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WHAT IS FATIGUE?
Fatigue is a phenomenon associated with variable loading or more
precisely to cyclic stressing or straining of a material. Just as we human beings
get fatigue when a specific task is repeatedly performed, in a similar manner
metallic components subjected to variable loading get fatigue, which leads to
their premature failure under specific conditions.
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Variable Loading
Variable loading results when the applied load or the induced stress on a
component is not constant but changes with time i.e load or stress varies with
time in some pattern. Most mechanical systems and devices consists moving or
rotating components. When they are subjected to external loadings, the induced
stresses are not constant even if the magnitude of the applied load remains
invariant.
In reality most mechanical components experience variable loading due to
-Change in the magnitude of applied load Example: punching or shearing
operations-Change in direction of load application Example: a connecting rod
-Change in point of load application Example: a rotating shaft
There are different types of fatigue/variable loading. The worst case of fatigue
loading is the case known as fully-reversible load. One cycle of this type of
loading occurs when a tensile stress of some value is applied to an unloaded part
and then released, then a compressive stress of the same value is applied and
released.
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Fatigue Failure
Often machine members subjected to such repeated or cyclic stressing
are found to have failed even when the actual maximum stresses were below the
ultimate strength of the material, and quite frequently at stress values even below
the yield strength. The most distinguishing characteristics is that the failure had
occurred only after the stresses have been repeated a very large number of
times. Hence the failure is called fatigue failure.
ASTM Definition of fatigue
Let us first make an attempt to understand the basic mechanism of fatigue failure
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geometrical discontinuity
or
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Crack propagation
This further increases the stress levels and the process continues,
propagating the cracks across the grains or along the grain boundaries,
slowly increasing the crack size.
As the size of the crack increases the cross sectional area resisting the
applied stress decreases and reaches a thresh hold level at which it is
insufficient to resist the applied stress.
Final fracture
As the area becomes too insufficient to resist the induced stresses any
further a sudden fracture results in the component.
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Cause
Material body
Effect
Atomic
Cyclic stress
Microscopic
Macroscopic
Crack propagation
1.Dislocation movements
1. Slip formation
1.Stable stages
2.Dislocation multiplication
2. Slip saturation
2.Unstable stages
3.Defect interaction
3. Structure deterioration
3.Critical length
4.Cross slip
4. Extrusion intrusion
4.Final fracture
5. Engergy changes
6. Crack nucleation and growth
Crystallographically
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Intrusion
Dislocation
Slip saturation
Structural
deterioration
Intrusion and
Extrusion
Crack Nucleation
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samples
standardized
in
are
geometry
now
and
Figure 1.2
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the
surface
characteristics
Standard Testing
A rotating bending machine (RBM) is mostly suitable to test the fatigue properties
at zero mean stress. A schematic sketch of the test device is illustrated in the figure below.
A standard test specimen is clamped in bearings at the ends and loaded at two points as
shown. With this type of device the region of rotating beam between built-in ends is
subjected to pure bending with a constant bending moment all along its length. While under
the influence of this constant moment, the specimen is rotated by the drive spindles around
the longitudinal axis; any point on the specimen is thus subjected to completely reversed
stress pattern.
RBM-Fatigue Testing
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Flexible coupling
Main Bearing
Load Bearing
Main Bearing
Motor
Test piece
w/2
w/2
w/2
Bending Moment
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The results are plotted as an S-N diagram (see the figure) usually on semi-log or on log-log
paper, depicting the life in number of cycles tested as a function of the stress amplitude. A
typical plot is shown in the figure below for two class of materials.
Low Cycle
High Cycle
Finite Life
Infinite Life
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
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stress reversals are, in other words leading to an infinite life to the component or part being
stressed. For most ferrous materials Endurance limit (Se) is set as the cyclic stress level
that the material can sustain for 10 million cycles.
In general, steel alloys which are subjected to a cyclic stress level below the EL (properly
adjusted for the specifics of the application) will not fail in fatigue. That property is
commonly known as "infinite life". Most steel alloys exhibit the infinite life property, but it is
interesting to note that most aluminum alloys as well as steels which have been casehardened by carburizing, do not exhibit an infinite-life cyclic stress level (Endurance Limit).
Sut
Endurance limit s e' exists
for some meterials
Se'
SN
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
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Finite Life
Infinite Life
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Loading
Nature and type of loading: -Axial tension, bending, torsion and combined loading-Mean
and Variable components in case of Repeated, Fluctuating and Alternating loading and
Frequency of loading and rest periods
ii)
Geometry
Size effects and stress concentration
iii)
Material
Composition, structure, directional properties and notch sensitivity
iv)
Manufacturing
Surface finish, heat treatment, residual stresses
V)
Environment
Corrosion, high temperature, radiation
Material
As noted earlier there are two class of materials as for as the fatigue behavior is concerned,
those material which exhibit well defined endurance limit and those without do not show
endurance limit. Most ferrous materials and basic steels fall under the first category and
some heat treated alloys of steel, aluminum etc. fall under the second category.
Composition and strength of the material are interrelated and detail discussion on
strength follows later. Strength is also related to micro structure and in this respect it is
interesting to note that soft structure like ferrite resist fatigue better than hard structure
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like cementite. However because of the higher strength that can be achieved from the
same material by altering the micro structure, such structures are preferred in spite of
their poor resistance
IS
THERE
ANY
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
UTS
AND
FATIGUE
STRENGTH?
The endurance limit of steel displays some interesting properties. These are shown, in a
general way,
280 420
560
700
840
UTS MPa
50%
Polished
Notched
Corroded
in this graph, and briefly discussed below. It is a simplistic rule of thumb that, for steels
having a UTS less than 1400 MPa, the endurance limit for the material will be
approximately 45 to 50% of the UTS if the surface of the test specimen is smooth and
polished.
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That relationship is shown by the line titled "50%". A very small number of special case
materials can maintain that approximate 50% relationship above the 1400 MPa level.
However, the EL of most steels begins to fall away from the 50% line above a UTS of about
1400 MPa, as shown by the line titled "Polished".
For example, a specimen of SAE-4340 alloy steel, hardened to 32 Rockwell-C (HRc), will
exhibit a UTS around 1400 MPa and an EL of about 700 MPa, or 50% of the UTS. If you
change the heat treatment process to achieve a hardness of about 50 HRc, the UTS will be
about 1820 MPa, and the EL will be about 590 MPa, which is only about 32% of the UTS.
Several other alloys known as "ultra-high-strength steels" and some maraging steels have
been demonstrated to have an EL as high as 45% of UTS at strengths as high as 2100
MPa. Also note that these values are EL numbers for fully-reversing bending fatigue.
In above figure illustrated, the line titled "Notched" shows the dramatic reduction in fatigue
strength as a result of the concentration of stress which occurs at sudden changes in crosssectional area (sharp corners in grooves, fillets, etc.). The highest EL on that curve is about
25% of the UTS (at around 350 MPa).
The surface finish of a material has a dramatic effect on the fatigue life. That fact is clearly
illustrated by the curve titled "Corroded". It mirrors the shape of the "notched" curve, but is
much lower. That curve shows that, for a badly corroded surface (fretting, oxidation,
galvanic, etc.) the endurance limit of the material starts at around 140 MPa for materials of
280 MPa UTS (50%), increases to about 180 MPa for materials between 280 and 1400
MPa UTS, then decreases back toward 140 MPa as the material UTS increases above
1400 MPa.
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Waveform: Is the stress history a shine wave, square wave, or some other wave form?
As with frequency, generally only influences fatigue if there are environmental effects.
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(UTS, YS, EL) is determined statistically, calculated from the (varying) results of a large
number of apparently identical tests done on a population of apparently identical samples.
