified
understood and critically evaluated. The primary objective of literature review is to
furnish necessary but sufficient information to demonstrate that you have thought
carefully about the knowledge on the topic that is contained in the literature.
A literature review can be
a summary of existing work on the topic

a critical evaluation of previous work
it can be some general and specific conclusions about work done to
date on the topic
One of the main reasons for writing the review is to make a proposal for the
research you intend to do. This means that your review of the literature must
provide a methodological rationalization for your research. You need to investigate
the history of assumption and definitions other researchers have employed to study
order, to provide the story of how the topic was defined, established and developed.
In each part of your methodological story you are aiming to make recommendation
for your research. As a recommendation your research needs to be a structured
argument that in its simplest format achieves the following;
Knowledge-based elements:
1. A description of previous work on the topic, identifying leading concepts,
definitions and theories;
2. Consideration of the ways in which definitions were developed and
operationalized as solutions to problems seen in previous work
3. Identification and description of matters other researchers have considered
important.
Page 41
Argumentation elements:
1. A description of what you find wrong in previous work on the topic

2. A proposal for action that might solve the problem you research;
3. An explanation of the benefits that might result from adopting the proposal
4. A refutation of possible objections to the proposal
The analysis that you will have done when reading the literature should provide
sufficient material, and understanding of that material, to make a proposal for your
own research. Form your notes, three kinds of resources you should employ are;
1. the relevant vocabulary with alternative definitions of words and concepts
2. summaries of the methodological arguments found in key texts;
3. your assessment of how key definitions and methodological assumptions
have been operationalized
The result of your analysis might also provide you with ideas for the structure of
your review.
References
Saunders M., Lewis P. Thornill A. (2003), Research Methods for Business Students,
Pearson education, new Delhi, India
Hart C. (2007), Doing a literature review; Releasing the social science research
imagination, Sage Pub., London, UK
Creswell J. W. (2003), Research Design Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches, Sage Pub., California, USA
Page 42
ACTIVITY
Page 43
LITERATURE REVIEW
Class Activity 1
Group discussion
Argument analysis on a provided topic by the resource person
Class Activity 2
Reading article
o
o
o
Identification on contents of annotated bibliography as discussed in the

lecture
In-text referencing
End-list referencing
Page 44
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
METHODS
Page 45
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Quantitative Research,
Quantitative Research process,
Reliability and Validity
Sampling
Survey Methods
What is meant by Quantitative Research Method?

How to conduct Quantitative Research?
Validity, types of validity
Reliability, types of validity
Sampling techniques
Methods of data collection
B. Session outline
Page 46
BUSINESS RESEARCH
METHODS
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODS
Quantitative research is "a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical
data is utilised to obtain information about the world" (Burns and Grove cited by
Cormack 1991). Quantitative research is inclined to be deductive. In other words it
tests theory.
General aims of quantitative research
o To generalize
o To be objective
o To test theories or hypotheses
Quantitative Research Process
Steps:-
Page 47
1. Theory
Quantitative research is started from theory for the fact that it signifies a
broadly deductive approach to the relationship
betweenMETHODS
theory and research to
BUSINESS RESEARCH
be undertaken.
2. Hypothesis
At 2nd level hypothesis is deduced from the theory, selected in step 1, in order
to test through data collection and analysis.
3. Research Design
3rd step is to select appropriated research design that fulfils the research
objectives and justifies the related issues such as external validity of finding
etc.
4. Devise measures of concepts
4th step covers devising measures of the concepts in which the researcher is
interested in this process is often referred to as operationalization
5. Select research site(s)/ Respondents
5th step relates the selection of a research site, or sites and sample respondents
that are convenient, safe and supporting for the researcher.
6. Administer research instruments / collect data
6th step involves the administration of the research instruments i.e. interviewing
the sample members by structured interview schedule, or distributing a selfcompletion questionnaire.
7. Process data
7th step simply refers to the fact that once information has been collected it
must be transformed into data, quantification involves coding of the
information.
8th step involves a number of techniques of quantitative data analysis to reduce

the amount of data, test for relationships between variables, to develop ways of
presenting the results of the analysis to others and so on.
8. Data analysis ad interpretation
9. Findings / Conclusions
9th step, On the basis of the analysis, the researcher will consider the
connection between the findings that emerged out of the step 8
10th step, A study cannot

take onup
significance
beyond satisfying the researchers
10. Write
findings /conclusions
personal curiosity until it enters the public domain in some way by being written
up as a paper, book or journal article in a convincing language for the readers
Page 48
Concepts and their Measurement

Concept
Concepts are the generalized ideas about objects, attributes, occurrence or process
as that have been given a name for identification, be it physical or non physical. All
these may be considered as empirical abstracts realities. Concepts are the building
blocks of theory.
Examples
Achievement motivation, Structure, agency, deskilling, organizational size,
technology, charismatic, leadership, followers, TQM, functional subcultures,
knowledge, managerial identity, motivation, morale, productivity, stress etc
Variable
Anything that may have varied (different) numerical or categorical values is called
variables
Example:
Gender is a variable: it can take two values male or female. Family income is also a
variable as it can take values from zero to billions of rupees.
Construct Variable
A construct is a hypothetical mechanism that helps to explain and predict behavior
in a theory.
Example
A bright boy does poor work in college because he has low motivation. Now the
question is what motivation is. How we can measure it is low or high? Such variables
are called Construct, Hypothetical of In-tangibles variables.
If concept is to be employed in quantitative research it will have to be measured as
followed.
Operational Definition
An operational definition is a procedure for measuring and defining construct. An
operational definition specifies a measurement procedure for measuring external
factors.
Although constructs are intangible but the play vary important role in behavioral
theories.
In many theories construct can be influenced by external stimuli.
Example:
Probably the most familiar example of an operational definition is IQ test, which is
Page 49
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
intended to measure intelligence .Notice
that Intelligence
is METHODS
constructive. Which is
measured through questionnaire?
Whenever the variables in the research study are hypothetical or construct, you
must use operational definition to define and measure the variables.
Usually the best method for determining how a variable should be measured is to
consult previous research involving the same variable.
Operationalization
Operationalization is the process of defining a concept so that it becomes
measurable variable, which is achieved by looking at behavioral dimensions
denoted by the concept and categorizing them into observable and measurable
elements?
Whenever the variables in the research study are hypothetical or construct, you
must use operational definition to define and measure the variables.
Steps of Operationalization
Concept
Dimension
Element
Concept
Questions
Concepts are the building blocks of theory.
Concepts are abstract realities. It is a
generalized idea about objects, attributes, occurrence or process that have been
given a name for identification, be it physical or non physical. All these may be
Scales
considered as empirical realities.
Example:
Achievement Motivation, Leadership, Productivity, Height, Happiness, Inflation,
Assets, Family income etc
Dimension
A magnitude that independently or in conjunction with other such magnitudes,
serves to measurably define a particular concept. In other words, the observable
instance that refers to the concept.
Example:
Driven by work, Unable to relax, Impatience with ineffectiveness, Seeks moderate
Page 50
challenge, Seeks feedback.
Element
A component or constituent of a whole or one of the parts into which a whole may
be resolved by analysis.
Example:
Driven by work
1. Constantly working
2. Reluctant to take time off
3. Persevering despite setbacks
Unable to relax
1. Thinks of work even at home
2. Does not have any hobbies
Questions
To get quantified measurable data from delineated elements the questions are
being developed that are validating the concept and fulfills our objectives of data
collection for the study
Example:
1. To what extent would you say you push yourself to get the job done
on time
2. How difficult do you find it to continue to do your work in the face of
initial failures or discouraging results
3. How frequently do you think of your work when you are at home
etc.
Scales
Scale is the process of nominating, ranking, or rating of the categories of the
construct.
Page 51
Page 52
1. Scales of Measurement:
Scale of measurement
A question/statement can be scaled on the basis of

Nominal Scale
Nominal
Ordinal Scale
Interval
Ratio
Scale
Scale
Scale
A scale in which object or individual is broken into
categories that have no
numerical property is called Nominal Scale.
Example: Gender (Male, Female), nationality (Pakistani, American, Indian), religion

(Islam, Hinduism, Christianity)
Ordinal scale
Scales in which categories of object or individual are ranked in sequential
(ascending/descending) order are called ordinal scale.
Example: Motivation (More Motivated, Less motivated)
Interval Scale
A scale in which the unit of measurement (intervals) between the numbers of the
scale is all equal is called Interval Scale.
Example: Measurements of temperature in Fahrenheit
Ratio Scale
A scale in which in addition to order and equal units of measurement there is an
absolute zero that indicates and absence of the variable being measured is called
Ratio Scale.
Example: Time a man who were requiring 10 seconds to solve the problem (10
more than 0)
Page 53
Scale
Definition
Propertie
Base
s
A scale in which objects

or individual is broken
Nominal scale into categories that
Identity
have no numerical
properties.
Example
Math
Statistical tool
Gender
Difference
Race
Mode & Chi-square

none
Religion
A scale in which objects

or individuals are
categorized and the
Directiona
Ordinal Scale
Order
categories form a rank l
order along a
continuum.
If Ali is placed in low

reading group & Akber
is placed in better
Rank
reader, we know Akber
is better reader, but we
dont know how much order
Mode & Median
A scale in which the

units of measurement Equal unit
Interval Scale (intervals) between the
Magnitude
numbers on the scale Size
are all equal.
Measurements of
temperature in
Fahrenheit.
Mean, mode 7 Median
Ratio Scale
A scale in which, in
addition to order and
equal units of
measurement, there is
Ratio
an absolute zero that
indicates an absence of
the variables being
measure.
Page 54
Add
Subtract
To give 10 sec. to some

individual to solve the
Absolute zero
problem.(10 more than
Add
0)
Subtract
Page 55

Response formats for scales
Binary ResponseNumerical
formats Response formats Verbal formatsBipolar numerical formats
Frequency formats
There are several ways of presenting the response formats for the individual items that
make up a scale like a likert scale. The king used in tips and skills formatting a likert
scale
Binary response format

My job is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting bored
Agree _____disagree________
(This format is sometime elaborated to include a dont know response)
To ensure that a particular concept is actually and accurately measured, we check
Numerical
response
format of the scales.
the reliability
and validity
Validity
My job
is usually interesting enough to keep me for getting bored
5
Validity
refers
to
of whether or not an indicator really measures the
4
3
2 the issues
1
concept that it is devised to measure.
Types of Validity
(Where 5 means strongly agree and 1 mean strongly disagree)

Following are the different types of validity:
Face Validity
Face validity is the validity where measure apparently reflects the content of the
concept in question. It might be established by asking other experienced or expert
people in the field to determine whether extrinsically (on the face) the measure
seems to reflect the concerned concept or not.
Example:
IQ test ought to include questions that require logic, reasoning, background
BUSINESSappear
RESEARCH
knowledge, and good memory. Such questions
to be METHODS
appropriate for
measuring intelligence and therefore have high face validity. Face validity is based
on subjective judgment and is difficult to quantify.
Predictive validity
Here the researcher employs the criterion whereby a new measure predicts a future
event or correlates with the criterion measure administrated at a later time.
Example: The entry test scores predicts the future behavior of the students
Concurrent validity
A type of criterion validity whereby a new measure predicts a current event or
correlates with a criterion measure administrated at a same time.
Example: The Semester exams measure the current level of students' behaviors
Construct validity
It is the degree to which a measuring instrument accurately measures a theoretic
construct or trait that it is designed to measure.
Example: If an indicator claims to measure aggression and it proves a positive
relationship between aggression and temperature. As been approved by previous
researches that there will be a construct validity
Face Validity
(Validity
where measure apparently reflects the content of the concept in question)
Convergent
validity
A test has convergent validity if it has a high correlation with another test that
measures the same construct.
Example: If there is high correlation between a questionnaire and observation
schedule in order to measure managers time, spent on various activities, then it is
Predictive
called convergent validity.
(Researcher employs the criterion whereby a new scale predicts a future event)
Validity
(Are we
Measuring the
Right thing)
Concurrent
(Researcher employs the criterion whereby a new scale measures a current event )
Convergent
(A test has convergent validity if it has a high correlation with another test that measures the same
Construct
(Instrument accurately measures a theoretic construct )
Reliability
Reliability is the stability or the consistency of measurement. If the same individuals
are measured under the same conditions, a reliable measurement procedure
(Instrument) will produce identical (or nearly identical) measurements.
Test-retest reliability
Stability
Reliability
(Accuracy in
(Stability means
Whether or not a
measurement is
Consistency
Parallel-form reliability
Interterm consistency
reliability
Split- half reliability
(Every time when

you measure the
Test-retest reliability (Successive measurement)
Types of Reliability
The reliability estimate determined by comparing the scores obtained from two
successive measurements.
It can be measured as
(Test Score) / (Re-Test Score) = 1
Parallel-form reliability (equivalent-form reliability)
The reliability estimate determined by comparing the scores obtained from two
simultaneous but different forms of measurements.
In this method two alternative instruments are designed to be as equivalent as
BUSINESS
METHODS
possible. Each of the two measurement
scales is RESEARCH
administered
to the same group of
subjects. If there is a high correlation between the two forms, the researcher
concludes that the scale is reliable.
Example
As temperature can be measured with Fahrenheit and Celsius scales and then
checked whether both have given same values or not? If value is same that
reliability is high or vice versa
Inter-item consistency reliability
It relates that a measure to test the consistency of respondents answers to all the
items in a measure to the degree that items are independent measures of the same
concept.
It can be measured with
Cronbach Alpha
It is a commonly used test of internal reliability. It essentially calculates the average
of all possible split-half reliability coefficients. A computed alpha coefficient will vary
between 1 (denoting perfect internal reliability) and 0 (denoting no internal
reliability). The figure 0.70 is typically considered as a rule of thumb to denote an
acceptable level of internal reliability
Split- half reliability
Split half reliability reflects the correlation between two halves of an instrument. In
this method we divide the measure is divided into two halves and then checked for
the consistency of respondents answers in the two halves.
SAMPLING
What is sampling?
Sampling is the process of selecting segment of the population for investigation.
Important Terms in Sampling
Population: - basically, the universe of units from which the sample is to be
selected. The term units is employed because it is not necessarily people who are
being sampled. The researcher may want to sample from a universe of nations,
cities, regions, firms, etc. thus, population has a much broader meaning than the
everyday use of the term, whereby it tends to be associated with a nations entire
population.
Sample: the segment of the population that is selected for the investigation. It is
a subset of the population. The method of selection may be based on a probability
or a non-probability approach (see below).
BUSINESS
METHODS
Sampling frame: the listing of all the
units in RESEARCH
the population
from which the
sample will be selected.
Representative Sample: a sample that reflects the population accurately so
that it is a microcosm of the population.
Sampling error: the difference between a sample and the population from which
it is selected, even though a probability sample has been selected.
Sampling Techniques
There are two major sampling techniques that are as follow:
Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is an approach of sampling in which each unit has equal
chance / probability to be selected.
Simple Random Sampling
It is a sampling procedure in which each unit of the population has an equal
probability of inclusion in the sample. It can be derived from sampling fraction that
is n / N where n stands for sample size and N for the population size. In this method
we develop a numeric list of all sample size and using a table random numbers or
computer program we generate random numbers.
Systematic Random Sampling
Probability sampling procedure in which the initial sampling point is selected at
random, and then the cases are selected at regular intervals. In this method we
systematically choose the first number i.e. 5 and then we will choose 15,
25,35,45,55 etc. numbered case.
Stratified Random Sampling
It is the process of sampling in which each subgroup (department, Gender etc)
called strata is given equal chance to be selected randomly. It gives equal
proportionate representation to each stratum.
Cluster Sampling
It is a sampling technique in which we derive samples out of aggregations of
populations (clusters) that are geographically dispersed and possibly unable to
access at the same time. i.e 10 companies (clusters) from around the Pakistan.
Non probability Sampling
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
Non probability sampling is the sampling
approach
in which METHODS
the chance or
probability of each unit to be selected is not known or confirmed.
Convenience Sampling
Convenience Sampling is the technique of sampling in which the research selects
the sample that is convenient and easily accessible to researcher.
Example: researcher wanting to conduct survey/research on managers behavior
selects an MBA executive class comprising of managers at his university
Snowball Sampling
In this technique the researcher makes initial contract with a small group of people
who are relevant to the research topic and then uses them as referrals to contacts
with others.
Quota Sampling
Non-probability sampling is the process of selecting a sample that reflects a
population in terms of the relative proportions of people in different categories such
as gender, ethnicity, age groups, and region of residence etc. However, the
sampling is if individuals are not carried out randomly, rather.
Sampling
Sampling Technique
Probability
Non-Probability
Simple random sample
Convenience sampling
Stratified random sample
Snowball sampling
Systematic sample
Quota sampling
Multi-stage cluster sampling
Quantitative Survey Methods
Survey is a quantitative research strategy that involves the structured collection of