The plot below shows the results of a battery of fatigue tests on a specific material. The
tests at each stress level form statistical clusters, as shown. a curve is fitted through the
clusters of points, as shown below. The curve which is fitted through these clusters, known
as an "S-N Diagram" (Stress vs. Number), represents the statistical behavior of the fatigue
properties of that specific material at that specific strength level. The red points in the chart
represent the cyclic stress for each test and the number of cycles at which the specimen
broke. The blue points represent the stress levels and number of cycles applied to
specimens which did not fail. This diagram clearly demonstrates the statistical nature of
metal fatigue failure.
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
1*100
1*101
1*102
1*103
1*104
1*105
1*106
1*107
1*108
Cycles
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Because the EL values are statistical in nature, and determined on optimized, laboratory
samples, good design practice requires that one tries to determine what the actual EL will
be for each specific application. This is a time consuming process and at preliminary design
levels may not be feasible or desirable. As more and more knowledge is gained on the
fatigue aspects, this is now over come by applying a number of correction or modification
factors as discussed in the next lesson.
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Our real concern is how to design a component so that failure by fatigue could be precluded.
We have noted earlier that
-Materials response to fatigue loading is characterized by its S-N behavior obtained through
a standard test
-The most important factors that affect the fatigue performance (strength) are also noted in
the previous lecture.
-Standard test conditions do not account for all these factors.
-Components in real use will be subjected to different or varied conditions.
In order to design for satisfactory fatigue life (prior to testing actual components), good
practice requires that the "laboratory" Endurance Limit value be reduced by several
adjustment factors. These reductions are necessary to account for:
(a) the differences between the application and the testing environments, and
(b) the known statistical variations of the material.
This procedure is to insure that both the known and the unpredictable factors in the
application (including surface condition, actual load, actual temperature, tolerances,
impurities, alloy variations, heat-treatment variations, stress concentrations, etc. etc. etc.)
will not reduce the life of a part below the required value. Please read that paragraph again,
and understand it well.
An accepted contemporary practice to estimate the maximum fatigue loading which a
specific design can survive is the Marin method, in which the laboratory test-determined EL
of the particular material (tested on optimized samples) is adjusted to estimate the
maximum cyclic stress a particular part can survive.
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This adjustment of the EL is the result of six fractional factors. Each of these six factors is
calculated from known data which describe the influence of a specific condition on fatigue
life.
Those factors are:
(a) Surface Condition (ka): such as: polished, ground, machined, as-forged, corroded, etc.
Surface is perhaps the most important influence on fatigue life;
(b) Size (kb): This factor accounts for changes which occur when the actual size of the part
or the cross-section differs from that of the test specimens;
(c) Load (Kc): This factor accounts for differences in loading (bending, axial, torsional)
between the actual part and the test specimens;
(d) Temperature (kd): This factor accounts for reductions in fatigue life which occur when
the operating temperature of the part differs from room temperature (the testing
temperature);
(e) Reliability (ke): This factor accounts for the scatter of test data. For example, an 8%
standard deviation in the test data requires a ke value of 0.868 for 95% reliability, and 0.753
for 99.9% reliability.
(f) Miscellaneous (Kf): This factor accounts for reductions from all other effects, including
residual stresses, corrosion, plating, metal spraying, fretting, and others.
These six fractional factors are applied to the laboratory value of the material endurance
limit to determine the allowable cyclic stress for an actual part:
Real-World Allowable
Cyclic Stress = ka * kb * Kc * kd * ke * kf * EL
Thus designers are now able to tackle this situation by applying as many modification
factors as possible so that most important deviations of the real design condition from the
standard test conditions are accounted. So the next part of the discussion will deal with the
endurance strength modification factors.
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Size variations
load variations
temperature differences
Other miscellaneous-effects
Modification Factors
Surface Factor ka
the surface of the rotating-beam specimen is highly polished, with final polishing in the axial
direction to smooth out any circumferential scratches. For other conditions the modification
factor depends upon the quality of the finish and upon the tensile strength. Sufficient data
is available in the literature relating the basic strength of the material and its surface finish
or surface condition to the modification factor which is nothing but the percentage of
standard endurance that could be realized under this condition. Typical charts are given
below. A more practical approach can be to use an empirical relation of the type ka = aSbut
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is available in literature to account for the various surface condition values of constant a
and b are shown in the table below.
FACTOR a
SURFACE FINISH
EXPONENT b
Kpsi
MPa
Ground
1.34
1.58
-0.085
2.70
4.51
-0.265
Hot Rolled
14.4
57.7
-0.718
As- forged
39.9
272
-0.995
100
Polished
90
Ground
80
Machined
70
60
50
Hot rolled
40
As Forge
30
corroded in
tap water
20
corroded in salt water
10
0
300
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
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1.1
1.6
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
25.0
6.3 3.125
12.5
0.4
1.6 0.8
0.025
0.05
0.1
0.2
50.0
0.6
0.5
0.4
280
560
840
1120
1400
1680
Size Factor Kb
The size factor accounts for the variations in the size of the component when
compared to the test specimen. The size factor has been evaluated using sets of data
points, from available literature. The larger the size higher the probability of internal defects,
hence lower the fatigue strength. An empirical relation for the case of bending and torsion
can be expressed as given below
51 d 254mm
0.859 0.000837d
Size Factor
For large sizes, kb further reduces to 0.60 and lower Note that for axial loading there is
no size effect, therefore use kb = +1.0 in this case
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company), on axial fatigue. These results were analyzed, resulting in the modification
values for axial loading as shown in the table.
Load Factor
Hence for the three basic types of loading normally encountered in most practical
applications, namely axial, bending and torsional stressing the effect could be accounted by
the load factor as shown in the table
0.923
1
kc =
1
0.577
Axial Loading
S<1520MPa(220Kpsi)
Axial Loading
S<1520MPa(220Kpsi)
Bending
Temperature factor
The limited amount of data available show that the endurance limit for steels in creases
slightly as the temperature rises and then begins to fall off in the 400 to 700 F range, not
unlike the behaviour of the tensile strength shown figure below
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1.0
Sut
0.9
Sy
0.8
ST/SRT
0.7
0.6
0.5
RT
200
400
600
Temperature, oC
For this reason it is probably true that the endurance limit is related to tensile strength at
clevated temperatures in the same manner as at room temperature. It seems quite logical,
therefore, to employ the same relations to predict endurance limit at elevated temperatures
as are used at room temperature, at least, this practice will provide a useful standard
against which the performance of various materials can be compared.
Two types of problems arise when temperature is a consideration. If the rotating- beam
endurance limit is known at room temperature, then use
kd =
ST
SRT
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endurance limit due to all other effects, it is really intended as a reminder that these must
be accounted for, because actual conditions of use vary from standard test condition;
values of ke are not always available.
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k =
f
The other form of use, where necessary is the miscellaneous-effects factor ke applied as a
strength reduction factor on the fatigue limit value. With this approach we define
ke =
1
Kf
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980
Carbon Steel
840
Alloy Steel
700
140
120
Wrought irons
100 Kpsi
560
80
420
60
280
140
40
+ +++
+++
20
0
0 140 280 420 560 700 840 980 1120 1260 1400 1540 1680 1820 1960 2100
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k =
f
The other form of use, where necessary is the miscellaneous-effects factor ke applied as a
strength reduction factor on the fatigue limit value. With this approach we define
ke =
1
Kf
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Notch Sensitivity
Notch sensitivity q is defined by the equation
q=
Kf 1
Kt 1
The values of q are between zero and unity. It is evident that if q=0, then Kf =1, and the
material has no sensitivity to notches at all. On the other hand if q=1, then Kf = Kt, and the
material has full notch sensitivity. In analysis or design work, find Kt first, from geometry of
the part. Then select or specify the material, find q, and solve for Kf from the equation
K f = 1 + q(K t 1)
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Steel
Su ksi
and Bhn
as marked
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
q 0.6
Aluminium alloy (based on 2024- T6 data)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.5
1.0
0.08
0.10
0.06
Notch radius r (in.)