data from a pre-determined sample. It involves following methods
1. Questionnaire
2. Structured interview
3. Structured observation
Questionnaires
Survey
Questionnaire
Structured Interview
Structured Observation
Self administered questionnaires

Participant Non
Observation
-Participant Observation
On-line questionnaires
Telephone Interviews
Face to face interview
Postal questionnaires
Questionnaire is pre-formulated written set of questions to which respondents
record their answers Questionnaires are self explanatory, read and answered by
respondents by themselves. They are relatively cheaper, quicker to administer
unbiased and convenient for respondents as well as researcher but on the other
hand they are limited with respect to information gathered, sometimes irrelevant to
respondents, and mainly have lower response rate.
Questionnaires can be
On-line questionnaires
Postal questionnaires
Self administered questionnaires
The choice of questionnaire will be influenced by a variety of factors related to your
Research question(s)
Research objective
Characteristics of respondents
Size of sample
Dimensions of the concept to be measured and

Availability of required resources.
Designing a Questionnaire
Designing a questionnaire is based on following principles
Principle of wording
The nature of the variable will determine what kind and number of questions
will be asked i.e ranking, rating or dichotomous
The wording should be simple, easy and appropriate
Closed ended questions will be used with the intention to have ease, and
enhanced comparability.
Example Closed Ended:
Add both positively as well as negatively worded questions e.g.

Are you satisfied with your performance in
I feel I have been able to
accomplished a number of different
things in my job
- Highly agreed
- Agreed
Always avoid double barreled, ambiguous, recall dependent, leading or
loaded questions
- Disagreed
The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be from general to
specific, and easy to more difficult. It is also called funnel approach.
Principle of Measurement
Interval and Ratio scales should be used in preference to nominal or ordinal

scales
The measure must be assessed through tests of validity and reliability
General getup
As a whole the questionnaire should cover the following aspects
The questionnaire should start with a good introduction followed by well

organized questions with instructions and guidance and sequence. Only
relevant personal information should be demanded that is not sensitive, at
last and ended with a courteous note.
Structured Interviewing
Any person to person interaction between two or more individuals with a specific
purpose in mind is called an interview. Structured interviewing is the process of
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODS
administering an interview schedule by
an interviewer.
The aim
is for all
interviewees to be given exactly the same context of questioning. In this way the
interviewers are supposed to read questions exactly.
Structured Observations
It is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an
interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.
Observation is suitable when
Researcher is more interested in the behavior rather in the perceptions of

individuals.
When the subjects are so involved in the interaction that they are unable to
provide objective information about it
Types of Observations
There are two types of observations.
1.
Participant Observation.
It is when a researcher participates in the activities of the group being
observed in the same manner as its members, with or without their knowing
that they are being observed. e.g. Hawthorne studies.
2.
Non-participant observation.
It means when a researcher do not get involved in the activities of the group but
remains a passive observer, watching and listening to its activities and drawing
conclusions from this.
E.g. observing through cameras
Mystery Shopping
Mystery shopping is a popular technique used in consumer research that
involves sending people (mystery shoppers) into a shop to buy products with
the intention to evaluate the effectiveness of retail staff. After the interaction,
the shoppers typically fill out rating sheet detailing the nature of the interaction
and service they receive. Its a type of field stimulation.
Data
Description
Advantages
Disadvantages
or
face
ws
ne
ws
BUSINESS
RESEARCH METHODS
Can establish rapport
and motivate
Takes personal time
respondents
Costs more when a wide geograph
Can clarify the questions, clear doubts
is covered
add new questions
Respondents may be concerned ab
Can read nonverbal cues
confidentiality of information given
Can use visual aids to clarify points.
Interviewers need to be trained
Rich data can be obtained
Can introduce interviewer biases
CAPI can be used and responses

entered in a portable computer
Respondents can terminate the int

any time
Less costly and speedier than personal

interviews.
Nonverbal cues cannot be read
Interviews will have to be kept sho
Obsolete telephone number could

contacted, and unlisted ones omitt
the sample
Organizations may be reluctant to

company time for the survey with
employees assembled for the purp
ion
nnaire
nnaire
ic
nnaire
The interviewer and

interviewee confronted
each other
Interview which were

conducted through
communication.
Self-questionnaire is a
questionnaire in which
interviewee answer the
question by himself
Can reach a wide geographic area
Greater anonymity than personal

interviews.
Can establish rapport and motivate

respondent
Doubts can be clarified
Less expensive when administered to

groups
Almost 100 % response rate ensured
Anonymity of respondent is high
It is a type of
questionnaire which
can be sending to the
respondent through
mail or any other
postal mode.
Anonymity is high
Response rate is almost always ca

clarify questions
Wide geographic regions can be

reached.
Follow-up procedures for no respon

necessary
Token gifts can be enclosed to seek

compliance
Respondent can take more time to
respond at convenience
Can be administered electronically, if
desired
The questionnaire
which you send
through internet
Easy to administer
Computer literacy is a must
Can reach globally
Respondents must have access to

facility
ants
ation
ants
ation

Very inexpensive
Respondent must be willing to com
survey
Fast delivery
Convenient for Respondents
Better accuracy
Less cost
Researcher is collecting observed data

not reported data
Researcher
participates in the
activities of the group
being observed in the
same manner
Researcher do not get

involved in the
activities of the group
but remains a passive
observer
Participant observation takes time

commitment
Usually does not examine motivati

attitude or feeling toward particula
behavior
Can obtain data from those unable to

communicate in written or oral form
Time cost
The individual may simply be unaware

of how they behave in a particular
situation.
Saves the researchers time
The lack of interaction may, howev

it difficult for the researcher to be
clarify or interrupt the phenomena
investigated
Difficulty in data storing
ACTIVITY
Discussion on Short Case Study

KFC
KFC Pakistan operates 30 restaurants around the country, with 14 outlets in Lahore.
In view of the increasing outlets in the city, the need was felt to link all the outlets
on one network and to provide home delivery services as well. For this KFC Pakistan
outsourced the services of Arwen Tech (Pvt.) Ltd. Arwen Techs solution provided
KFC with Call center facility and infrastructure, Order Delivery software,
Comprehensive reporting solution and 100% maintenance of hardware, software
and network.
KFCs customers have benefited immensely from the home-delivery service since
the inception of the KFC call center. Service levels of the facility are superior to
levels observed at similar setups. Now KFC wants to examine the effectiveness of
home-delivery service. For this purpose, management at KFC wants to conduct
research to determine and enhance the level of customers satisfaction. You have to
answer the following questions with respect to their underlying need and also
explain the suitability/appropriateness of your responses.
What will be the research question for this study and why?
Identify the variables of the study and research approach
that they should use during research and why?
What will be the significance of this study?
Identify the most appropriate sampling technique and target
population? Why?
Identify the possible data collection techniques that can be
used during research process? Why?
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
METHODS
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Qualitative Research,
Qualitative Research process,
Sampling
Qualitative Methods
What is meant by Qualitative Research Method?

How to conduct Qualitative Research?
Pre-occupations of Qualitative Research
Validity and Reliability
Sampling techniques
Qualitative Data Analysis
B. Session outline
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Qualitative research is an informal, subjective, semi systematic research
approaches that usually emphasizes words rather than numbers in the collection
and analysis of data and that is inductive in nature. In other words it generates
theory.
General aims of qualitative research
To add understanding to a phenomenon or the complexities of human behavior

It does not claim to generalize
To generate theory therefore it is inductive rather than deductive
Qualitative Research Process

Steps:-
1. Quantitative research starts from the development of research questions that

is based on inductive method.
2. At 2nd step the subjects (respondents) and relevant site are selected, which is
convenient, safe and supporting of both researcher and the respondents.
3. The 3rd step is the collection of data from the respondents, which should be
concise and relevant to the research topic.
4. 4th step involves classification (thematic analysis) and organization (stage
structure analysis) of data collected in step three.
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODS
5. 5th step reveals the conceptual and
theoretical
understanding
of the data that
involves
5.aRefinement and specification of topic
5.bThrough repeated data collection and preliminary observations
6. 6th step involves writing up the finding and conclusion of the entire research
just like quantitative research report in a convincing way on the basis of
credibility and significance of the outcomes of research process.
The Pre-occupations in Qualitative Research:

Qualitative research tends to be concerned with words rather than numbers, but
here are some important points that are particularly noteworthy.
Inductively generates theory through research. Researcher starts out with a

broad outline of a concept which is revised and narrowed down during the course
of data collection as well as in subsequent researches as per difference in social
contents or research questions.
Ontologically implies that concepts are outcomes of interactions between

individuals through process (sequence of individuals and collective events,
actions, and activities unfolding over time in a specific context.)
Epistemologically focuses on acquiring knowledge regarding how people see and

interpret concepts by participating in their minds face to face.
Keep data collection unstructured / less structured supposing to enhance the

opportunity of openly and genuinely revealing the perspectives of people under
study.
(Bryman & Bell E. (2007), Business Research Methods, p.
402,416)

Validity refers to the issues of whether or not an indicator really measures the
concept that it is devised to measure whereas Reliability is the stability or the
consistency of measurement. Both terms are quantitative in nature. Since
measurement is not a major preoccupation among qualitative researches, the
issues of validity and reliability would have little bearing on it and also some
alternative terms will be used in qualitative research (Guba and Lincoln, 1994).
Reliability and validity of data in qualitative research is checked through following
procedures:
Member Checking
It is a process in which the researcher provides back each research participant
(member) with an account of what he BUSINESS

or she hasRESEARCH
said to the METHODS
researcher during data
collection procedure and verified by him/her the account that the researcher has
understood and arrived at. The respondents feedback confirms the credibility of
the outcome; credibility refers parallel internal validity (The credibility criteria
involve establishing that the results of qualitative research are credible or
believable from the perspective of the participant in the research).
Triangulation
It is a process of using more than one methods (interview, observation,
documentation) or sources of data in research process. It implies that the data
collected through one method or strategy is cross checked with data, collected
through another method or strategy. Its another type of credibility.
Self Reflection and Rich Thick Description
It is a process of clarifying all the biases that researcher has brought to the study. It
will resonate well with the readers. The researcher also provides rich thick
description to convey findings in order to discuss an element of shared experience.
This term also called transferability (Transferability refers to the degree to which the
results of qualitative research can be generalized or transferred to other contexts or
settings), which parallels external validity.
External Audit
Researchers adopt an auditing approach. This entails ensuring that complete
records are kept of all phases of research process problem formation, selection of
research participants, fieldwork notes, interview transcripts, data analysis decision
and so on in an accessible manner, (Dependability emphasizes the need for the
researcher to account for the ever-changing context within which research occurs),
which parallel reliability.
Authenticity
Authenticity relates to the degree, to which the research is fair with equal
representation of all contrary point of views, researcher should not eliminate any
controversies / negative / discriminative statement while reporting the data.
Besides this quality can be ensured by providing rich and thick descriptions on
findings, clarifying personal biases, sharing both positive and negative information,
spending prolong time in the field, debriefing peers and getting external auditors
review.
(Bryman & Bell E. (2007), Business Research Methods, p. 411)
(Creswell (2003), Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative,
and Mixed methods Approaches. P. 196).
Qualitative Sampling:
In qualitative research, researcher preferably uses non probability sampling that
includes:
Convenience sampling
Snow ball sampling
Quota sampling
Non probability Sampling

Non probability sampling is the sampling approach in which the chance or
probability of each unit to be selected is not known or confirmed.
Convenience Sampling
Convenience Sampling is the technique of sampling in which the research selects

the sample that is convenient and easily accessible to researcher.
Example
Researcher wanting to conduct survey/research on managers behavior selects an
MBA executive class comprising of managers at his university
Snowball Sampling
In this technique the researcher makes initial contract with a small group of people
who are relevant to the research topic and then uses them as referrals to contacts
with others.
Quota Sampling
Non-probability sampling is the process of selecting a sample that reflects a

population in terms of the relative proportions of people in different categories such
as gender, ethnicity, age groups, and region of residence etc. However, the
sampling is if individuals are not carried out randomly, rather.
Qualitative Methods:
BUSINESS
METHODS
In qualitative research four methods are
used forRESEARCH
data collection
that is as follows:
1. Interview
2. Focus group
3. Document analysis
4. Unstructured observation
Interview
Interview is an interactive process of listening in and asking questions, between
interviewer and interviewee about research topic.
OR
Interview a person to person interaction or debate between two or more individual
with a specific purpose in mind.
Types of interviews:
There are several types of interviews that are as follows
1. Telephone Interview
2. Email Interview
3. Ethnographic Interview
4. One-on-One Interview
5. Group Interview
(Gilham B. (2005), Research Interviewing: the range of
techniques)
Type of
interview
Definition
Advantages
Disadv
telephone
interview
It is an interview method in
which the researcher conducts
interview on telephone in a
mutually responsive way in
order to get highly productive
and quality information from
persons at a distant location.
Can combine virtues

of survey sampling and in-depth
interviewing
Gen
nui
unw
Has some of the

qualities of face-to-face interviewing
Non
mis
Interviews not
bound by geographical distance
Dur
lim
Email
interview
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODS
It is an interview method
in
Instant
which the researcher conduct
communication access worldwide
interview using email based on
Acceptable to those
internet technology, accessing
reluctant
to
participate
in a face-toenormous information in an
face interview
instant, speedy and flexible
way.
Extremely
economical on time
can
rese
can
edit
can
igno
Response is at
interviewees convenience
No transcription
required
Ethnograp
hic
interview
One-onone
/Individual
Interview
It is an interview method in
which the interviewer acts as
participant observer and
collects data in a natural
setting from the respondents.
It is an exploratory interview
method to have deep
understanding of the people
who come to your site one-onone by probing their attitudes,
beliefs, desires, and
experiences.
High validity:
naturalistic, unguarded
Can be crossreferenced to other data
Gives access to
people who could not be
interviewed in other ways
In-depth exposure
to a persons experiences
More time to
discuss topics in detail.
lim
que
inte
per
inte
exp
con
group dynamics
Full attention to the
interviewee
It is an exploratory interview
method in which open and
unspecific discussion is
performed on a research topic
by the group members in order
to get deep understanding of
research topic.
rec
imm
No worry about the
Group
interview
on
ind
is s
per
bet
inte
Customized
interviewing style to draw out a shy
user or keep another user on topic.
Valuable as an
initial, exploratory technique
May reveal
dynamics through interaction, and
issues not apparent in individual
interviews
diffi
cha
be
BUSINESS RESEARCH
METHODS
Provides early
indication of a range of views
MODES OF INTERVIEW
Interviews can be conducted in different modes that are discussed in the following
tables
Mode of
Interview
Structured
interview
Definition
It is a mode of interview in which
questions to be asked, their sequence,
and detailed information to be gathered
are all predetermined; used where
maximum consistency across interviews
and interviewees is needed.
Advantages
Quick
to administer
cover
Overco
mes disadvantages of
postal questionnaires
Analysi
s is straightforward
Easy to
often
free fl
conve
code and enter
Semistructured
interview
Unstructure
d interview
It is a mode of interview in which

individuals are asked a pre-defined set of
question parameters, although still
allowing for a degree of flexibility and
openness. Prompts are used to keep the
interviewee on track and through probing
deep insight is gained.
It is a mode of interview in which there is

nothing pre-planned; no schedule of
questions is decided and quite open in
order to yield unexpected material
regarding personal experiences.
More
interviews in less time
Provide
s a balance between
structure and openness
With
the use of prompts,
roughly equivalent
coverage can be
achieved
Equival
ent interview time is
allowed in each case
Analysi
s is facilitated by the
levels of structure
Useful
as an exploratory
techniques
Good
for achieving a
time(i
transc
plus w
c deve
phase
is requ
adequ
difficu
can be

narrative
Minimu
m interference from the
interviewer
Explori
ng a topic broadly
(Gilham B. (2005), Research Interviewing: the range of

techniques)
consu
can be
BUSINESS
RESEARCH METHODS
Interview
Procedure
Interview procedure is a set of sequential interdependent activities that result in
collection of comprehensive information regarding the research topic. It consists of
following steps:
1. Interview Objectives
At first step it is essential to set the objectives of the interview aligned with overall
research objectives so that we could evaluate the data collected as per
requirements.
Example:
To explore the Concepts of HRM practices POS, commitment and job satisfaction in
Pakistan
2. Methodology
At 2nd step decision regarding selection of unstructured, semi-structure and
structured mode of interview is made depending upon the Purpose of interview,
nature of topic, literature availability, cost and type of respondents. As been
mentioned in our exemplary research report
Example:
I decided to choose semi-structured interview that could be argued as the most
important way of conducting a research interview because of its flexibility balanced
by structure and the quality of the data so obtained.
3. Interview Composition
At 3rd step criteria for selection of interviewees (screener) will be set. Only those
persons will be allowed to participate in research who will qualify the composition
criteria.
Example:
Geographical
coverage:
-Lahore, Karachi, Rawalpindi
Gender:
-Males & Females
Age:
Job Tenure:
Positions in
organizations
Usage Prerequisites:
25 plus
Minimum 3 years
faculty members (minimum

lecturer)
- 20% Inter level

- 30% Bachelors level
- 50% Masters level
Organization type
-Private or Public (Private must be affiliated

educational institute, college,
University(HEC recognized)
4. Interview Schedule
The 4th step involves the development of interview schedule- a formal timeline in
which researcher and his team do all activities and able to conclude the results on
time.
Example:
S.N
o.
Activity
Objective setting and Screener development
Dates
14th Nov 08

15th Nov 08
Approval of objectives and screener
Selection of sites and respondents
16th 20th Nov 08
Development of guidelines and arrangements
16th 20th Nov 08
05- Interviews (Lahore)
22nd 28th Nov' 08
05- Interviews (Islamabad)
24th 28th Nov' 08
05- Interviews (Karachi)
24th 28th Nov' 08
Transcripts
Analysis and Report writing
15th Dec 08
Report submission
17th Dec 08
10
24th 8th Dec 08
5. Recruitment Screener Development

At 5th step Recruitment screener a short questionnaire of 6 - 8 questions is
developed. Before conducting interviews we ask some necessary questions to see
that the person is eligible or not for our research for what we are going to conduct
interviews.
Sample screener is attached herewith (Annexure A) at the end of the document
6. Deciding about the Ethical Issues
The 6th step involves deciding about the ethical standards to be practiced
throughout the interview process in order to deal with social and legal bindings. The
key ethical aspects to be addressed involves
Identifying yourself as researcher

Developing respondent consent form defining
o the research purposes
o types of information required
o confidentiality and anonymity statement
o surety of security, summary publicity, fair uses of information and
wastage of data after due time period
Example
Sample consent form is attached herewith (Annexure B) at the end of the

document
7. Discussion Guide
This has a set of questions used in the interview. Discussion guide is developed from
the objective of the research. The main strategy to develop discussion guide is:
Putting question together according to objective of study
Grouping them into the topics they seem to relate
Identifying the narrative sequence How questions & Topics lead one into
the other
Example of (Coca Cola Export Corporation):

Objective:
To come up with a concept which will be able to make Coca-Cola an integral

part of the Iftar table
Question/ Guideline:
Introducing Research Company
Reassuring the respondents: creating a safe atmosphere
Respondents introduction & warm-up
Lets imagine that a foreigner was listening to us who has never visited Pakistan and
does not know Pakistanis. He is interested to know about the Ramadan.
What would we tell him about this particular event?
How do we feel about it?
How is the atmosphere and ambience when its the time of the Ramadan?
What role does it play in our lives?
What is the main satisfaction that we get out of being part of this time of the
year?
What are the values associated with the Ramadan?
Which are the best possible expressions for this value in our opinion?
How do we feel about Pakistans connection to the Ramadan?
BUSINESS
How do we feel about what it shows
to theRESEARCH
rest of the METHODS
world?
Now, lets imagine that the foreigner wishes to know more, he wants to know about
carbonated soft drinks and what role do they play in our lives.
SAQ:
Which one soft drink do we associate with Ramadan? ---------------------------Which soft drink do we associate with Iftar? ---------------------------Thinking of our personal idea of Ramadan that we have just defined and discussed a
while ago, which brand of soft drink comes close?
8. Questions Preparation
8th step involves comprehensive process of compiling a set of main questions and
sub-questions (if necessary) that are generalized, non-directional, and exploratory in
nature using literature review, brainstorming or Delphi techniques. Questionnaire
finalization goes through following stages
8.1.
Pruning and Revising Possible Questions
After developing initial set of questions, we revise them through pruning process
that involves reducing questions to their essentials and all unnecessary, repeating
or irrelevant questions are diminished for being closer to desired purpose. The
quality of words and format is also improved through rechecking by peer, senior or
expert in the field.
8.2.
Trailing
After pruning and revising the questions researcher passes through the trialing
process that is your first attempt to try out the questions live and face-to-face to
persons (two or three maximum) that are involved in your research but not the
member of the group to be actually studied. It will enhance your understanding of
the actual phenomena and help in reducing topics as well as questions.
8.3.
Piloting and Pre-Piloting
After pruning restructuring and reorganizing the questions researcher goes through
the pre-piloting stage when he conducts interviews from subjects (actual
respondents) asking them feedback and comments on interview schedule observing
how they responded and how you yourself mange the interview schedule: further
adjustments to questions and process will emerge.
After pre-piloting adjustments the researcher process a stage further towards
piloting stage by recording the interview and transcribing it and carrying out an
analysis of contents. This practical exercise will reveal some particular practical
problems with some questions to be dealt now otherwise cause regret at final
stages.
8.4.
Prompts and Probing BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS
Pre-Piloting and piloting will not only improve the quality of interview schedule but
also it enables researcher develop prompts-something as simple as this (diffidently
composed for different contexts) will enable you to get a feel for interviewing and
also provided material for self scrutiny resulting in listening with intense
concentration.
On the other hand this exercise develops interviewing skills like probing in the
researcher. Probing is about getting the respondent to tell even the hidden aspects
of the concepts which you sense from his answers and to make them going on and
on producing in-depth information.
Example:
Sample questionnaire is attached herewith (Annexure C) at the end of the
document
9. Conducting the interview
Next step is conducting interview actually. It involves five following stages but
before entering this actual interview process researcher must visit the respondent to
brief him/her about research purpose, information required from them and getting
their consent in signatures.
9.1.
Preparation Phase
This stage involves preparation of all necessary documents/elements including

selection of respondents, place, and time. Besides this making available all required
equipment (microphone, tape recorder and clipboard) rooms, and any other thing as
per requirement. It also involves the decisions regarding interviewers appearance
and dressing as well.
Checklist for Preparation Phase
(Yes/No)
1.
Research area office to be in upright condition (illumination,

seating arrangement, noise free, etc)
2.
Walkman with new batteries (verified twice).
3.
Required documents (screener summary sheets) designed and

ready
4.
Cassettes (new) to be ready with tags and coding
5.
Board markers, plain papers, pencils and other stationery items
6.
Moderator guidelines printed and set on the table
7.
Refreshment for the interviewee
8.
Pick and drop facility for the interviewees
9.
Gifts for the interviewees as thanks for sparing time
METHODS
Interviewee dress code suitability,BUSINESS
matching,RESEARCH
colour choice
etc
1
0.
9.2.
Initial Contact Phase
Initial contact involves welcoming the respondent at interview; introducing him

about you as well as making him feel relaxed by offering him some refreshment and
asking him about his travelling towards interview place etc. in simple words it is an
introduction and warm-up phase
Example:
Today is 22nd of November 2008; the time is 9:30 am approximately. I am ABC from
XYZ institute First of all I would like to welcome you and thank you for giving us your
precious time
9.3.
Orientation Phase
At this stage you will (once again) explain him/her the purpose of interview as well
as the purpose of the whole research with respect to the significance of its outcomes
making him feel that his contribution is highly valuable. After that rechecking the
quality of your tape-recorder you will head towards substantive phase.
We are working on an international research project regarding HRM practices, POS,
Job satisfaction Job commitmentit is very comprehensive research that will let
you identify your own status regarding employment while on the other hand it will
help employers to redesign their HR policies in order to facilitate their employee
grievances
9.4.
Substantive Phase
After orienting the interviewee you will commence the proper interviewing in easy
comfortable language, as an active listener and leaving not even a single cue to
probe into the discussion, clarifying the questions where necessary, showing
appreciation and nodding to be understood, keeping relevant to the topic through
examples and justifications.
9.5.
Closure Phase
It is a closing phase involving appreciation of what the interviewee has contributed,

thanking them for sparing time in an enthusiastic manner, offering them for
checking and feedback after transcription and get them off the premises with
courtesy. Simply it is a winding up function to departure.
10.
Transcribing the Interviews
Transcription is the process of producing a valid written record of an interview

without losing any feature of speech in a way that it could present the true picture
of verbal as well as non verbal clues. Certain transcription formats and symbols
must be followed.
Basic rules for transcription
1. Do not let the tapes accurate
2. Transcribe as soon as possible after the interview (Ideally transcribe the day after
the interview)
3. Be realistic about the time transcription will take as there is no fast method for
transcription
4. Dont spend more than one hour at a time on the transcription.
5. Clearly identify tapes and transcripts through labeling and coding
6. Use standard format (codes, symbols, signs) throughout the transcription process
7. Once transcribed interview should be peer reviewed for ensuring accuracy
Example
Sample Transcription format and transcriptions are attached herewith (Annexure
D) at the end of the document.
Qualitative data analysis
Qualitative Data analysis is a process of gathering, structuring, and transforming
qualitative data with the goal of:
highlighting useful information
suggesting conclusions, and
Supporting decision making.
How to conduct QDA: a step by step
process
There are four steps involved in Qualitative
data analysis
1. Get to know your data
Good analysis depends on understanding the data. For qualitative analysis, this
means you read and re-read the text. If you have tape recordings, you listen to them
several times. Write down any impressions you have as you go through the data.
These impressions may be useful later. Before beginning any analysis, consider the
quality of the data and proceed accordingly
2. Analyze your data
Before proceeding to analysis review the purpose of the evaluation and what you
want to find out. Identify a few key questions that you want your analysis to answer.
METHODS
Write these down. These will help you BUSINESS
decide howRESEARCH
to begin. These
questions may
change as you work with the data, but will help you get started. How you focus your
analysis depends on the purpose of the evaluation and how you will use the results.
Following are the steps involved in data analysis. The full process of analyzing a
transcription can be split into different stages that were discussed one by one:
1. The first step is just to read each transcription, go through them and highlighting
the important statements from each portion as called substantive statements. It
is the process of reducing the transcript to perhaps a third of its original length.
EXAMPLE
Excerpt
First of all I would like to say few things before I give an answer to it. This is an
organization which gives you a plenty of (0.2) you see! Opportunities in which you can
participate in decision making. I always:::: been allowed by top management to participate
in decision making. Like (0.2) if there are anything regarding hiring faculty or there is any
matter regarding curriculum improvement. They have always asked me to participate in
decision making and I have always give then decisions and they have always cater those
decisions implemented in their systems.
2. After identifying the substantive statements you should conduct thematic

analysis; that is theSubstantive
process of deriving Statement
themes out of the substantive
statements. Themes can be of two categories.
3. After identifying the substantive statements you should conduct thematic
analysis; that is the process of deriving themes out of the substantive
statements. Themes can be of two categories.
3.1
Preset themes:
In case of semi-structure interview there can be certain themes that are

predefined in the interview schedule for which you search the data. They are
called preset themes. These themes provide direction for what you look for in
BUSINESS
the data. You identify the themes before
you RESEARCH
categorize METHODS
the data, and search the
data for the text that matches the theme. But in case of unstructured interview
the themes are emergent that are as under
3.2
Emergent themes:
The new theme that emerges out of the narrative are called emergent themes.
Rather than using preconceived themes, you read through the text and find the
themes or issues that recur in the data. They may be ideas or concepts that you
had not thought about. The can be of following three levels that are as follows:
3.2.1 Basic theme (lowest-order theme): This is the most basic or
lowest-order theme that is derived from the textual data. Basic
themes are the simple premises characteristics of the data, and on
their own they say very little about the text or group of texts as a
whole
3.2.2 Organizing theme (middle-order theme): This is a middle-order
theme that organizes the basic themes into group of similar issues.
They are group of signification that summarize the principle
assumptions of a group of basic themes, so they are more abstract
and more revealing of what is going on in the text.
3.2.3 Global theme (super-ordinate theme): Global themes are superordinate themes that encompass the principal metaphors in the
data as a whole. Global themes group sets of organizing themes
and tell us what the texts as a whole are about within the context of
a given analysis. They are both the summary of the main themes
and revealing interpretation of the texts.
Example
(Basic themes)
1.
Plenty of opportunities regarding

decision
2.
decision acceptable by top

management
3.
decision regarding hiring faculty

and curriculum improvement
(organizing themes)
Participation in decision
making
(global
themes)