1.5
2.0
2.5
Notch radius r (mm)
0.12
0.14
0.16
3.0
3.5
4.0
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Cyclic Stressing
As the name implies, the induced stresses vary in some pattern with time. This
can be due to variation in the applied load itself or because of the conditions of use as seen
earlier. Let us assume that the pattern of such a variation is sinusoidal. Then the following
are the basic terminology associated with variable stresses. The definitions included here
are elementary. They are introduced for clarity and convenience.
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1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
C
Compression Sm /S uc
Tension S m / S ut
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Mean stress (Mid range stress) : m The algebraic mean or average of the
maximum and minimum stress in one cycle.
+ min
m = max
2
Stress range: r The algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum stress in
one cycle.
r = max min
Stress Amplitude: a Half the value of the algebraic difference between the maximum
and minimum stress in one cycle or half the value of the stress range.
a =
max min r
=
2
2
Types of Variations
(a) (Completely)Reversible stressing:
Stress variation is such that the mean stress is zero; Same magnitude of
maximum and minimum stress, one in tension and the other in compression .Now for
Completely reversible loading m = max= min; R = - 1 and A = 0
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Stress
+
max
0
_
m=0
min
Stress
max
a
------------------------------------------------------
t=0
0
min
_
(b) Repeated
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Stress
+
max
a
------------------------------------------------------
t
min
m
_
(b) Flutuating
Stress
+
max
------------------------------------------------------
a
r
t=0
------------------------------------------------------
min
= max min
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Stress amplitude: a =
1
( max min )
2
m =
1
( max + min )
2
Mean stress:
Stress ratio:
R=
min
max
min
m = max
2
2
a
min
R=
A=
max
m
m =
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Su
Sy
max
Se
min
0
45
Se
Sy
Mean Stress
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
C
Compression Sm /S uc
Tension S m / S ut
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4.0
2.33
1.5
A=1
0.67
0.43
0.25
0.11
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
R=0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
S ut
A=
R=-1.0
840
700
560
420
280
140
140 280
Minimum stress
min
,MPa
It is evident from the above figures that the presence of mean stress reduces the magnitude
of variable component or the stress amplitude that can be sustained before failure. The
higher the magnitude of mean stress the lower is the magnitude of amplitude stress that
can be sustained. However note that if the nature of mean stress is compressive, then it
has no effect on the magnitude of the variable component or the stress amplitude value.
Failure Criteria
Yield line
Gerber line
Se
Goodman line
Sa
Soderberg line
0
Sm
Alternating stress
S yt
S ut
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Four criteria of failure are diagrammed in figure, the Soderberg's, the modified
Goodman, the Gerber, and yielding. It is evident that only the Soderbergs criterion guards
against yielding. The linear theories of Figure can be placed in equation form: The equation
for the Soderbergs criteria (line) is
Sa Sm
+
=1
Se Syt
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e
103
104
106
105
Cycle of failure, Nf
107
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This design criterion in the case is that to induced stress should be less than the endurance
limit of the material used for the axle. So the giving equation is
se
1 2
200
F
100
1500
2200
w/2
w/2
w/2
Bending Moment
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A suitable material suggested for the application can be medium carbon material like 45 C8,
If is evident that the shaft is subject to binding bonds. By drawing to bending moment
diagram the maximum bending moment can be determined. In this case
M max = F.l
= 82*103 * 200
= 16.4*106 Nmm
=
For circular cross section
M
Z
32M
d3
0.16705*106
d3
MPa
The number of stressing is going to be fully reversed because of rotating shaft with constant
load application point. Now we have to estimate the endurance limit for the material of the
shaft. The ultimate strength of this steel =670 Mpa.
and UTS the basic endurance limit is =0.5Sut = 335 Ma. The design endurance limit Se is
to be estimated now as noted earlier
Se = Se * k a k b k c
Ka Surface factor. Assuming shaft surface is machined in nature
k a = aSbut = 4.45(670)0.265
= 0.793
ks - size factor . The diameter is unknown. Instead of taking this factor to be one, assuming
the diameter can be in the range 60-140 mm, for an average value of 100mm the factor is
going to be
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= 0.5*670*0.793*0.775
= 206 MPa or d =
3
d
e
Assuming a factor safety (N) of 1.5 the design Endurance strength is going to be 137.31
Substituting the values
1
3.2 *16.4 *106 3
d=
*137.31
106.75 mm
This values can be rounded off to the nearest Preferred size of = 110mm. In the next step,
let us perform a critical analysis of the problem. Because of the step in diameter between
the bearing and wheel region (1-2) stress Concentration is going to be there and this
section may be critical where failure can Occur. Accounting for the stress concentration
effect we can write
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= Kf
32M
d3
K f = 1 + (k t 1)q
For
D
r
5
= 1.22 and =
= 0.05k t = 1.96
d
d 90
The factor of safety may not be adequate and the diameter can be modified accordingly.
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m 0?
m1
m2
m
Gerber line
m3
m3
Goodman line
Sa
Soderberg line
0
log N1
TS
Alternating stress m
The four different failure criterion and their mathematical equations have been note earlier
for such cyclic loadings having a definite mean stress
For design applications the induced stresses a and m can replace Sa and Sm in the
above equations and each strength is divided by a factor of safety N. The resulting equation
is
Soderberg's criteria (line) is
Kf
1
+ m =
Se Sut N
Kf
1
+ m =
Se Sut N
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=1
(Note Se is corrected endurance limit values and Kf factor accounts for stress concentration
effects.) The meaning of these equations is illustrated in Figure, using the modified
Goodman theory as an example.
From the above approach we can evolve basic design equations involving the three main
type of loadings axial tension or compression, bending and torsion.
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'a = K fb xa
Where
'm
Sut
1
N
1
22
+ K fs a
1
2
2
'm = xm + m 2
( )
Method II
)
eq = m + K fs a ( sSut / sSe )
eq = m + K fb a Sut / Se
and
2 + 2 = Sut
eq
eq
N
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the existence of a torsional mean stress not more than the torsional yield
strength has no effect on the torsional endurance limit, provided the material is
ductile, polished, notch free, and cylindrical. However he finds that for materials
with stress concentration, notches, or surface imperfections, the torsional fatigue
limit decreases steadily with torsional mean stress. Hence modified Goodmans
relation is recommended for pulsating torsion also, since great majority of parts
will have surface imperfections. Thus the theory could be directly applied with the
load factor kc = 0.577 for torsion.
The above approach is illustrated by solving a problem.
Recall that in the last lesson we have designed an axle taking into account the
bending load alone.
In previous solutions torque on the axle is neglected. If the torque is also
accounted the problem is going to be of combined loading involving bending
torsion.
We need to know the torque on the axle.
The torque on the axle is going to be coefficient of friction times the normal bond.
According to T= 2XfXN
Where f is the co-efficient of friction between the wheel and the rail and
N is the normal reaction at each of the wheel
i.e
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Adopting approach I
1
2
2
m ' = bm + 3cm 2
167
d 3
16 *164 *103
d 3
1.447 *106
d3
Neglecting the stress concentration effect and assuming the torque is going to be
constant
Kfs=0
As constant torque is assumed a = 0
32M 32 *12 *103 * 200
2
a ' = ba =
=
d3
d3
167.04 *106
=
d3
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' 1
+ a .
s ut
se N
1.447 *106 167.04 *106
1
+
=
1.5
d3 .670
d3 .206
1.447 *106 167.04 *106
+
or d3 = 1.5
3
d3 .670
d .206
1.214 *106
m '
d = 106mm
stress
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the log S-log N chart joining 0.9Sut at 103 cycles and Se at 106 cycles. Let the
equation of the S-N line be Sf = a Nb Then log Sf = log a + b log N. This line is to
intersect 106 cycles at Se and 103 cycles at 0.9 Sut
Substituting these values into the equation and solving for a and b we have,
( 0.9Sut )
a=
Se
0.9Sut
1
b = log
Se
3
b
N= a
a
If a component is to be designed for any finite life N ( 103< N<106) then value of
SN determined for this known life could be substituted in place of Se values in
Soderberg or Goodmans equation presented above.