4.
ideas , suggestions are taken

when hire any person and
implementing any system
5.
decision to have powers and

authority regarding the ideas are so
much considered by the
organization
Supportive
HR
1.
reward is one thing which has

made this organization a singular
success
2.
when the rewards compare with

any competitive institution, I feel
myself lucky to be a part of this
organization
practices
Fairness of rewards
3.
the rewarded ratio is quite high as

compare to been unrewarded
4.
The effort has been appreciated

and they ((management)) have pat
on the back, that well done and
keep up the good work.
1.
growth in my career, the

maximum skills and knowledge are
gained ((by me)) IN THIS
ORGANIZATION
2.
knowledgeable, up-todate information
Growth Opportunities
HR PRACTICES
4. Stage structure analysis
Recruitment and selection
Participation
in or
decision
making
It is the process of identifying
the stages
levels of
the themes while working on
Training
and
development
the successive interview transcripts, in order to develop the general flow of different
Compensation
and reward
stages in the narrative to show
the progression.
It is performed in unstructured
narrative preferably to clarify the flow of your working, while in semi structured
interviews it is predefined to some extent.
Job commitment
Job Satisfaction
Performance
11.
Coding the Data
It is the process of developing a code book for being able to refer to certain
respondents words in transcription. In this process the researcher will define codes
for each interviewee, category, subcategory, question, and substantive statement.
Code: A,a,i,.2,1
Interviewee Code:
Capital letters (A,B,C..)
Example: sample code book is attached herewith (Annexure H) at the end of

the document.
Question Code: Small letters (a,b,c..)
12.
Analysis Grid
After having done all the analysis and the code book the researcher will develop an
analysis grid (spreadsheet) manually or using Microsoft excel integrating all major
categories taking categories at one side and the interviewees at top. Then reviewing
all the transcripts the researcher will fill in all the statements with coded reference
against each statement.
Example
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODS
Sample Analysis grid is attached herewith
(Annexure
I) at the
end of the
document.
Interpret the findings
On getting completed the analysis grid as outcome of the analysis process

the researcher needs to explain his finding using the themes, categories and
the connections between them. Interpreting the data involves attaching
meaning and significance to the analysis.
How to interpret
1. Read through the grid
2. Develop a list of key points or findings
3. Think about what have you learned; the major lessons
4. Develop an outline for presenting your findings
5. Write down the meanings you derive as per your understanding from the set of
categories and the quotes from the edited version of transcripts. Stress on the
more significant findings with the help of excerpts with proper coding.
13.
Preparing your report
Finally the researcher will write down a report on the outcomes of the data
debating on the key themes, and categories derived from the interview
process using analysis grid.
How to write report
1. Explain the background and objectives of your work with the justification
of topic, and the interview method you selected supported of literature.
2. Brief about the step by step process of interview and the rationale for the
selection of interviewee
3. Elaborate the qualitative analysis done on the basis of transcripts and the
interpretation.
4. Give references both in-text and end-list to authenticate your report.
(Research Interviewing, Bill
Gillham)
Focus Group
Focus group is the data collection method in which specifically defined
groups of individuals (Group composition focus) are interviewed in a
BUSINESS aRESEARCH
METHODS
discussion format by a moderator regarding
tightly defined
topic (content
focus) and the accent is upon interaction within the group and the joint
construction of meaning.
OR
A focus group discussion is a tool in which a small group of people (8-10

individuals) engages in a roundtable discussion of selected topics of interest
in an informal setting.
Focus Group vs. Group Interview
Focus groups typically emphasize a specific theme or topic that is explored in

depth, whereas group interviews often span very widely.
Sometimes group interviews are carried out so that the researcher is able to
save time and money by carrying out interviews with a number of individuals
simultaneously. However, focus groups are not carried out for this reason.
The focus group practitioner is invariably interested in the ways in which

individuals discuss a certain issue as members of a group rather than simply
as individuals.
Uses of Focus Group

Focus Group method is used in following cases when:
Insights are needed in exploratory or preliminary studies.
There is a communication or understanding gap between groups or categories

of people.
The purpose is to uncover factors relating to complex behavior or motivation.
You desire ideas to emerge from the group.
The researcher needs additional information to prepare for a large-scale

study.
The clients or intended audience places high value on capturing the openended comments of your target audience.
Conducting Focus Groups

Following steps are involved in conduct of focus group interviews:
1. Choose a room with few distractions; if possible, limit the size of the
group to 8 or less participants; nametags are helpful.
2. Pre test your questions; have only a few questions (maximum 4-5);
start from more general toward specific questions.
BUSINESS
3. Questions may vary in their
levels ofRESEARCH
structure;METHODS
from what is your
perspective on .. to what would you say are the two most
useful..
4. Most important points need to be addressed early

5. Keep the discussion to less than 2 hours
6. Use flip charts to make recording process as open/visible as possible
7. Consider having tape recording or another researcher taking
detailed process notes (if you want to capture comments
verbatim) that is subsequently transcribed.
8. You may use different discussion methods (Nominal, Delphi, role
playing, storytelling, drawing/visualizing, and brainstorming).
1. Research area office to be in upright condition (files, papers neatly in place)
2. New mike cell in place
3. Essentially checking the recording first thing before the interview
4. Mike to be turned on half-hour before the Interview starts
5. Checking the Speakers sound
6. Screener Summary sheets designed & ready (participants eligibility to be
verified thru these sheets before the group starts)
7. Any stimulus material to be used in interview (SAQ to be shown beforehand to
the interviewer to help him/her set the flow later)
8. Cassettes to be ready (reject those with broken recording tags), and group
names written clearly on both the covers and the cassettes (with pencil).
Volume 1 should be of 90 min & Vol 2 of 60 min. Back-up cassettes should be
marked as Back-up 1 and Back-up 2.
9. New pencil cells in the walkman for back-up recording, and walkman be
placed in the interviewing room (with Back-up 1 cassette inside and Back-up
2 cassette placed aside)
10.Board markers, plain papers, 10 pencils to be kept in the conference room
11.Moderators Guideline printed & set on the table
12.Plain papers in the darkroom for the clients notes-taking along with small
sheets for passing notes when moderation is in process
13.Additional: TV (Channel 0 set) with VCR, both with remote controls along with
the connecting lead in the conference room.
14.Refreshments for the interviewee to accommodate then. Pick n drop facility if
the interviewees don't have transport facility.
BUSINESS
15.Gifts for the interviewees as thanks
he/sheRESEARCH
gave time METHODS
to us.
Limitations
Less control of researcher over proceedings of the discussion
Data is difficult to be analyzed
Difficult to organize group of people
Transcription is difficult and time consuming
Dominance of one speaker
Potential for discomfort among members of the group

(Bryman A. & Bell E. (2007), Business Research Methods, p.511525)
Document Analysis
It is a systematic process of gathering analyzing, evaluating and using a very
heterogeneous set of documents including:
Personal documents (Diaries, letters, and autobiographies etc),

Public documents (Public inquiry transcripts, magazines, newspaper, TV
programs etc)
Organizational documents (Memos, minutes of meeting, daily reports etc)
Steps Involved in Document Analysis
At 1st, we decide on the objective of the document analysis i.e. whether it is

primary source of data or supporting source for any other data collection method
2nd step, we decide on what types of documents are to be used and how to
access them.
3rd step involves the acquisition of the desired documents from the concerned
sources, and arranging them in a very organizing manner.
4th step involves conducting content analysis for object extraction and
recognition of main categories
5th step involves the interpretation of the documents. This can be done through
following techniques.
Semiotics
Semiotics refers to the Science of signs. It is an approach to the analysis of

symbols in everyday life, can be employed in relation not only to
documentary sources but also to all kinds of other data because of its
commitment to treating phenomena as text.
It comprises a sign constituting the relationship between the signifier (word,
BUSINESSand
RESEARCH
METHODSa particular
sound, or picture that attracts our attention
communicates
message) and the signified (the message or concept itself).
Hermeneutics
Hermeneutics refers to an approach that was originally devised in relation to

the understanding or interpretation of texts. The central idea behind
hermeneutics is that the analyst of a text must seek to bring out the
meanings of text from the perspectives of its author. Qualitative content
analysis can be hermeneutic when it is sensitive to the context within which
texts were produced.
(Bryman A. & Bell E. (2007), Business Research Methods, p.554-575)
Unstructured Observation
Unstructured observation is the unplanned, informal, watching and recording
of behaviors as they occur in a natural environment. It is an early phase of
the research that may become specific to when and where to observe, what
specific aspects of the setting or behavior to observe, and how to make and
record observations.
How to conduct
Take a notebook and pen:
1. Note down when you see something interesting.
2. Write down theories as you form them.
3. Dont jump to conclusions straight away.
4. Look for more evidence.
5. Ask people to confirm things
Limitations
Needs high level of expertise (preferably by subject matter specialists)
Relatively expensive and time consuming
Hard to fine grain the observed material
Data
Collection
Definition
Types
A non-verbal means of
obtaining primary data
by watching and
recording behaviors
within a clearly defined

area.
Observation
s
Complete
participant
Researcher has a
firsthand experience with
participants
Researcher can
record information as it is
revealed
Unusual aspects can

be noticed during
observation
Useful in exploring
topics that may be
uncomfortable for
participants to discuss
Useful when
participant cannot be
observed directly
Participants can
provide historical
information
Allows researcher
control over the line of
questioning
Researcher is hidden
Observer as
participant
Role of researcher is
known
Advantages
Participant as
observer
Observation role
secondary to participant
role
Complete
observer
Researcher observes
without participating
Interview is an
interactive process of
listening in and
asking questions,
between interviewer
and interviewee about
research topic.
Face to Face
interview
Ethnographic interview
Elite interview
Interviews
Group interview
Video interview
Distance

interview
Telephone interview
Email interview
Focus group is the data

collection method in
which specifically
defined groups of
individuals (Group
composition focus) are
interviewed in a
discussion format
regarding a tightly
defined topic (content
focus) and the accent is
upon interaction within
the group and the joint
construction of
meaning.
Focus
Groups
Documents
Analysis
It is a systematic
process of gathering
analyzing, evaluating
and using a very
heterogeneous set of
documents.
Group focused
Interview
Several people discussed

a number of topics
Topic Focused
interview
Interviewees are selected

because they are known
to have a particular
situation and asked about
their involvement
Personal documents
Public documents
Organizational
document
Relatively easy to
assemble
inexpensive and
flexible in terms of
format
Open recording
allows participants to
confirm their
contributions
Rich data through
direct interaction
Spontaneous,
participants not required
to answer every
question; able to build on
one another's responses
Help people build
new connections
Enables a researche
to obtain the language
and words of participant
Can be accessed at
time convenient to the
researcheran
unobtrusive sources of
information
Represents data tha
are thoughtful, in that
participants have given
attention to compiling
As written evidence,
it saves a researcher the
time and expense of
transcribing

References:
Bryman A. & Bell E. (2007), Business Research Methods, Oxford University press,
New York, America
Creswell J. W. (2003), Research Design Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches, Sage Pub., California, USA
Gilham B. (2005), Research Interviewing: the range of techniques, Open University
press, Berkshire, England
ACTIVITY
Short Case Study for Discussion

Traffic Police and Business Research Consultant
Business research consultant is a business research and design firm in Pakistan that
specializes in observing and identifying the behavior of people and also understand
and develop why these behavior exist. The company then uses the knowledge that
it gains as a framework in the product development process. Traffic police used
business research consultant to investigate the mobility, connectivity, and
communications needs of law enforcement officers, which led to ideas for a set of
computing and communications product. Business research consultants spent 320
hours shadowing police officers in three departments of traffic police. Shadowing
involves asking question during observation. They spent time with crowd control,
narcotics and dispatch. They recorded their observation and interviews on paper,
digital camera and video. A number of interesting findings emerged from all this
research. First police officers are social, so it was important to develop such product
that can enhance socialization rather than detract from it. Secondly, police officers
are not driven by procedures and the third, officers rely on informal information
about people and activities. Business research consultant concluded that traffic
police should develop such product to compile and share informal information.
1. Identify the research design used by business research

consultant? Justify your answer
2. Compare this qualitative research design with quantitative
survey. What advantages, if any, did this research design have
over a survey?
MIXED
METHODS
RESEARCH
Mixed Methods Research

Mixed Method Research,

Classifications of Mixed Method research,
Data collection methods in Mixed Method research
What is meant by Mixed Method Research?

Mixed Method v/s Multi Method
Classifications of mixed Method Research
Report Writing
B. Session outline
BUSINESSResearch
RESEARCH METHODS
Mixed Methods
Based on pragmatic paradigm, a mixed methods Research is one that integrates
both quantitative and qualitative research approaches by collecting both numeric as
well as text data (simultaneously or sequentially) with a central premise to better
understand the research problems that either approached alone. It is also called
Multi-trait, Multi-method, integrated or combined research. The data collection
also involves gathering both numeric information (e.g., on instruments) as well as
text information (e.g., on interview) so that the final database represents both
quantitative and qualitative information. Mixed Method is a philosophical
assumption that integrates quantitative and qualitative research approaches within
a single project. Its central premise is that the use of quantitative and qualitative
approaches in combination provides a better understanding of research problems
that either approached alone.
General aims of mixed methods research
To offer a logical and practical alternative to conventional research

paradigm
To legitimate the use of multiple approaches in answering research
questions, rather than restricting or constraining researchers choices
Note:
mixed methods multi methods
A Multi-method designs
Use more than one method but

restricted to methods selected
from within one worldview (i.e.
quantitative or qualitative
Mixed methods designs
Use and mix both qualitative

and quantitative data and
methods.

approaches).
Types:
Multi-method quantitative studies
Multi-method qualitative studies
Types:
Mixed method studies
Mixed model studies.
(Adapted and abbreviated from Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003:11)
Mixing the data

The mixing of the data is a unique aspect of our definition. By mixing the datasets,
the researcher provides a better understanding of the problem that if either dataset
had been used alone. There are three ways in mixing the data.
Merging or converging
These were the two datasets through which both methods (qualitative and
quantitative) by actually bringing together.
Connecting
These were the two datasets by having one build on the other
Embedding
The only one dataset within the other so that one type of data provides a supportive
role for the other dataset
Merger the data:

Qualitative data
Quantitative data
Results
Connect the data:

Qualitative data
Quantitative data
Results
Embed the data:

Qualitative data
Quantitative data
Results
Rationale for Use of Mixed Methods Research:
Mixed Methods Research provides strengths that offset the weaknesses of
RESEARCH METHODS
both qualitative and quantitativeBUSINESS
research.
Mixed Methods Research provides more comprehensive evidence for
studying a research problem than either qualitative or quantitative
research alone.
Mixed Methods Research helps answering questions that cannot be
answered by qualitative and quantitative alone.

Mixed Methods Research encourages the researcher to collaborate across
the sometimes adversarial relationship between qualitative and
quantitative researchers.
Mixed Methods Research is practical in the sense that the researcher is
free to use all methods possible to address a research problem. It is also
practical because individuals tend to solve problems using both numbers
and words. They combine inductive and deductive thinking.
Major Types (Approaches) of Mixed Method Design
The four major types of mixed methods designs are the Triangulation Design,
the Embedded Design, the Explanatory Design, and the Exploratory Design.
Here we discussed brief overview of each of these designs: their use,
procedures, common variants, strengths, and challenges.

Types/Approa
ches of Mixed
Method
Study
Triang
ulatio
n
Desig
n
Embe
dded
Desig
n
Conve
rgenc
e
Model
Experi
menta
l
Model
Data
tranfo
rmati
onMo
del
Correl
ationa
l
Model
Valida
ting
quanti
tative
Model
Multil
evel
Model
Expla
nator
y
Desig
n
Follow
-up
explan
ation
Partici
pant
selecti
on
Model
Explo
rator
y
Desig
n
Instru
ment
devel
opme
nt
model
Taxon
omy
devel
opme
nt
model
1. The Triangulation design
The most common and well-known approach to mixing methods is the

Triangulation Design. The purpose of this design is to obtain different buy
complementary data on the same topic to best understand research
problem. The intent in using this design is to bring together the differing
strengths and non-overlapping weaknesses of quantitative methods with
those of qualitative methods. This design is used when a researcher wants to
directly compare and contrast quantitative results with qualitative data.
Triangulation Design Procedures:
QUAN
QUAL
Interpretation based on
QUAN
+ QUAL results
The triangulation design is
a one-phase
design in which researchers
implement the quantitative and qualitative methods during the same

timeframe and with equal weight.
Variants of the Triangulation Design
The four variants are the convergence model, the data transformation model,
the validating quantitative data model, and the multilevel model. The all four
models were discussed below in detail
a) Convergence model
QUAN
Data
Collection
QUAN
Data
Analysis
QUAN
Results
Compare
& Contrast
Interpretation
QUAN + QUAL
QUAL
QUAL
QUAL
It
represents
the
traditional
model
Results of mixed methods triangulation design. In
Data
Data
Collection
Analysis
this model the
researcher collects and analyzes quantitative and qualitative
data separately on the same phenomena and then the different results are
converged during the interpretation. Researchers use this model when they
want to compare results or to validate, or confirm quantitative results with
qualitative findings.
b) Data Transformation Model
QUAN
Data
Collection
QUAN data analysis
Compare &
Interpretation
Interrelate
QUAN + QUAL
Two QUAN data sets
This model also involves

the separate
Transform
QUAL intocollection
quan dataand analysis of quantitative
QUAL
QUAL
and
qualitative data
sets. However, after the initial analysis, the researcher
Data
Data
Collection
uses proceduresAnalysis
to transform one data type into the other data type. Either
quantifying qualitative findings or qualifying quantitative results

accomplishes this. This transformation allows the data to be mixed during
QUAN
QUAN data
QUAN
the analysis of the two data sets.
Results
Collection:
c) Validating Data
Quantitative Data Model
Survey
Analysis
Validate QUAN results with qual results

Interpretation
QUAN + QUAL
qual data Collection:
Open ended
Survey items
qual
data
Analysis
qual
Results
When the researcher want to validate and expand the quantitative findings
from a survey by including a few open-ended qualitative questions. In this
model, the researcher collects both types of data within one survey
instrument because the qualitative items are add-on to a quantitative
survey, the items generally do not result in a thorough qualitative data set.
However, they provide the researcher with interesting quotes that can be
used to validate and exaggerate the quantitative survey findings.
d) Multilevel Research
Level 1:
QUAN
Data collection, analysis, results
Level 2:
QUAL
Data collection, analysis, results
Overall
Level 3:
Interpretation
QUAN
In a multilevel
model,analysis,
differentresults
methods are used to address different levels
Data collection,
within a system. The findings from each level are merged together into one
overall interpretation.
2. The Embedded Design

The Embedded Design is a mixed method design in which one data set play a
supportive or secondary role in a study based primarily on the other data
type. Researchers use this design when they need to include qualitative or
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
quantitative data to answer a research
question
within METHODS
a largely conducted
quantitative or qualitative study. This design is particularly useful when a

researcher needs to embed a qualitative component within a quantitative
design, as in the case of an experimental or co relational design.
Embedded Design Procedures
QUAN
qual
Interpretation
Based on
QUAN (qual)
Results
QUAL
Or
quan
Interpretation
Based on
QUAL (quan)
Results
The Embedded Design mixes the different data sets at the design level, with
one type of data being embedded within a methodology framed by the other
data type. The embedded design includes the collection of both quantitative
and quantitative data, but one of the data types plays a supplemental role
within the overall design.
Variants of the Embedded Design
The two variants are the experimental model and the correlational model.
The all four models are discussed below in detail
a) Experimental model
qual
Before
Intervention
QUAN
premeasure
QUAN
premeasure
Interpretation based on QUAN(qual) results

qual
after
Intervention
qual
The embedded experimental

During model may be the most commonly used variant
intervention
of the embedded design.
This model is defined by as qualitative data
embedded within an experimental design. The priority of this model to

establish the quantitative, experimental methodology, the qualitative
dataset is subservient within that methodology. This design can either be
used as a one-phase or a two-phase approach, in which the timing reflects
the purpose for including the qualitative data.
b) The co relational model
QUAN
Predictors
QUAN
Predictors
Interpretation
Based on
QUAN (qual)
Results
QUAN
Outcome
QUAN
Predictors
This is another embedded variant, in which qualitative data are embedded

within a quantitative design. In this design, researcher collects qualitative
Qual process
data as part of their correational study to help explain how the mechanisms
work in the correlational model.
3. The Explanatory Design

The Explanatory Design is a two-phase mixed methods design. The overall
purpose of this design is that qualitative data helps to explain or build upon
initial quantitative results
Explanatory Design Procedures
QUAN
qual
Interpretation based
QUAN
qual
results
The explanatory design is a two-phase mixed method design. This design

starts with the collection and analysis of quantitative data. The first phase is
followed by the subsequent collection and analysis of qualitative data. The
second, qualitative phase of the study is designed, so that it follows from the
results of the first quantitative phase because this design begins
quantitatively; investigators typically place greater emphasis on the
quantitative methods than the qualitative methods.
Variants of the explanatory Design
BUSINESS RESEARCH
METHODS
There are the two variants of the Explanatory
Design: the
follow-up
explanations model participant selection model and their explanation are

given below
a) The follow-up explanations
QUAN
QUAN
Data collection Data analysis
Identify results for follow-upqual

qual
Data
collection
Data analysis
QUAN
Results
This model is used when a researcher needs qualitative data to
qual
results
Interpretation
QUAN
explain or qual
expand on quantitative results. In this model, the researcher identifies

specific quantitative findings that need additional explanation, such as
statistical differences among groups, individuals who scored at extreme
levels, or unexpected results. The researcher then collects qualitative data
from participants who can best help explain these findings. In this model, the
primary emphasis is usually on the quantitative aspects.
b) The participant selection model
quan
quan
QUAL participant selection

QUAL Data collection
QUAL Data analysisQUAL results
quan
Results
This model is used when a researcher needs quantitative information to identify and
purposefully select participants for a follow-up in-depth qualitative phase.
Interpretation
4. The Exploratory Design
quan
QUAL
The exploratory design is the results of the first method that can help in
develop or the second method. This design is particularly useful when a
researcher needs to develop and test an instrument when one is not
available or identify important variables to study quantitatively when the
variables are unknown. It is also appropriate when a researcher wants to
generalize results to different groups, to test aspects of an emergent theory
or classification, or to explore a phenomenon in depth and then measure its
frequency.
Exploratory design procedures
Interpretation based
The exploratory design is also a two-phase approach, and writers refer to it

as the exploratory sequential design. This design starts with qualitative data,
to explore a phenomenon, and then builds the second, quantitative phase.
Researcher using this design to builds on the results of the qualitative phase
by developing an instrument, identifying variables or starting propositions for
testing based on an emergent theory or framework.
The variants of Exploratory Design
This design have two common variants: the instrument development model
and the taxonomy development model and the explanation of these models
are given below:
a) The instrument development model
qual
qual
qual
Results
Develop instrument
QUAN Data collection
QUAN Data analysis
QUAN results
When a researcher need to develop and implement a quantitative instrument

Interpretation
QUAN
based on qualitative findings ,that in this design, the researcher firstquan

qualitatively explores the research topic with a few participants. The
qualitative findings then guide the development of items and scales for a
quantitative survey instrument. In the second data collection phase, the
researcher implements and validates this instrument quantitatively.
b) Taxonomy development model
QUAL Data collection
QUAL Data analysis
QUAL
Results
Develop
taxonomy or theory
testing
Quanfor
Data
collection
Quan Data analysis
Quan results
Interpretation
QUAN
Qual
The taxonomy development model occurs when the initial qualitative phase
is conducted to identify important variables, develop a taxonomy or
classification system or develop an emergent theory and the secondary
quantitative phase tests or studies these results in more detail. In this model,
the initial qualitative phase produces specific categories or relationships.
These categories or relationships are then used to direct the research
questions and data collection used in the second quantitative phase.
The major mixed method design types
Design
Type
Variants
Timing
Weighting
Mixing
Triangulatio Convergence
n
Data
transformation
Validating
quantitative data
multilevel
Concurrent
:
quantitativ
e and
qualitative
at same
time
Usually
equal
Merge the
data during
the
interpretatio
n or analysis
Embedded embedded
experimental
embedded
correlational
Concurrent
or
sequential
Unequal
Embed one
type of data
within a
larger design
using the
other type of
data
Explanatory follow-up
explanation
participant
selection
Sequential:
quantitativ
e followed
by
qualitative
Usually
quantitati
ve
Connect the
data
between the
two phases
Notation
QUAN + QUAL
QUAN(qual) OR
QUAL(quan)
QUAN
qual

Exploratory instrument
development
taxonomy
development
Sequential:
qualitative
followed by
quantitativ
e
Usually
qualitativ
e
Connect the
data
between the
two phases
QUAL
quan
Data Collection in Mixed Methods Research

Researcher collects data in mixed methods study to address the research
questions or hypothesis. Before discussing the mixed method procedures,
there is a discussion on the basic elements of both quantitative and
qualitative data collection within a process approach to research
Procedures in Qualitative and Quantitative Data Collection

There are some phases of data collection that, in combination, comprise the
data collection step in research. These phases are the sampling procedures,
permissions, types of information collected, forms for recording the data, and
the activities involved in administering the data collection. The review of
these phases will be discussed in a table form.
Phases in the Data Collection Process for Qualitative and Quantitative

Research
Qualitative Data
Collection
Purposeful sampling
strategies
small number of
participants and sites
from individual providing

access to sites
institutional review boards
individuals
open-ended interviews
open-ended observations
documents
audiovisual materials
Phases in the
process of
Research
Sampling
Procedures
Quantitative Data Collection
random sampling
adequate size to reduce sampling
error and provide sufficient
power
Permissions
needed
from individual providing access

to sites
individual review boards
individuals
Information to
be collected
instruments
checklist
public document
interview protocols
observational protocols
attending to field issues

attending to ethical issues
Recording the
data
Administering
data collection
instrument with scores that are

reliable and valid
standardization of procedures
attending to ethical issues
Procedures Qualitative and Quantitative Data Analysis
Quantitative Procedures
General
Procedures in
Data Analysis
Qualitative Procedures
Coding data by assigning

numeric values
Cleaning the database
Recoding or computing
new variables for computer
analysis
Establishing codebook
Preparing the
data for
analysis
Visually inspecting data

Conducting a descriptive
analysis
Checking for trends and
distributions
Exploring the
data
Reading through the data

Writing memos
Developing qualitative
codebook
Choosing an appropriate
statistical test
Analyzing to answer
research questions or test
hypotheses
Reporting inferential
tests, effect sizes, confidence
intervals
using quantitative
statistical software programs
Analyzing the
data
Coding the data

Assigning labels to codes
Grouping codes into
themes (or categories)
Interrelating themes (or
categories) or abstracting to
smaller set of themes
Using qualitative software
programs
Organizing documents and

visual data
Transcribing text
Preparing the data for
computer analysis
Representing results in
statements of results
Providing results in
tables and figures
Representing
the data
analysis
Using external standards

Validating and checking
the reliability of scores from
past instrument use
Establishing validity and
reliability of current data
Validating the
data
Representing findings in
discussions of themes or
categories
Presenting visual models,
figures, tables
Using researcher,
participant, and reviewer
standards
Employing validation
strategies (e.g., member
checking, triangulation, peer
review)
Structure of a Proposal for a Dissertation or Thesis

A proposal for a dissertation or thesis needs to convince graduate committees and
advisors that the topic is worth pursuing and that it will be studied in a thorough
and understandable way. The proposal needs to be convincing, and when the design
is mixed method, special components need to be included in the overall plan that
relate to mixed methods and the type of design. There is a specimen for writing a
proposal or thesis that will focus on the following sections, which is given below:

Outline of the structure of a proposal for a Dissertation or Thesis
Title
Foreshadows mixed methods study and type of design
Introduction
The research problem

Past research on the problem
Deficiencies in past research and one deficiency related to a need to
collect both quantitative and qualitative data
The audiences that will profit from the study
Purpose
The purpose or study aim of the project and reasons for design
types
The research questions and hypotheses
o Quantitative research questions or hypotheses
o Qualitative research questions
o Mixed methods research questions
Philosophical Foundations (worldview and assumptions for using mixed
methods and the type of design)
Literature Review (include quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods
studies, if they are available)
Methods
A definition of mixed methods research

The type of design used and its definition
Challenges in using this design and how they will be addressed
Examples of use of the type of design
Reference and inclusion of a visual diagram in appendix
Quantitative data collection an analysis
Qualitative data collection and analysis and qualitative data
transformation, if used (in exploratory design, place qualitative
before quantitative)
Validity approaches in both quantitative and qualitative research
Researcher resources and skills

Potential Ethical issues
Timeline for completing the study
Reference and appendixes with instrument and protocols and
visual diagram
References:
Creswell, J. W. and Clark, P. V. (2007) Designing and conducting mixed methods

research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2003) Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approach (2nd ed.). thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Bryman, A. and Bell, E. (2003) Business Research Methods, second edition,
Oxford University Press.
Research
Design

Research
Design
Components of Research design

Proposal writing
Research Ethics
What is meant by Research Design?