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= a = 'f 2Nf
2
f
c
p/2
p /2
p /2
2Nf
Reversal of failure 2Nf(log scale)
Stress Life Approach
The stress-life approach just described is applicable for the
situation involving the primary elastic deformation. Under these conditions the
component expected to have a long life time.
Strain-Life Approach
For situation involving high stresses, high temperatures, or high stress
concentration such as notches, where significant plasticity can be involved, the
stress life approach is not appropriate. How do we handle these situations?
Machine Design II
Rather than the stress amplitude a, the loading is characterized by the plastic
strain amplitude
p
2
p
2
the following
101
103
101
102
Reversal to failure, 2Nf
(log scale)
To represent this behaviour, the following relationship between the plastic strain
amplitude
p
2
Machine Design II
p
2
= 'f ( 2N f
)c
Where f , is the fatigue ductility coefficient (for the most metals it is equal to
the true strain at fracture) and c is the fatigue ductility exponent (-0.5 to -0.7 for
many metals).
To represent this behaviour, the following relationship (Coffin Manson,).
p
2
= 'f ( 2N f
p
2
)c
Different amplitudes
How do we handle the situations where we have varying amplitude
loads, as depicted below?
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case 1
n1 cycles
case 2
n2 cycles
n2 cycles
a1
a2
n1 cycles
t
a
a2
a1
t
a1
a2
Nf2
Nf1
cycles to failure Nf
Is Fatigue Loading Cumulative?
It is important to realize that fatigue cycles are accumulative. Suppose a part
which has been in service is removed and tested for cracks by a certified aircraft
inspection station (where it is more likely that the subtleties of Magnaflux
inspection are known). Suppose the part passes the inspection, (i.e., no cracks
are found) and the owner of the shaft puts it on the "good used parts" shelf.
Later, someone comes along looking for a bargain on such a part, and purchases
this "inspected" part. The fact that the part has passed the inspection only proves
that there are no detectable cracks RIGHT NOW. It gives no indication at all as to
how many cycles remain until a crack forms. A part which has just passed a
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Magnaflux inspection could crack in the next 100 cycles of operation and fail in
the next 10000 cycles (which at 2000 RPM, isn't very long!).
Different Amplitudes
A very common approach is the Palmgren-Miner damage summation
rule. If we defines 2Nfi as the number of reversals to failures at ai then the
partial damage for d for each different loading applied for known number of
cycles ni is ai
d=
2n i
2Nfi
Reversal at ai
Reversal to failure at ai
The component is assumed to fail when the total damage becomes equal to 1, or
n
i =1
i Nfi
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It is assumed that the sequence in which the loads are applied has no influence
on the lifetime of the component. In fact the sequence of load can have a larger
influence on the lifetime of the component.
Consider the sequence of the two cyclic loads a1 and a2 .
Let a1 > a2
n
In this case i can be less than 1. During the first loading ( a1 ) numerous
i Nfi
microcracks can be initiated, which can be further propagated by second loading
n
( a2 ) Case2: Apply a2 then a1 . In this case i can be greater than 1. The
i Nfi
first loading ( a2 ) is not high enough to cause any microcracks, but it is high
enough to strain harden the material. Then in the second loading ( a1 ), since the
material has been hardened it is more difficult to initiate any damage in the
material.
n1 n 2
n
+
+ ..... + i = C
N1 N 2
Ni
Where n is the number of cycles of stress applied to the specimen and N is the
fatigue life corresponding to . The constant C is determined by experiment and
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n
=1
N
se
1 2
200
F
100
1500
2200
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w/2
w/2
w/2
Bending Moment
A suitable material suggested for the application can be medium carbon material
like 45 C8, If is evident that the shaft is subject to binding bonds. By drawing to
bending moment diagram the maximum bending moment can be determined. In
this case
M max = F.l
= 82*103 * 200
= 16.4*106 Nmm
=
=
M
Z
32M
d3
0.16705*106
d3
MPa
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Based on the relation between the EL and UTS the basic endurance limit is
=0.5Sut = 335 Ma. The design endurance limit Se is to be estimated now as
noted earlier
Se = Se * k a k b k c
ka Surface factor. Assuming shaft surface is machined in nature
k a = aSbut = 4.45(670)0.265
= 0.793
ks - size factor . The diameter is unknown. Instead of taking this factors to be
one, assuming the diameter can be in the range 60-140 mm, for an average
value of 100mm the factor is going to be
= 0.5*670*0.793*0.775
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32.m
32.m 3
= 206 Mpa or d =
s
d3
e
Assuming a factor safety (N) of 1.5 the design Endurance strength is going to be
137.31
Substituting the values
1
3.2 *16.4 *106 3
d=
*137.31
106.75 mm
This values can be rounded off to the nearest Preferred size of = 110mm. In the
next step, let us perform a critical analysis of the problem. Because of the step in
diameter between the bearing and wheel region (1-2) stress Concentration is
going to be there and this section may be critical where failure can Occur.
Accounting for the stress concentration effect we can write
= Kf
32M
d3
K f = 1 + (k t 1)q
For
D
r
5
= 1.22 and =
= 0.05k t = 1.96
d
d 90
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The factor of safety may not be adequate and the diameter can be modified
accordingly.
In previous solutions torque on the axle is neglected. If the torque is also
accumulated the problem is going to be of combined binding involving bonding
torsion. The torque on the axle is going to be coefficient of friction lesser than the
normal bond. According to T= Friction factor* 2(for the?) = 0.25 * 82*103*2= 164
N. m
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Adopting approach I
1
2
2
m ' = bm + 3cm 2
167
d 3
16 *164 *103
d 3
1.447 *106
d3
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or d = 1.5
+
3
d3 .670
d .206
1.214 *106
m '
d = 106mm
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Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 1 - INTRODUCTION
Contents
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
History of gears
Definition of gears
Types of gears and their applications.
Spur Gear
Helical Gear
Double helical or Herringbone Gear
Internal Gear
Rack and pinion
Bevel Gear
(a) Straight (b) Spiral (c) hypoid
1.10 Crossed helical gear
1.11 Law of gearing
1.12 Gear profiles
1.13 Meshing of gears
1.1 HISTORY OF GEARS
Indian history as per our mythological stories is more than 12,000 years old. Since then
people living here have been striving to improve the living conditions. We also know that
earlier people were living in the caves and the doors of the caves were made of granite.
How were these heavy doors opened and closed? They were opened and closed by
none other than a system with gear mechanism, wheel, lever and rope drives. However,
the documented evidence has been lost due to destruction by the invaders and
improper storing of palm leaf literature. The guru Kula method of teaching and passing
of the information from mouth to ear procedure and keeping some of the advances as
closely guarded secret have resulted in poor dissemination of the knowledge and
documentation. But, the knowledge of gears has gone from India to east through some
of the globe trotters from China as back as 2600 years BC. They have used the gears
then ingeniously in chariots for measuring the speed and other mechanisms. Primitive
gears shown in Fig. 1 were first used in door drive mechanism in temples and caves,
and water lifting mechanisms 2600 B.C. in India and elsewhere.
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Aristotle in the fourth century B.C. mentions in his writings that gears were being used
very commonly in many applications. Classical origin of worm gearing was made by
Archimedes 287-212 B.C. Vitruvius a military engineer in his writing in 28 B.C. has
described a number of gear applications, typical ones are shown in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3.
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Machine Design II
powered machines. Fig. 1.5 gives the glimpses of their contribution to engine
application.