Components of Research Design
o Introduction
o Purpose statement
o Significance of the study
o Research Question and Hypothesis
o Limitations of the study
How to write a proposal
Ethical consideration
B. Session outline
Research Design
After having completed a framework and a preliminary literature review, and having
given consideration to writing, a researcher turns to the actual design of a study.
Research Design is elaborated as
1 The Introduction
It is important to properly introduce a research study. This requires identifying the
research problem or issue, framing this problem with the existing literature, pointing
out deficiencies in the literature, and targeting the study for an audience. Following
is the systematic method for designing a scholarly introduction to a proposal or
study.
1.1.
The purpose of Introduction
The purpose of the introduction is to establish a framework for the research, so that
readers can understand how it is related to other research.
1.2.
The Importance of Introduction
It is the first passage in a journal article, dissertation, or scholarly research study
that provides readers with the background information for the research reported
in the research project.
It establishes the issue or concern leading to the research by conveying
information about a research problem
It carries the weight of encouraging the reader to read further and to begin to
see significance in the study.
It creates readers interest in the topic
It establishes the problem that leads to the study
It places the study within the larger context of the scholarly literature
It enables the study to reach out to a specific audience.
Introduction is always challenging to write and understand as all of this is
achieved in a concise section of a few pages.
1.3.
Qualitative , Quantitative And Mixed Methods

Introductions
In qualitative project the researcher will describe a research problem that can
best be understood by exploring a concept or phenomenon. Qualitative research
is exploratory and researcher uses it to explore a topic when the variable and the
theory base are unknown.
In quantitative project the problem is best addressed by understanding what
factors or variables influence an outcome.
A mixed method study can employ either the qualitative or the quantitative
approach to writing an introduction.
1.4.
A Model for An Introduction
An introduction model consist of 5 steps which are discussed one by one
The Research Problem :
When researchers begin their studies they start one or more paragraphs that
convey the specific research problems or issues. In the first paragraph researcher
identify a distinct research problem that needs to be addressed.
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODS
Review Studies Addressing The
Problems
:
The purpose of reviewing studies that have addressed the problem is to justify the
importance of the study and to create distinctions between past studies and a
proposed study.
Deficiencies In Past Literature :
After the problem and reviewing the literature about the problem, the researcher
then identifies deficiencies in the literature. The nature of deficiencies varies from
study to study.
Importance Of A Study For An Audience :
All good writers have audience in mind. Introduction by mentioning information of

the study to requires.
Purpose Statement :
Good introduction to research studies end with a statement of the purpose or intent
of the study the purpose study. It is a major guiding element of any research study.
1. The Purpose Statement

A purpose statement is the statement that orients the reader to the central intent
on the study. According to Locke, Spirduso, and Silverman (2000) it indicates why
you want to do the study and what you intend to accomplish
1.1.
Characteristics and Significance Of purpose Statement.
It is the most important statement in an entire research study.
It conveys the overall intention of a proposed study.
It establishes the direction for the research.
The purpose statement needs to be written as clearly and concisely as possible.
It is helpful to set it apart from other aspects of the proposal or study and to
frame it as a single sentence or paragraph the readers can identify easily.
1.2.
Script Of Purpose Statement
A script contains the major words or ideas of a statement and provides space for
the researcher to insert information that relates to a project the script for a
purpose statement
Although qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods purpose statements share
similar topics, each will be identified below and illustrated with scripts for
constructing a thorough but manageable purpose statement for a proposal or study.
1.2.1.Qualitative Purpose Statement
A mixed methods proposal or study needs to convey both quantitative and
qualitative purpose statements.
Script
The purpose of this (Strategy of inquiry, such as ethnography, case
study, or other type) study is (was? Will be?) to . (Understand?
Describe? Develop? Discover?) The .. (Central phenomenon being
studied) for . (The participants, such as the individual, groups,
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODS
organization) at (Research
site).
At this stage
in the research, the
. (Central phenomenon being studied) will be generally defined as
.. (Provide a general definition).
The following examples may not illustrate perfectly all elements of this script, but
they represent adequate models to study and emulate.
Example
The purpose of this study was to explore affective, social, and educational factors
that my have contributed to the development of reading disabilities in four
adolescents. The study also sought explanation as to why students reading
disabilities persisted despite years of instruction. This was not an intervention study
and, although some students may have improved their reading, reading
improvement was not the focus of the study. (Kos, 1991, pp. 876-877)
1.2.2.Quantitative Purpose Statement
Quantitative purpose statement differs considerably from the qualitative models in
terms of the language and a focus on relating or comparing variables or constructs.
The design of a quantitative purpose statement , therefore, begins with identifying
the proposed variables (independent, intervening, dependent, control) for a study,
drawing a visual model to clearly identify this sequence, locating and specifying
how the variables will be measured and observed. Finally, the intent to use the
variables quantitatively will be either to relate variables (as one typically finds in
survey) or to compare samples or groups in terms of an outcome (as commonly
found in experiments).
Based on these points, a quantitative purpose statement script can include these
ideas:
Script
The purpose of this.(Experiment, survey?) study is (was? Will be?)
to test the theory of that .(compares?
relates?) the (Independent variable) to (Dependent
variable), controlling for. (Control variables) for (participants)
at(the research site). The independent variable(s)
..will be generally defined as
(provide a general definition), and the control and intervening variable (s),
,(identify the control and intervening variables) will be
statistically controlled in the study.
The following example may not illustrate perfectly all elements of this script, but
Example
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between personal
characteristics and the job motivation of certified educators who taught in selected
state adult correctional institutions in the United States, personal characteristics
were divided into background information about the respondent (i.e. institutional
information, education level, prior training, etc.) and information about the
respondents thoughts of changing jobs. The examination of backg4round
information was important to this study because it was hoped it would be possible
to identify characteristics and factors contributing to significant differences in
mobility and motivation. The second part of the study asked the respondents to
identify those motivational factors of concern to them. Job motivation was defined
RESEARCH
METHODSstudy (EWCS)
by six general factors identified in the BUSINESS
educational
work components
questionnaire (Miskel & Heller, 1973) these six general factors are: potential for
personal challenge and development; competitiveness; desirability and reward of
success; tolerance for work pressures; conservative security; and willingness to
seek reward in spite of uncertainty vs. avoidance. (DeGraw, 1984, pp. 4, 5)
1.2.3.Mixed Methods Purpose Statement Script
A mixed methods proposal or study needs to convey both quantitative and
qualitative purpose statements. These statements need to be identified early in the
study in an introduction, and they provide a major signpost for the reader to
understand the quantitative and qualitative parts of a study. Several guidelines
might direct the organization and presentation of the mixed methods purpose
statement:
Begin with signaling words, such as the purpose of or the statement of
intent.
Indicate the type of mixed methods design, such as sequential, concurrent, or
transformational.
Discuss a rationale for combining both quantitative and qualitative data in the
proposed study. This rationale could be
To better understand a research problem by converging (or triangulating)
both broad numeric trends from quantitative research and the detail of
qualitative research.
To explore participant views with the intent to use these views to develop and
test an instrument with a sample from a population.
To obtain statistical, quantitative results from a sample and them follow up
with a few individuals to probe or explore those results in more depth
Include the characteristics of a good qualitative statement such as focusing on a
single phenomenon. Using action words and non-directional language.
Mentioning the strategy of inquiry and identifying the participants and the
research site
Include the choristers of a good quantitative purpose statement such as
identifying a theory and the variables. Relating variables or comparing groups in
terms of variables, placing these variables in order from independent to
dependent, mentioning the strategy of inquiry and specifying the participants
and research site for the research.
Consider adding information about the specific types of both qualitative and
quantitative data collection.
Script
The purpose of this two-phase, sequential mixed methods study will be to explore
participant views with the intent of using this information to develop and test an
instrument with a sample from a population. The first phase will be a qualitative
exploration of (Central phenomenon) by collecting
(Data) from (Participants) at . (Research site).
Themes from this qualitative data will then be developed into an instrument so that
.(theory, research questions, or hypotheses) can be tested
that (relate, compare) .(independent
variable) with .(dependent variable) for.(sample of
population) at (Research site)
The following example may not illustrate perfectly all elements of this script, but

Example
The purpose of this sequential, mixed methods study was to first explore and
generate themes about student use of Book laptops in three teacher education
classes using filed observations and face-to-face interviews. Then, based on these
themes, the second phase was to develop an instrument to survey students about
the laptop use on several dimensions; the rationale for using both qualitative and
quantitative data was that a useful survey of student experience could best be
developed only after a preliminary exploration of student use.
2. Research Questions and Hypotheses

Investigators place signposts in their research to carry the reader through a plan for
a study. The first signpost is the purpose statement, which establishes the central
direction for the study. From the broad, general purpose statement, the researchers
narrows the focus to specific questions to be answered or predictions (i.e.,
hypotheses) to be tested, that addresses the second signpost the research
questions, or hypotheses in a proposal.
Qualitative Research Questions
In a qualitative study, inquirers state research questions, not objectives (i.e.,
specific goals for the research) or hypotheses (i.e. predictions that involve variables
and statistical tests). These research questions assume two forms: a central
question and associated sub questions.
The central question is the statement of the questions being examined in the
study in its most general form. The inquirer poses this question consistent with the
emerging methodology of qualitative research, as a general issue so as not, to limit
the inquiry. One might ask What is the broadest question that can be asked in the
study?
The followings are guidelines for writing broad, qualitative research questions
Ask one or two central questions followed by no more than five to seven sub
questions. As recommended by Miles and Huberman (1994), who recommended
that researcher should write no more than a dozen research questions in all.
These questions, in turn, become topics specifically explored in interviews,
observations, and documents and archival material. For example, they might be
used as key questions the researcher will ask himself or herself in the
observational procedure or during an open ended interview
Relate the central question to the specific qualitative strategy of inquiry. For
example, the specificity of the questions at this stage of the design differs from
that in other qualitative strategies.
Spradly (1980) advanced taxonomy of the ethnographic questions that included
mini- tour, experience, native language, contrast and verification questions,
similarly, in critical ethnography, the research questions may build on a body of
existing literature.
These questions become working guidelines rather than truths to be proven
(Thomas, 1993, p.35). Alternatively in phenomenology, the questions might be
broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology
METHODS
of questions. An example is What BUSINESS
is it like forRESEARCH
a mother to
live with a teenage
child who is dying of cancer? (Nieswiadomy, 1993, p.151).
In grounded theory, the questions may be related to procedures in the data
analysis such as open coding (What are the categories to emerge from
interactions between caregivers and patients?) or axial coding (How does care
giving relate to actions by nurses?)
Begin the research questions with the words what or how to convey an open
and emerging design. Why suggests cause and effect, an approach consistent
with quantitative research.
Focus on a single phenomenon or concept.
Use exploratory verbs that convey the language of emerging design of research.
These verbs tell the reader that the study will
Discover(e.g., grounded theory)
Seek to understand (e.g. ethnography)
Explore a process (e.g., case study)
Describe the experience (e.g. Phenomenology)
Report the stories (e.g. narrative research)
Use non-directional language. Delete words that suggest or infer a quantitative
study words with a directional orientation such as affect, influence, impact,
determine, cause, and relate.
Expect the research questions to evolve and to change during the study in a
manner consistent with the assumptions of van emerging design. Often in
qualitative studies, the questions are under continual review and reformulation
(as in a grounded theory study). This approach may be problematic for
individuals accustomed to quantitative designs, in which the research questions
remain fixed throughout the study.
Use open- ended questions without reference to the literature or theory unless
otherwise indicated by a qualitative strategy of inquiry.
If the information is not redundant with the purpose statement, specify the
participants and the research site for the study.
Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses
In quantitative studies, investigators use research questions and hypotheses to
shape and specifically focus the purpose of the study. Research questions are
interrogative statements or questions that the investigator seeks to answer. They
are used frequently in a social science research and especially in a survey studies.
Hypotheses, on the other hand, are predictions the researcher holds about the
relationship among variables. They are numeric estimates of population values
based on data collected from samples. Testing of hypotheses employs statistical
procedures in which the investigator draws inference about the population from a
study sample. Hypotheses typically are used in experiments in which investigators
compare groups. Advisers often recommend their use in a formal research project,
such as a dissertation or thesis, as a means of stating the direction a study will take.
Objectives on the other hand indicate the goals or objectives for a study . They are
used infrequently in social science research. As such, the focus here will be on
research questions and hypotheses
Guidelines for writing good quantitative research questions and hypotheses include
the following.
BUSINESS
RESEARCH METHODS
The use of variables in research questions
or hypotheses
is typically limited to
three basic approaches. The researcher may compare groups on an independent
variable to see its impact on the dependent variable. Alternatively, the
investigator may relate one or more independent variables to a dependent
variable. Third , the researcher may describe responses to the independent,
mediating, or dependent variables
The most rigorous form of quantitative research follows from a test of a theory
(see chapter 7) and the specification of research questions or hypotheses that
are included in the theory.
The independent and dependent variables must be measured separately. This
procedure reinforces the cause and effect logic of quantitative research.
To eliminate redundancy, write only research questions or hypotheses, not both,
unless the hypotheses build on the research questions (as discussed below ).
Choose the form based on tradition, recommendations from an adviser or faculty
committee, or whether past research indicates a prediction about outcomes.
If hypotheses are used, there are two forms: null and alternative. A null
hypotheses represents the traditional approach to writing hypotheses. It makes a
prediction that in the general population, no relationship or no difference exists
between groups on a variable. The wording is There is no difference (or
relationship) between the groups.
The second form of hypotheses popular in journal articles is the alternative
hypotheses. The investigator makes a prediction about the expected outcome
for the population of the study. This prediction often comes from prior literature
and studies on the topic that suggests a potential outcome that the researcher
may expect. For example, the researcher may predict that scores will be higher
for group A than for group B on the dependent variable or that Group A will
change more than Group B in the outcome. These examples illustrate a
directional hypotheses, because an expected prediction (e.g. higher change
more) is made, Another type of alternative hypotheses is non-directional - a
prediction is made, but the exact form of differences (e.g. higher, lower, more, or
less) is not specified because the researcher does not know what can be
predicted from past literature, thus, the investigator might write, There is a
difference between the two groups.
Unless the study intentionally employees demographic variables as predictors,
use non demographic variables(i.e. measuring attitudes or behaviors) rather
than personal demographics as independent variables > Because quantitative
studies attempt to verify a theory demographic variables (e.g. age, income level,
Educational level and so forth) typically enter these models as intervening or
control variables instead of major independent variables.
Use the same pattern of words order in the questions or hypotheses to enable a
reader to easily identify the major variables this calls for repeating key phrases
and positioning the variables beginning with the independent and concluding
with the dependent variables (as also discussed in chapter on good purpose
statements).
A MODEL FOR DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
RESEARCH
Consider a model for writing questionsBUSINESS
or hypotheses
basedMETHODS
on writing descriptive
questions that are followed by inferential questions or hypotheses. These questions
or hypotheses include both independent and dependent variables. In this model, the
writer specifies descriptive questions for each independent and dependent variable
(and important control or intervening variables) in the study inferential questions (or
hypotheses) that relate variables and compare groups follow these descriptive
questions. A final set of questions, then, may add inferential questions or
hypotheses in which variables are controlled.
This example illustrates how to organize all the research questions into descriptive
and inferential questions. In another example, a researcher may want to compare
group, and the language may change to reflect this comparison in the inferential
question. In other studies many more independent and dependent variables may be
present in the model being tested, and a longer list of descriptive and inferential
questions would result. I would recommend this descriptive inferential model
This example also illustrates the use of variables to describe as well as relate. It
specifies the independent in the second, and the control variables in the third
position. It employs demographics as controls rather than central variables in the
questions and a reader needs to assume that the questions flow from a theoretical
model.
MIXED METHODS RESEARCH/ QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
Mixed methods research presents challenges in writing research questions or
hypotheses because so little of the literature has addressed this design step
(Creswell, 1999). Authors prefer to make purpose statements rather than specify
their research questions. Thus there is a distinct lack of models on which to base
guidelines for writing research questions into mixed methods studies; however it is
possible to identify some characteristics that might guide the design of the
questions.
Mixed methods studies need to have both qualitative and quantitative research
questions(or hypotheses) included in the studies to narrow and focus the
purpose statements
These questions and hypotheses need to incorporate the elements of good
questions and hypotheses already addressed in the quantitative and qualitative
approaches
In a two phase sequential project in which the second phase elaborates the first
phase. It is difficult to specify the second phase questions in a proposal or plan.
After the study is completed, the researchers can state the questions of both
phases in the final report, in a single phase project, it is possible to identify the
qualitative and quantitative research questions in the proposal because one set
of questions is not contingent on the other set of questions.
Some attention should be given to order of the research questions and
hypotheses. In a two phase project, the order would consists of the first phase
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODS
questions followed by the second phase
questions
so that
readers see them in
the order in which they will be addressed in the proposed study. In a single phase
strategy of inquiry the questions might be ordered according to the method that
is given the most weight in the design.
A variation often seen in sequential mixed methods studies is to introduce those
questions at the beginning of each phase. For example, assume that the study
begins with a quantitative phase. The investigator might introduce hypotheses
later in the study. When the qualitative phase is addressed, the qualitative
research question appears.
3. The use of Theory