The industrialization of west made a big impact on gear technology which is the key to
the modern development and the gear technology is advancing rapidly. It is most
unlikely that gears are going to be replaced by any other component for their function in
the near future.
Fig.1.5 Schematic diagram of Watts rotating Engine, 1784, first engine to produce
power directly on a shaft
1.2 DEFINITION OF GEARS
Gears are toothed members which transmit power / motion between two shafts by
meshing without any slip. Hence, gear drives are also called positive drives. In any pair
of gears, the smaller one is called pinion and the larger one is called gear immaterial of
which is driving the other.
When pinion is the driver, it results in step down drive in which the output speed
decreases and the torque increases. On the other hand, when the gear is the driver, it
results in step up drive in which the output speed increases and the torque decreases.
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(i)
(j)
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Spur gears have their teeth parallel to the axis Fig.1.7 and are used for transmitting
power between two parallel shafts. They are simple in construction, easy to manufacture
and cost less. They have highest efficiency and excellent precision rating. They are
used in high speed and high load application in all types of trains and a wide range of
velocity ratios. Hence, they find wide applications right from clocks, household gadgets,
motor cycles, automobiles, and railways to aircrafts. One such application is shown in
Fig.1.8.
1.5 HELICAL GEARS
Helical gears are used for parallel shaft drives. They have teeth inclined to the axis as
shown in Fig. 1.9. Hence for the same width, their teeth are longer than spur gears and
have higher load carrying capacity. Their contact ratio is higher than spur gears and
they operate smoother and quieter than spur gears. Their precision rating is good. They
are recommended for very high speeds and loads. Thus, these gears find wide
applications in automotive gearboxes as illustrated in Fig. 1.10. Their efficiency is
slightly lower than spur gears. The helix angle also introduces axial thrust on the shaft.
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Machine Design II
A. flywheel
B. torque divider
C. torque converter
D. rear transmission
brakes
a. input shaft
Fig.1.13.Internal Gear
b. intermediate shaft
c. output brake
d. divider brake
e. rear transmission
f. free wheel
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Fig.1.17 Lathe carriage drive mechanism showing rack and pinion arrangement.
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Fig.1.18 Radial drilling machine spindle movement with rack and pinion
arrangement
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These gears are also used for right angle drive in which the axes do not intersect. This
permits the lowering of the pinion axis which is an added advantage in automobile in
avoiding hump inside the automobile drive line power transmission. However, the non
intersection introduces a considerable amount of sliding and the drive requires good
lubrication to reduce the friction and wear. Their efficiency is lower than other two types
of bevel gears. These gears are widely used in current day automobile drive line power
transmission.
1.9. WORM GEAR
Worm and worm gear pair consists of a worm, which is very similar to a screw and a
worm gear, which is a helical gear as shown in Fig. 1.25. They are used in right-angle
skew shafts. In these gears, the engagement occurs without any shock. The sliding
action prevalent in the system while resulting in quieter operation produces considerable
frictional heat. High reduction ratios 8 to 400 are possible.
Efficiency of these gears is low anywhere from 90% to 40 %. Higher speed ratio gears
are non-reversible. Their precision rating is fair to good. They need good lubrication for
heat dissipation and for improving the efficiency. The drives are very compact.
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Worm gearing finds wide application in material handling and transportation machinery,
machine tools, automobiles etc. An industrial worm gear box used for converting
horizontal to vertical drive is shown in Fig. 1.26.
Spiral gears are also known as crossed helical gears, Fig. 1.27. They have high helix
angle and transmit power between two non-intersecting non-parallel shafts. They have
initially point contact under the conditions of considerable sliding velocities finally gears
will have line contact. Hence, they are used for light load and low speed application
such as instruments, sewing machine etc. Their precision rating is poor. An application
of spiral gear used in textile machinery is shown in Fig. 1.28.
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Features and
Precision Rating
Parallel Shafting.
High speeds and loads
highest efficiency
Applications
Helical
Applicable to all
types of trains and a
wide range of
velocity ratios.
Bevel
Worm
mesh
Intersecting shafts,
High speeds,
High loads.
Precision Rating is fair to
good
Right-angle skew shafts,
High velocity ratio,
High speeds and loads,
Low efficiency, Most
designs nonreversible.
Precision rating is fair to
good
Relatively low
velocity ratio; low
speeds and light
loads only. Any
angle skew shafts.
Internal drives
requiring high
speeds and high
loads; offers low
sliding and high
stress loading; good
for high capacity,
long life. Used in
planetary gears to
produce large
reduction ratios.
Suitable for 1:1 and
higher velocity
ratios and for rightangle meshes (and
other angles)
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Features and
Precision Rating
Intersecting and skew
shafts.
Modest speeds and loads.
Precision Rating is fair to
good
Applications
Special cases
1
n
d
Z
1 2 2
2
n 2 d1 Z1
(1.1)
In order to maintain constant angular velocity ratio between two meshing gears, the
common normal of the tooth profiles, at all contact points with in mesh, must always
pass through a fixed point on the line of centers, called pitch point.
1.12 PROFILES SATISFYING LAW OF GEARS
Profiles which can satisfy the law of gearing are shown in Fig. 1.22 a to c. These are (a)
involute (b) cycloidal and (c) circular arc or Novikov. Among these, cycloidal was the first
to be evolved. This is followed by the invention of involute profile which replaced many
of the other profiles due to several technological advantages. Circular arc or Novikov
Machine Design II
profile has some advantages over the other profiles. But due to manufacturing
difficulties, it did not become popular. However with powder metallurgy process it is
slowly getting into industry now for specific application.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 1.22 Profiles satisfying the law of gearing, (a) involute (b) cycloidal and (c)
Circular arc
Machine Design II
This forms the left side part of the tooth profile. If similar process is repeated with thread
wound on the reel in anticlockwise direction in the same position, it forms the right side
part of the same tooth. The completely formed involute tooth is shown in Fig.1.25.
Involute profiles have special properties. Imagine two involute teeth in contact as shown
in Fig.1.26. If a normal is drawn at the contact point to the involute profile, it will be
tangent to the generating circles. This can be visualized better from Fig. 1.23 where the
taut thread is normal to the profile as well as tangent to the reel which forms the
generating or the base circle. The profile will be involute above the base circle only.
Below the base circle the profile will not be involute.
Machine Design II
The common normal to the profile at the contact point will be tangent to the base circles.
It passes through a fixed point lying at the intersection of the tangent to the rolling/pitch
circles and the line connecting the centres of the gear wheels. This point is known as
the pitch point. As the gears rotate the contact point travels along the common tangent
to the base circle. Hence this line is also known as the line of action. The movement of
the contact point along the line of action can be seen in the gear meshing later on.
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Machine Design II
Machine Design II
The Novikov gears are having circular tooth surfaces in the transverse section Fig. 1.31.
Normally pinion has a convex tooth profile and the gear tooth has a concave tooth
profile. They can also have concave profile for pinion and convex profile for the gear or
convex profiles for both. The teeth of Novikov gears have point contact in mesh. Hence
to increase the contact ratio the teeth are made helical and appearance of Novikov gear
is shown in Fig.1.32. The height of a Novikov gear tooth is about half that of the
corresponding an involute tooth of the same module. Hence these teeth can with stand
high load with weight of the gears approximately half the size of involute gears. Since
these gears are having pure rolling action at the contact, their efficiency is as high as
99.5%.