In quantitative research, the hypotheses and research questions are often based on
the theories that the researcher seeks to test, in qualitative research the use of
theory is much more varied. Thus this pack introduces the use of theory at this time
in the design process because theory provides an explanation for the variables in
questions and hypotheses in quantitative research, in contrast, in a quantitative
dissertation, an entire section of a research proposal might be devoted to
explicating the theory for the study, alternatively, in a qualitative study, the inquirer
may generate a theory during a study and place it at the end of a project ,such as in
grounded theory . In other qualitative study, then it comes at the beginning and
provides a lens that shapes what is looked at and the questions asked, such as in
ethnographies or in advocacy research, in mixed methods research, researchers
may both test theories and generate them. Moreover mixed methods research may
contains a theoretical lens, such as a focus on feminist, racial or class issue that
guides the entire study.
The chapter begins by focusing on theory use in a quantitative study. It reviews
definition of a theory, the placement of it in a quantitative study and the alternative
forms it might assume in a written plan. Procedures in identifying a theory are next
presented followed by a script of a theoretical perspective section of a
quantitative research proposal. Then the discussion moves to use of a theory in a
qualitative study. Qualitative inquirers use different terms, such as theories,
patterns, and naturalistic generalizations, to describe the understanding occur at
the beginning of the study at other times at the end. Examples illustrate the
alternative available to qualitative researcher. Finally, the chapter turns to the use
of theories in mixed methods research and the use of theory in a type of strategy of
inquiry- the transformative strategy that emerged recently in the literature.
QUANTITATIVE THEORY USE

Definition of a Theory
In quantitative research some historical precedent exists for viewing a theory as a
scientific prediction or explanation (see G.Thomas, 1997 for different ways of
conceptualizing theories and how they might constrain thought). For example , the
definition of a theory is a set of interrelated constructs (variables) , definitions,
and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying
relation among variables, with the purpose of explaining natural phenomena(p.64)
In this definition, a theory is an interrelated set of constructs (or variables) formed
into propositions, or hypotheses, that specify the relationship among variables
(typically in terms of magnitude or direction).
The metaphor of a rainbow can help to visualize how a theory operates. Assume
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODS
that the rainbow bridge the independent
and dependent
variables
(or constructs) in
a study. This rainbow, then, ties together the variables and provides an overarching
explanation for how and why one would expect the independent variable to explain
or predict the dependent variable.
Theories develop when researchers test a prediction many times recall that
investigators combine independent, mediating, and dependent variables based on
different forms of measures into hypotheses or research questions. These
hypotheses or questions provide information about the type of relationship
(positive, negative, or unknown) and its magnitude (e.g. high or low). The
hypotheses might be written, The greater the centralization of power in leaders,
the greater the disenfranchisement of the followers. When researcher test
hypotheses such as this over and over in different setting and with different
populations (e.g. the Boy Scouts, a Presbyterian church, the Rotary Club, and a
group of high school students), a theory emerges and someone gives it a name (e.g.
a theory of attribution). Thus, theory develops explanation to advance knowledge in
particular fields (G.Thomas, 1997).
Another aspect of theories is that they vary in their breadth of coverage. Neuman
(2000) reviews theories at three levels: micro- level, meso- level, and marco- level.
Micro level theories provide explanations limited to small slices of time, space or
numbers of people, such as Goffmans theory of face work that explains how
people engage in rituals during face- to face interactions. Meso level theories
link the micro and macro levels. These are theories of organizations, social
movement, or communities, such as Collinss theory of control in organization.
Marco level theories explain larger aggregates, such as institutions, cultural
systems, and whole societies. Lenskis marco level theory of social stratification,
for example, explains how the amount of surplus, a society produces, increases with
the development of the society.
Form of Theories
Researchers state their theories in several ways, such as a series of hypotheses,
if..then logic statements, or visual models. First some researchers state theories
in the form of interconnected hypotheses. For example, Hopkins (1964) conveyed
his theory of influence processes as a series of 15 hypotheses (slightly altered to
remove all the male- specific pronoun). For any member of a small group, some
hypotheses are:
1. The higher her rank, the greater her centrality.
2. The greater his centrality, the greater his observability.
3. The higher her rank, the greater her observability.
4. The greater his centrality, the greater his conformity.
5. The higher her rank, the greater her conformity.
6. The greater his observability, the greater his conformity.
7. The greater her conformity, the greater her observability. (p.51)
A second form is to state a theory as a series of if. Then statements that explain
why one would expect the independent variables to influence or cause the
dependent variables. For example, Homans (1950) explains a theory of interaction:
If the frequency of interaction between two or more persons increases, the degree
of their linking for one another will increase, and vice versa persons who feel
sentiments of liking for one another will express those sentiments in activities over
BUSINESS of
RESEARCH
METHODS
and above to further strengthen the sentiments
liking. The
more frequently
persons interact with one another, the more alike in some respects both their
activities and their sentiments tend to become.(pp.112,118,120)
Third an author may present a theory as a visual model. It is useful to translate
variables into a visual picture. Blalock (1969, 1985, and 1991) advocates causal
modeling and recasts verbal theories into causal models so that a reader can
visualize the interconnections of variables.
Two simplified examples are presented here. As shown in Figure 7.1 three
independent variables influence a single independent variables mediated by
influence of two intervening variables. Setting up a diagram such as this one shows
the possible causal sequence among variables, leading to path analytic modeling
and more advance analysis using multiple measure of variables as found in
structural equation modeling (see Kline, 1998). At an introductory level Duncane
(1985) provides useful suggestion about the notation for constructing these visual
casual diagrams
Position the dependent variables on the right in the diagram and the
independent variables on the left
Use one way arrow leading from each determining variables to each variable
dependent on it
Indicate the strength of the relationship among variable by inserting valence
signs on the paths. Use positive and negative valences the postulate or infer
relationship
Use two headed arrows connected to show unanalyzed relationship between
variables not dependent upon other relationship in the model
Though more complicated causal diagrams can be constructed with additional
notation, the model presented here portrays a basic model of limited variables, such
as typically found in a survey research study.
A variation on this theme is to have two independent variables in which one
variable compares a control and experimental group and a second variable simply
measures an attribute or characteristics. As shown in figure 7.2 two groups on
variables X1 ( Xa and Xb) are compared, along with variables X2 ( a control
variable) as they influence Y1 the dependent variable. This design is a between
groups experimental design. The same rules of notation discussed above apply.
These two visual models are meant only to introduce possibilities for connecting
independent and dependent variables to build theories, more complicated designs
employ multiple independent and dependent variables in elaborate models of
causation (Blalock 1969, 1985). For example, Junfnickel (1990), in a doctoral
dissertation proposal about research productivity among faculty in pharmacy
schools, presented a complex visual model as shown in figure 7.3, Jungnickel asked
what factors influence a faculty members scholarly research performance.
After identifying these factors in the literature, he adapted a theoretical framework
found in nursing research (Megel, Langston & Creswell, 1988). He developed a
visual model portraying the relationship among these factors. The model follows the
rules for constructing a visual model introduced earlier. He listed the independent
variables on the far left, the intervening variables in the middle, and the dependent
variables on the right. The direction of influence flowed from the left to the right,
and he used + and - valences to indicates the hypothesized direction.
RESEARCH METHODS
Placement of Quantitative BUSINESS
Theories:
In quantitative studies, one uses theory deductively and places it toward the
beginning of the plan for the study. With the objective of testing or verifying a
theory rather than developing it, the researcher advances a theory, collects data to
test it, and reflects on the confirmation or disconfirmation of the theory by the
results. The theory becomes a framework for the entire study, an organizing model
for the research question or hypotheses and for the data collection procedure. The
deductive model of thinking used in a quantitative study is shown in figure 7.4 the
researcher tests or verifies a theory by examining hypotheses or questions derived
from the theory. These hypotheses or questions contain variables (or constructs)
that the researcher needs to define, alternatively, an acceptable definition might be
found in the literature. From here the investigator locates an instrument to use in
measuring or observing attitudes or behaviors of participants in a study then the
investigator collects scores on these instruments to confirm or disconfirm the
theory.
This deductive approach to research in the quantitative approach has implications
for the placement of theory in a quantitative research study, a general guide is to
introduce the theory early in a plan or study. This means that the researcher
presents it in the introduction in the literature review section, immediately after
hypotheses or research questions ( as a rationale for the connections among the
variables), or in a separate section of the study. Each placement has its advantages
and disadvantages
I prefer to write the theory into a separate section so that readers can clearly
identify the theory from other components of the research process. Such a separate
passage provides a complete explication of the theory section, its use, and how it
relates to the study I am proposing.
A Model for Writing a