Novikov gear also satisfies the law of gearing since the common normal to the gears at
the point of contact will always be passing through a fixed point, viz., pitch point as
illustrated in Fig. 1.31 and in more detail in Fig. 1.33. Hence these profiles are conjugate
to each other and pressure angle remains constant
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 2 INVOLUTE SPUR GEARS
Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Nomenclature of involute spur gears
2.3 Meshing of gears
2.4 Interference in gears
2.5 Methods of eliminating interference
2.6 Minimum number of teeth to avoid interference
2.7 Length of line of action
2.8 Contact ratio
2.1 INRODUCTION:
The function of a gear is to work smoothly while transmitting motion or torque. For this the
angular velocity ratio at all times should remain constant. This aspect is explained here
using various gear terminology that are peculiar to gears. Understanding of the definition of
these terminologies helps to grasp the functioning of gears and the design of gears.
Machine Design II
Refer to the Figs.2.1 and 2.2 which show a portion of a pair of involute gears in
mesh.
Pitch surface: The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.) that replaces
the toothed gear.
Pitch surface: The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.) that replaces
the toothed gear.
Addendum circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a normal section of the
gear.
Dedendum circle or Root circle: The circle bounding the spaces between the teeth,
in a normal section of the gear.
Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle.
Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.
Clearance: The difference between the Dedendum of one gear and the addendum
of the mating gear.
Face of a tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch surface.
Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface.
Circular thickness (tooth thickness): The thickness of the tooth measured on the
pitch circle. It is the length of an arc and not the length of a straight line.
Width of space: The distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch circle.
Backlash: The difference between the tooth thickness of one gear and the tooth
space of the mating gear.
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Circular pitch p: The width of a tooth and a space, measured on the pitch circle. It is
equal to the pitch circumference divided by the number of teeth. If,
p - circular pitch
z - number of teeth
d
z
(2.1)
P - diametral pitch
d - pitch diameter
Diametral pitch P: The number of teeth of a gear per unit pitch diameter. The
diametral pitch is hence the number of teeth divided by the pitch diameter.
P = z/d
(2.2)
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The product of the diametral pitch and the circular pitch equals .
pP=
(2.3)
The effect of diametral pitch on the size of the gear tooth is shown in Fig. 2.3
Actual tooth size for various diametral pitches is shown in Fig.2.4. The diametral
pitches are standardized and these values are given Table 2.1.
1.25 1.5
1.75 2
2.5
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
32
48
64
72
80
96
120
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Fig. 2.4 Actual size of the gear tooth for different diametral pitches
In metric system, module is used instead of diametral pitch. It is nothing but the inverse of
diametral pitch. The standard modules for which cutters are readily available in the market
are given in Table 2.2
Module m: Pitch diameter divided by number of teeth. The pitch diameter is usually
specified in millimeters.
m = d/z
(2.4)
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0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1.0
1.25
1.5
1.75
2.0
2.25
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
33
36
39
42
45
50
Fillet Radius: The small radius that connects the profile of a tooth to the root circle.
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Figs. 2.6 and 2.7 illustrate various terminologies one comes across during meshing of
gear teeth.
Fig.2.6 Meshing of two pairs of gear teeth which explains the various terminologies
used in involute gearing in detail
Velocity ratio i: The ratio of rotational speed of the driving gear n1 (or input gear) to
the rotational speed of the driven gear n2 (or output gear). If z1 & z2 , d1 & d2, r1 & r2,
and 1 & 2
n1 1 z 2 d2 r2
n2 2 z1 d1 r1
(2.5)
Base circle: An imaginary circle used in involute gearing to generate the involutes
that form the tooth profiles.
Machine Design II
Fig.2.7 Meshing of two pairs of gear teeth which explains the various
terminologies used in involute gearing.
Pitch point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of a pair of mating gears.
Common tangent: The line tangent to the pitch circle at the pitch point.
Line of action: A line normal to a pair of mating tooth profiles at their point of
contact.
Path of contact: The path traced by the contact point of a pair of tooth profiles.
Pressure angle : The angle between the common normal at the point of tooth
contact and the common tangent to the pitch circles.
Pressure angle is also the angle between the line of action and the common tangent
Machine Design II
If the portion of the gear exists below the base circle, then it results in interference and
leads to undercutting of the tooth. In Fig. 2.9 the shaded portion of the teeth are below the
base circles. They are going to cause interference. In Fig.2.10 portion of the pinion tooth
below the gear tooth surface is seen. In practice this cannot happen unless the part of the
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Fig 2.10 Gears in mesh showing portion of the tooth of pinion digging into the
gear tooth on the left
Machine Design II
gear tooth is relieved of material causing this interference. This is achieved by the harder
pinion tooth removing away the portion of the gear tooth to avoid interference. Note that
the tooth portion below the base circle is not having involute profile. Such a situation will
arise when a gear with a certain number of teeth mates with pinion having number of teeth
below a critical value.
(a) removing the cross hatched tooth tips i.e., using stub teeth
For a given gear, the interference can also the eliminated by increasing the centre
distance.
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2.6 Minimum No. of Teeth on pinion to avoid interference for a given gear
Referring to Fig. 2.10, the involute profile doesnt exist beyond base circle. When
the pinion rotates clockwise, first and last point of contacts are e and g where the
line of action is tangent to the base circles.
Any part of the pinion tooth face extending beyond a circle through g interferes with
gear flank as shown at i.
The interference limits the permissible length of addendum. As the diameter of the
pinion is reduced, the permissible addendum of larger gear becomes smaller.
Let the addendum height be k times the module i.e., km. From the Fig.2.12 the
maximum gear addendum circle radius is :
AE= r2 + km = AG 2 +GE 2
(2.6)
(2.7)
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z 12 + 2 z 1 z 2 =
4k (z 2 +k)
sin 2
(2.8)
Z1 =
2k
sin 2
(2.9)
For full depth gears (i.e., k = 1) engaging with rack, minimum teeth on the pinion to avoid
interference is
z1 = 31.9
2
tan
(2.10)
(2.11)
(2.12)
The line of action should be at least 1.4 times the circular pitch for continuous
action.
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.13 Various circles and line of action in a pair of meshing gears
Referring to the Fig.2.13, the theoretical length of line of action of any pair of true involute
gears
La = A1 B + AB1 A1B1
(2.13)
Contact ratio: is defined as the maximum number of teeth in contact at any time. Higher
the contact ratio smoother will be gear operation
Contact ratio =
La
La
=
p cos m cos
(2.14)
-----------------------
Machine Design II
Module 2 GEARS
Lecture 3 - INVOLUTE SPUR GEARS
Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Standard tooth systems for spur gears
3.3 Profile shifted gears
3.4 Involutometry
3.5 Design of gear blanks
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In lecture 2 various terminologies used in describing a gear and a gear pair in mesh was
dealt in detail. For convenience, the gear nomenclature is reproduced in Fig. 3.1. It can be
Machine Design II
observed here that by varying the various parameters, it is possible to get infinite varieties
of gears. In practice if we use such large varieties of gears, then the manufacture, quality
check, replacement in the case of failure all become more complicated. To overcome this,
standard gear systems are evolved and these are dealt in detail here. Earlier the definition
of interference in gears was illustrated by many figures and methods of avoiding
interference were dealt in detail. For easy recollection of interference, refer to Fig. 3.2
where the interference portion of the teeth is shown in red.
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20 degree full
depth
1m
20 degree
Stub
0.8m
25 degree
full depth
1m
Dedendum b
1.25 m
1m
1.25m
Clearance c
0.25 m
0.2 m
0.25m
Working dept
2m
1.6m
2m
Whole depth h
2.25m
1.8m
2.25m
Tooth thickness t
1.571m
1.571m
1.571m
Face width f
9m-14m
9m-14m
9m-14m
0.3 m
0.3 m
0.3 m
0.25m
0.25m
0.25m
14.5o and 25o stub tooth systems have become obsolete now.
How the various spur gear tooth parameters are fixed in standard gear system is given in
Table 3.1
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3.4 INVOLUTOMETRY
inv tan
rb
cos
(3.1)
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Fig. 3.7 Tooth layout for finding tooth thickness at any point
In order to derive the relationship between tooth thickness and it distance r from the centre
refer to the Fig. 3.7. The half tooth thickness at A and T are given by:
t1
1 r1
2
So that
t1
2 r1
(3.2),
(3.4),
t
r
2
t
2r
(3.3)
(3.5)
inv inv 1
t1
t
2 r1
2r
(3.6)
t 2r (
t1
inv inv )
2 r1
(3.7)
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Fig. 3.8 Design of gear blanks for small diameter gears d < 200 mm
The design of gear blank depends on the size, load carrying capacity, speed of operation,
space limitations and application. Small gears up to a pitch diameter of 200 mm are
normally made of solid blanks as in Fig. 3.8, (a) to (c). However in these gears, sometimes
to reduce the weight and inertia in higher sizes, material is removed in the web portion
where the stress is low by turning process Fig. 3.8 (d) or turning and drilling process
Fig.3.8 (e) to (g) especially for high speed operation. In multi-speed gear boxes to make
the arrangement compact, cluster and sliding gears as shown in Fig. 3.9 (a) to (e) are
used. The gaps between the gears should be adequate to relieve the gear cutter.
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Machine Design II
Many a times to reduce the cost of the gears, rimmed construction is used. Here the
central portion of the gear wheel is made of lower grade steel as the stress encountered
here is less and the gear portion rim is press fitted or shrunk on the central portion. The rim
is prevented from loosening by grub screws as seen in Fig. 3.11 (c)
Large gears are normally cast as in Fig. 3.12 (a) to (d) with web straight or inclined.
To reduce the weight of the gears, non stressed portion is made hollow by keeping cores.
When a small number of high quality gears are required, the gears made with rimmed,
bolted or welded construction as shown in Fig. 3.11 (e) to (g). To save alloy steel, large
wheels are made with fretting rings. Wheel central portions are made from Cast iron or
cast steel. The ring is forged or roll expanded from special steel of tooth material. For f >
500 mm two Fretting rings are hot-fitted on the centers. Set screws to prevent loosening
are also provided. When wheels are made in small quantities, to reduce the weight,
welding is employed. Care should be taken to ensure adequate rigidity in these cases.
The empirical formulae for finding proportions of spur gear wheel are given in Fig.3.13 (a)
and that for a bevel gear wheel is given in Fig. 3.13 (b).
Machine Design II
(b)
(a)
Fig. 3.13 Gear wheel proportions (a) spur gear (b) bevel gear
The empirical formulae for finding proportions of welded wheel elements are shown in
Fig. 3.14
Machine Design II
The empirical formulae for finding proportions of wheel elements of cast spur and helical
gears are given in Fig. 3.15.
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 4: WORKED OUT PROBLEMS ON INVOLUTE SPUR GEARS
Content
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Gear Calculation -Worked example 1
4.3 Gear Calculation -Worked example 2
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier lectures, the definition of gear, gear terminology, interference, methods of
eliminating interference, standard tooth systems for spur gears, profile shifted gears,
involutometry and design of gear blanks were dealt in detail. With the background of the
above knowledge, solving of simple gear problems will be dealt in this lecture.
i = 2.5;
C = 70 mm; = 20o;
Given Data:
To be found:
m = ?;
Z1 = ? ;
d1 = ?;
Z2 = ?;
d2 = ?;
CR = ?
We know that,
C = (r1 +r2) = 0.5 m ( Z1 + Z2) = 0.5 m (Z1 + i Z1) = 70 mm
1
Machine Design II
i.e., m x Z1 = 40
Possible solutions for standard modules as can be seen from the table:
Solution I:
d1 = m Z1 = 2 x 20 = 40 mm
d2 =i d1 = 2.5 x 40 = 100 mm
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1.0
1.25 1.5
1.75
2.0
2.25
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
33
36
39
42
45
Minimum number of teeth that can engage with the gear of 50 teeth without
interference is given by,
z12 + 2 z1 z2 =
4k(z2 + k)
sin 2
For full depth gears, k = 1. Substituting the values Z2 = 50, = 20o in the above
equation,
z12 2 z1 x50
4 x 1( 50 1 )
sin 2 20 o
z 2 + 100 z 1744 0
1
1
Since from the above it is seen that, Z1 > Z1min no interference will occur.
2
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La = ua + ur
L ( r a )2 r 2 cos 2
a
1
1
( r a )2 r 2 cos 2 ( r r ) sin
2
2
1 2
3
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Machine Design II
CR
L
L
9.798
9.798
a
a
1.660
p cos m cos x 2 x cos 20o
5.901
For full depth tooth, the various values calculated are as shown below:
Addendum:
a = 1m = 1x2
= 2mm
Dedendum:
Clearance:
c = 0.25 m = 0.25x2
= 0.5 mm
Solution II:
The centre distance is given by, C = (r1 +r2) = 0.5 m ( Z1 + Z2) = 0.5 m (Z1 + i Z1)
= 70 mm
Simplifying, m x Z1 = 40
Another possible solution for standard module from the table is,
m = 2.5 mm, Z1 = 16, Z2 = i x Z1 = 40,
d1 = m Z1 = 2.5x16=40 mm,
d2 = m Z2 = 2.5 x 40 =100 mm
Minimum number of teeth that can engage the gear of 40 teeth without interference
is given by,
z12 + 2 z1 z2 =
4 k (z2 + k)
sin 2
4
Machine Design II
For full depth gears k = 1. Substituting Z2 = 40, = 20o, in the above equation,
4(40 + 1 )
z 2 + 2 z x 40 =
1
1
sin2 20o
z 2 + 80 z 1402 0
1
1
Contact ratio, CR :
Referring to the fig. 4.1, the path of contact is given by,
La = ua + ur
L ( r a )2 r 2 cos 2
a
1
1
( r a )2 r 2 cos 2 ( r r ) sin
2
2
1 2
L
L
11.854
11.854
a
a
1.607
p cos m cos
5.901
x 2.5 x cos 20o
Dedendum :
5
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Machine Design II
Clearance:
New Pressure angle when the centre distance C is increased by 1.5% is given by:
= cos-1( r1 cos20o / r1 1.015) = 22.21o
rb
cos
inv tan
t
t 2 r ( 1 inv inv )
2r
1
Fig 4.2 Involutometry
The terminologies used in the problem are explained in earlier chapters. Hence the figures
referred are self explanatory.
6
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Machine Design II
Fig. 4.3 Layout for tooth thickness determination at any point on tooth profile
Solution:
r1 = 0.5.m.Z1 = 0.5 x 12 x 21=126 mm
rb = r1.Cos = 126 x cos 20o = 118.4 mm
a = 1m = 1 x 12 = 12 mm
ra = r1 + a = 126 + 12 = 138 mm
p1 = .m = . 12 = 37.14 mm
t1 = 0.5 p1 = 0.5 x 37.14 = 18.57 mm
inv = tan - = tan 0.349 0.349 = 0.015 rad
7
Machine Design II
At the base circle b= 0, Hence tooth thickness tb at the base circle is:
t
t 2 r ( 1 inv inv )
b
b 2r
b
1
18.57
2 x 118.4 x(
0.015 0 ) 21.0 mm
2 x126
18.57
t 2 x 138 x
0.015 0.059 8. 20 mm
a
2 x 126
From the above, we know that, ta > tamin, hence the tip thickness is adequate and
permissible.