Quantitative Theoretical Perspective
Using these ideas, the following presents a model for writing a quantitative
theoretical perspective section into a research plan. Assume that the task is to
identify a theory that explains the relationship between independent and dependent
variables. The following procedure might be used.
1.
Look in the discipline based literature for a theory. If the unit of analysis for
variables is individuals, look in the psychology literature to study groups or
organizations, look in the sociological literature. If the project examines
individuals and groups, consider the social psychology literature. Of course,
theories from other discipline may be useful, too (e.g. to study an economic
issue, the theory may be found in economics)
2.
Look also at prior studies that address the topic or a closely related topic.
What theories were used by other authors? Limit the number of theories and try
to identify one overarching theory that explains the central hypotheses or
research question in the study.
3.
As mentioned earlier, ask the rainbow question that bridges the independent
and dependent variables: Why would the independent variables influence the
dependent variables?
4.
Script out the theory section. Follow these lead sentences:
The theory that I will use will be _______ (name of theory). It was developed by
BUSINESS
METHODS
______ (identify the topics where one
finds theRESEARCH
theory being
applied). This theory
indicates that ______ (identify the propositions or hypotheses in the theory). As
applied to my study, this theory holds that I would expect my independent
variables ____ (state independent variables) to influence or explain the
dependent variables ____ ( state dependent variables) because ______ ( provide a
rationale based on the logical of the theory).
Thus, the topics to be included in a quantitative theory discussion are the theory to
be used, the central hypotheses or propositions of the theory, information about
past use of theory and its application, and statements that reflect how the theory
relates to a proposed study. This model is illustrated in the example by Crutchfield
(1986)
Theoretical Perspective
In formulation of a theoretical perspective for studying the scholarly productivity of
faculty, social learning theory provides a useful prototype. This conception of
behavior attempts to achieve a balanced synthesis of cognitive psychology with
the principles of behavior modification (Bower & Hilgard, 1981). Basically, this
unified theoretical framework approaches the explanation of human behavior in
terms of a continuous (reciprocal) interaction between cognitive behavioral and
environmental determinants (Bandura, 1977, p. VII) [author identifies the
theory]
While social learning theory accepts the application of the reinforcement such as
shaping principles, it tends to see the role of rewards as both conveying information
about the optimal response and providing incentive motivation for a given act
because of the anticipated reward. In addition, the learning principles of this theory
piace special emphasis on the important roles played by vicarious, symbolic, and
self regulating processes (Bandura, 1971).
Social learning theory not only deals with learning, but seeks to describe how a
group of social and personal competencies (so called personality) could evolve out
of social conditions within which the learning occurs. It also addresses techniques of
personality assessment (Mischel, 1968), and behavior modification in clinical and
educational setting (Bandura, 1977; Bower & Hilgard, 1981; Rotter, 1954) [Authors
describes the use of the theory]
Further, the principles of social learning theory have been applied to a wide range of
social behavior such as competitiveness ,aggressiveness, sex roles, deviance, and
pathological behavior
(Bandura&Walter,1963;Bandura,1977;Mischel,1968;Miller&Dollard,1941;Ratter,1954
; Staats,1975) [ Author describes the use of the theory].
Explaining social learning theory, Ratter (1954) indicated that four classes of
variables must be considered; behavior, expectancles, reinforcement, and
psychological situations. A general formula for behavior was proposed which states:
the potential for a behavior to occur in any specific psychological situation is the
function of the expectancy that the behavior will lead to a particular reinforcement
in that situation and the value of that reinforcement (Rotter, 1975, p, 57)
Expectancy within the formula refers to the perceived degree of certainty (or
probability) that a causal relationship generally exists between behavior and
rewards. This construct af generalized expectancy has been defined as internal
locus of control when an individual believes that reinforcement are a function of
RESEARCH
METHODS
specific behavior ,or as external locus BUSINESS
of control when
the effects
are attributed to
luck,fate,or powerful others. The perceptions of causal relationships need not be
absolute positions, but rather tend to vary in degree along a continuum depending
upon pervious experiences and situations complexities (Rotter, 1966) [Author
explains variables in the theory]
In the application of social learning theory to this study of scholarly productivity, the
four classes of variables identified by Rotter (1955) will be defined in the following
manner
1. Scholarly productivity is the desired behavior or activity
2. Locus of control is the generalized expectancy that rewards are or are not
dependent upon specific behaviors
3. Reinforcements are the rewards from scholarly work and the value attached
to these rewards.
4. The educational institution is the psychological situation which furnishes
many of the rewards for scholarly productivity.
With these specific variables, the formula for behavior which was developed by
Rotter (1975) would be adapted to read: the potential for scholarly behavior to
occur within an educational institution is a function of the expectancy that this
activity will lead to specific rewards and of the value that the faculty member piaces
on these rewards. In addition, the interaction of interpersonal trust with locus of
control must be considered in relation to the expectancy of attaining rewards
through behaviors as recommended in subsequent statements by Rotter (1967).
Finally, certain characteristics, such as educational preparation, chronological age,
post - doctoral fellowships, tenure, or full time versus part- time employment may
be associated with the scholarly productivity of nurse faculty in a manner similar to
that seen within other disciplines (Author applied the concept to her study)
The following statements represent the underlying logic for designing and
conducting this study. If faculty believe that
a) Their efforts and actions in producing scholarly works will lead to rewards (locus
of control)
b) Others can be relied upon to follow through on their promises (interpersonal
trust)
c) The rewards for scholarly activity are worthwhile (reward values)
d) The rewards are available within their discipline or institution ( institutional
setting)
Then they will attain high levels of scholarly productivity (pp,12- 16) [ author
concluded with the if then logic to relate the independent variables
to the dependent variables]
Qualitative Theory Use

Variation in Theory Use in Qualitative Research
Qualitative inquirers use theory in their studies in several ways they employ theory
as a broad explanation, much like in quantitative research. This theory provides an
explanation for behavior and attitudes and it may be complete with variables,
constructs, and hypotheses. For example, ethnographers employ cultural themes or
aspects of culture (Wolcott, 1999, p.113) to study in their qualitative projects.
These might be themes such as social control, language, stability and change, or
social organization such as kinship or families (see Wolcotts 1999 discussion about
texts that address cultural topics in anthropology). Themes in this context provide a
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODS
ready made series of hypotheses to be
tested from
the literature.
Although
researchers might not refer to them as theories, they provide broad explanations
that anthropologists use to study the culture sharing behavior and attitudes of
people.
Alternatively, qualitative researchers increasingly use a theoretical lens or
perspective to guide their study and raise the questions of gender, class, and race
(or some combination) they would like to address. The case could easily be made
that qualitative research of the 1980s under- went a transformation to broaden its
scopes of inquiry to include these theoretical lenses. These are the theories
mentioned earlier in this book, contained in Chapter1. They provider a lens (even a
theory) to guide the researchers as to what issues are important to examine (e.g.
marginalization, empowerment) and the people that need to be studied (e.g.
women, homeless, minority group). They also indicate how the researchers position
himself or herself in the qualitative study (e.g. up front or biased from personal,
cultural, and historical contexts) and how the final written accounts need to be
written (e.g. without further marginalizing individuals, by collaborating with
participants). In critical ethnography studies, researchers begin with a theory that
informs their studies. This causal theory might be a theory of emancipation or
repression (J. Thomas, 1993). Rossman and Rallis (1998) capture, in a few words,
the sense of theory as critical and postmodern perspectives in qualitative inquiry
As the 20th century draws to a close, traditional social science has come under
increasing scrutiny and attack as those espousing critical and postmodern
perspectives challenge objectivist
Generalizations or theories to past experiences and literature
Researcher looks for broad patterns, Generalizations, or theories from themes or categories
Researcher analyzes data to form themes or categories

Assumptions and traditional norms for the conduct of research
Central to this attack are four interrelated notions:
a) Research fundamentally involves issues of power
b) The research report is not transparent but rather it is authored by raced,
gendered, classed, and politically oriented individual
Researcher asks open-ended questions from participants or records field notes
c) Race, class, and gender are crucial for understanding experience
d) Historic, traditional research has silenced members of oppressed and
marginalized groups(p,66)
Distinct from this theoretical orientation are qualitative studies in which theory (or
some other broad explanation) becomes the end point for a study. It is an inductive
Researcher gathers information (e.g. interviews, observations)
BUSINESS
RESEARCH
METHODS
process of building from the data to broad
themes
to a generalized
model or theory
(see Punch, 1998). The logic of this inductive approach is shown in figure 7.5 The
researchers begins by gathering detailed information from participants and forms
this information into categories or themes. These themes or categories are
developed into broad patterns, theories, or generalizations that are then compared
with personal experiences or with existing literature on the topic.
The development of themes and categories into patterns, theories or
generalizations suggests a varied end point for qualitative studies. For example, in
case study research, Stake (1995) refers to an assertion as a propositional
generalization the researchers summary of interpretations and claims to which is
added the researchers own personal experiences, called naturalistic
generalizations (p,86). As another example, grounded theory provides a different
end point. Inquirers hope to discover a theory that is grounded in information from
participants (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Lincoln and Guba (1985) refer to pattern
theories as an explanation that develops during naturalistic or qualitative research.
Rather than the deductive form found in quantitative studies, these pattern
theories or generalizations represent interconnected thoughts or parts linked to a
whole, W.L. Neuman (1991) provides additional information about pattern
theories.
Pattern theory does not emphasize logical deductive reasoning, like causal theory, it
contains an interconnected set of concepts and relationships, but it does not require
casual statements Instead, pattern theory uses metaphor or analogies so that
relationship makes sense. Pattern theories are systems of ideas that inform. The
concepts and relations within them form a mutually reinforcing closed system. They
specify a sequence of phases or link parts to a whole. (p,38)
Finally, some qualitative studies do not employ any explicit theory. However, the
case can be made that no qualitative study begins from pure observation and that
prior conceptual structure composed of theory and method provides the starting
point for all observations (Schwandt,1993). Still, one sees qualitative studies that
contains no explicit theoretical orientation, such as in phenomenology, in which
inquirers attempt to build the essence of experience from participants (e.g. see
Riemen, 1986). In these studies, the inquirer constructs a rich detailed description
of a central phenomenon.
My advice on theory use in a qualitative proposal is this
Decide if theory is to be used in the qualitative proposal
If it is used, then identify how the theory will be used in the study, such as an up
- front explanation, as an end point, or as an advocacy lens.
Locate the theory in the proposal in a manner consistent with its use.
Locating the theory or

Pattern in Qualitative Research
How theory is used affects its placement in a qualitative study. In those studies with
a cultural theme or a theoretical lens, the theory occurs in the opening passages of
the study. Consistent with the emerging design of qualitative inquiry, the theory
may appear at the beginning and be modified or adjusted based on participant
views. Even in the most theory oriented qualitative design, such as critical
ethnography, Lather (1986) qualifies the uses of theory:
BUSINESS
RESEARCHrelationship
METHODS between data
Building empirically grounded theory requires
a reciprocal
and theory. Data must be allowed to generate propositions in a dialectical manner
that permits use of a prior theoretical framework, but which keeps a particular
framework from becoming the container into which the data must be poured. (P,
267).
5.
Definitions, limitations and significance
The researcher needs to delimit the proposal, so that readers understand its
parameters.
Definition of terms:The researcher defines terms so that reader can understand their precise meaning.
The scripts for a purpose statement including a brief definition of the major
variables or the central phenomena. The definition can be elaborated in a separate
section of a research proposal.
Terms to define:Define terms that individuals outside the field of study may not understand and that
going beyond common language. Define term when they first appear so that a
reader does not read ahead in the proposal operating with one set of definitions
only to find out later that the author is using a different set.
Define terms as they are introducing in all section of research plans. Defined terms
not understood by readers as found in this section
The title of the study
The purpose statement
The research question hypothesis and objectives
The literature review
The theory base of the study
The method section
Special terms that need to be defined appear in qualitative, quantitative and mixed
method study.
In qualitative study because of the inductive, involving methodology, design,
inquiries may define few terms in the proposal instead in the final study they
defined terms that arouse during data collection. In the qualitative research plan a
writer may advance tentative definitions.
In quantitative study operating more with in the deductive model, methodology of
fixed and set research objectives including extensive definition early in the research
proposal. The researcher tries to comprehensively define all related terms. at the
beginning of the study to use excepted definition found in the literature.
In mixed method study, the approach to definition might be to include a separate
section, if the study begins with quantitative data collection. If it begins with
qualitative data collection then the term will emerge during the research and will be
defined in the finding or result section of the final research study. If both
quantitative and qualitative data collection occur at the same time then the priority
given to an approach will govern whether the researcher uses a quantitative or
qualitative approach.
Delimitations and limitations

To more parameters for a research study establish the boundaries, exception,
reservation and qualification inherent in every study. Delimitations and limitation
are found in proposal for qualitative, and quantitative and mixed method studies.
RESEARCH
METHODS
Use delimitations to narrow the scope BUSINESS
of study for
example the
scope may focus on
specific variables or central phenomena delimited to specific participant or site or
narrowed to one type of research design.
Provide limitations to identify the potential weaknesses of the study at the proposal
stage it is often difficult to identify weaknesses in the study before it has begun.
Significance of proposed study

In dissertation writers often include a specific section describing the significance of
the study for selected audiences A significance section elaborates the importance
and implication of a study for researcher, practitioners, and policy maker. In
designing the section one might include
3 or 4 ways in which the study adds to scholarly research and literature in the
field
3 or 4 ways in which the study helps improve practice
3 or 4 reasons why the study will improve policy
The authors stated the significance of the study in the opening paragraph of the
journal article.
ACTIVITY
Short case study for discussion

Metropolitan Hospital
Amina islam was recently hired as director of marketing research for a large,
metropolitan hospital. The hospital is under new management and is interested in
re-positioning itself in the market as having the best medical care in the area (there
are four other hospitals in the area that are in direct competition with Ms. Aminas
hospital). As a new member of the team, she has been meeting with all of the other
directors and employees in her research department. Mr . Salman, Director of public
relations for the hospital welcomes amina as a new member of the team and makes
an appointment with her later in the week regarding the discussion on some
research he needs to have done for the hospital.
After a week, Mr. salman has met with Ms. Amina. He told her that the patients are
getting depressed day by day which is ruining the image of the hospital. It is
important to get to know about the reasons for the dissatisfaction of the patients
with the hospital. He is more interested to conduct a quick survey to get the results
as soon as possible. He preferred survey because Mr. Paris, the ex director of
research department conducted in-depth interviews and focus group discussion. The
results of the focus group and interviews were generally found positive regarding
the patients dissatisfaction with the hospital staff. However, the sample sizes used
in previous research were too small and not representative enough to generalize to
the whole customers opinion.
Ms amina is more interested to explore the reasons for knowing about the
dissatisfaction of the customers regarding hospital staff. But she knew the
preference of Mr. salman who has sole authority to approve any marketing research
that is done at the hospital. With this issue in mind she is bound to conduct a survey
as per the preference of Mr. salman. She is continuously thinking to adapt such mid
way which help her to explore all the reasons and then to develop an instrument on
the basis of those reasons for the generalization of the results.
1. If you are at Ms. Amina place than which research paradigm you will
prefer to follow for this research? Justify your choice
2. Design the methodology suitable as per the selected research
paradigm. Give rationale for your choices
a. Research approach
b. Population and sample (technique and size)
c. Method of data collection
d. Method of data analysis

BRM Study Pack

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

BRM Study Pack

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

What is Business Research?

Examples of Business Research

What is the best strategy to promote a particular product? (Marketing)

What are the main reasons for employee turnover? (HRM)

What is the rate of return on particular investment? (finance)

Why to study research

Prediction about the relationship among the variables and,

abstract level, Concepts and propositions are the elements of theory

Figure 1: levels of Theory

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Induction involves observation and investigation into the relationship between

Deduction involves the formulation of hypotheses (statements which theory suggest as

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

What is meant by research paradigm?

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Social and historical

SOURCE: Creswell, 2003

TOWARDS SELECTION OF RESEARCH PARADIGMS AND

What is the nature or essence of the social phenomena being investigated?

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Table: Research Paradigms & Philosophical Assumptions

1 Ontology: What is the nature of

Singular reality existing apart

Multiple realities shaped by

Singular and multiple

e.g. researchers reject or fail

2 Epistemology: What is the

e.g. researchers provide

Distance and impartiality (e.g.

Closeness (e.g. researchers

It is cased on the perceptions

Unbiased (e.g. researchers

Biased (e.g. researchers

e.g. researchers test

3 Axiology: What is the role of

Multiple stances. (e.g.

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Formal style (e.g. researchers

Informal style. (e.g.

Deductive (e.g. researchers

Inductive (e.g. researchers

Surveys, experiments and

Closed ended questions,

Open ended questions,

Both open and closed

What is the language

5 Methodology: What is the process of

Adapted from: Creswell, J. W and Clark, V.P, 2007

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Elements of interpretivism and Positivism Research in the Process of Research

Point of view of participants

Understand meaning individuals give to a

Intent of the research

Point of view of researcher

Test a theory deductively to support or

Identifies questions and hypotheses