-----------------------
8
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 5 - GEAR MANUFACTURING
Contents
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Forming
5.2.1 Casting
5.2.1a Sand casting
5.2.1b Die casting
5.2.1c Investment casting
5.2.2Sintering
5.2.3 Injection molding
5.2.4 Extruding
5.2.5 Cold drawing
5.2.6 Stamping
5.2.7 Preforming
5.2.8 Forging
5.3. Machining
5.3.1 Roughing
5.3.1.1 Form milling
5.3.1.2 Rack generation
5.3.1.3 Gear shaping
5.3.1.4 Hobbing
5.3.2 Finishing
5.2.2.1 Shaving
5.2.2.2 Grinding
5.2.2.3 Burnishing
5.2.2.4 Lapping and honing
5.4. Quality of the gears
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Machine Design II
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Gear manufacturing can be divided into two categories namely forming and machining as
shown in flow chart in Fig 5.1. Forming consists of direct casting, molding, drawing, or
extrusion of tooth forms in molten, powdered, or heat softened materials and machining
involves roughing and finishing operations. They are discussed in the different sections of
this chapter.
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have high tooling costs making them suitable only for high production quantities. The
various forming techniques are discussed below in detail:
5.2.1 Casting
Sand casting, die casting and investment casting are the casting processes that are best
suited for gears and are shown in fig 5.2. They are explained in the following sections:
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as for toys, small appliances, cement-mixer barrels, hoist gearbox of dam gate lifting
mechanism, hand operated crane etc.,
Materials:
The materials that can be sand cast are C I, cast steel, bronzes, brass and ceramics. The
process is confined to large gears that are machined later to required accuracy.
(a)
(b)
Fig 5.3(a) SAE 4640 cast steel helical gear, (b) Silicon bronze heavy duty drive gears from
200mm to 1600mm diameter
5.2.1b Die casting
Characteristics:
The characteristics of die cast gears are,
Applications:
Gears that are die cast are used in instruments, cameras, business machines, washing
machines, gear pumps, small speed reducers, and lawn movers. Fig. 5.3 shows gears that
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Machine Design II
Accuracy depends on the original master pattern used for the mold.
Materials:
Tool steel, nitriding steel, monel, beryllium copper are the materials that can be investment
casted for the manufacture of gears. The process is used only if no other process is
suitable since production cost is high. Fig 5.4 shows a wire twister stellite gear which
mates with a rack made by IC. Complicated shape makes it economical to produce by
investment casting process.
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As shown in Fig 5.6, for the components manufactured by P/M technique, secondary
machining is not required. Fig 5.7 shows cluster gears, different types of gears that can be
combined and keyways can be built-in.
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Fig 5.7 Cluster gears, combination of gears and gears with key ways
Fig 5.8 shows helical gears and combination of gears made by P/M or sintering process.
Material utilization is more than 95% in this manufacturing process. The material
utilizations of forged and sintered processes are shown in Fig 5.9.
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(b)
(a)
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Applications:
Injection molded gears are used in cameras, projectors, wind shield wipers, speedometer,
lawn sprinklers, washing machine. They are shown in fig.5.12 and 5.13.
Materials:
The materials for injection molding components are Nylon, cellulose acetate, polystyrene,
polyimide, phenolics.
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5.2.4 Extruding
Extruding is used to form teeth on long rods, which are then cut into usable lengths and
machined for bores and keyways etc. Nonferrous materials such as aluminum and copper
alloys are commonly extruded rather than steels. This result in good surface finishes with
clean edges and pore free dense structure with higher strength. Table 5.1 shows various
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Machine Design II
extruded sections along with their number of teeth, outside diameter, pitch diameter, root
diameter, pitch and tooth thickness.
Applications:
Splined hollow & solid shafts, sector gears are extruded and various gears are shown in fig
5.15.
Table 5.1 Specifications of various extruded sections
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The progression in the formation of a gear blank by cold forming is shown in fig 5.16 and
the stages in the extrusion of a gear is shown in fig 5. 17.
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Fig 5.19 For cold drawing, the 11-tooth pinion below is enlarged by AGMA-ASA
standard to the form above, avoiding undercut and giving radius rather than sharp
corners
5.2.6. Stamping:
Sheet metal can be stamped with tooth shapes to form low precision gears at low cost in
high quantities. The surface finish and accuracy of these gears are poor.
Applications:
Stamped gears are used as toy gears, hand operated machine gears for slow speed
mechanism.
5.2.6 a Precision stamping:
In precision stamping, the dies are made of higher precision with close tolerances wherein
the stamped gears will not have burrs.
Applications:
Clock gears, watch gears etc.
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Machine Design II
5.2.7. Preforming
For close die forging the feed stock has to be very near to the net shape and this is
obtained by performing. This is explained by flow diagrams both in sinter forging and
precision hot forging.
5.2.8 Forging:
The steps in forging process are represented in fig 5.20 and the forged gears are shown in
fig 5.21.
Machine Design II
5.3 MACHINING
The bulk of power transmitting metal gears of machinery are produced by machining
process from cast, forged, or hot rolled blanks. Refer fig 5.1 for classification of machining
processes. Roughing processes include milling the tooth shape with formed cutters or
generating the shape with a rack cutter, a shaping cutter or a hob cutter which are shown
in fig 5.22.
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
The rack and gear blank must be periodically repositioned to complete the circumference.
This introduces errors in the tooth geometry making this method less accurate than
shaping and hobbing.
(a)
(b)
Fig 5.26 (a) (b) Rack generations
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The process is limited to small gears since the length of the rack has to be equal to
circumference of the gear at pitch diameter. The generation of spur gear by planing is
shown in fig 5.27.
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5.3.1.2c Hobbing:
Hob teeth are shaped to match the tooth space and are interrupted with grooves to provide
cutting surfaces. It rotates about an axis normal to that of the gear blank, cutting into the
rotating blank to generate the teeth as shown in fig 5.29.
5.2.2a Shaving:
Shaving is similar to gear shaping, but uses accurate shaving tools to remove small
amounts of material from a roughed gear to correct profile errors and improve surface
finish. Shaving operation is shown in fig 5.30.
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5.2.2b Grinding:
In grinding, a contoured grinding wheel is run over machined surface of the gear teeth
using computer control. With a small amount of metal removal high surface finish is
obtained. Fig 5.31 shows grinding operations and dressing of the wheel.
Fig 5.31 (a) Grinding the flanks only, (b) Grinding root and flanks, (c) Grinding each
flank separately with twin grinding wheels and (d) Pantograph dressing of the wheel
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Grinding is used to correct the heat-treatment distortion in gears hardened after roughing.
Improvement in surface finish and error correction of earlier machining are added
advantages. Grinding operation for gears can be done by profile grinding or form grinding
as shown in fig 5.32 and 5.33.
(a)
(b)
Fig 5.32 (a) Maag zero pressure angle profile grinding and (b) Maag profile grinding
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5.2.2c Burnishing:
In burnishing, a specially hardened gear is run over rough machined gear. The high forces
at the tooth interface cause plastic yielding of the gear tooth surface which improves finish
and work hardens the surface creating beneficial compressive residual stresses.
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The AGMA standard 2000-A88 defines dimension tolerance for gear teeth and a
quality index Qv that ranges from the lowest quality 3 to the highest precision 16.
DIN 3962 defines quality index in another way. Highest quality is assigned number
1 and the lowest quality is assigned number 12.
Based on the machining/production techniques the accuracy of gears varies viz., with the
pitch error, profile errors and surface finish, the Qv varies. These errors give rise to
vibration in the gears and affect their smooth running. Consequently the gear quality limits
their speed of operation. The various gear manufacturing processes and the
corresponding dynamic load factors at various speeds are depicted in Fig. 5.35. The
limiting speeds and dynamic load factors for various quality of gears is shown in Fig. 5.36
Fig. 5.35 Various gear manufacturing processes, their operating speed limits and
dynamic load factors
Machine Design II
(b)
Fig. 5.36 Gear quality, their limiting speeds and dynamic load factors
Table 5.2 Allowable velocities and applications of gears of various accuracy grades
----------------------
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 6 GEAR FAILURE
Contents
6.1. Introduction
Modes of Gear Failure
6.2 Scoring
6.2.1. Initial Scoring
6.2.2. Moderate Scoring
6.2.3. Destructive Scoring
6.2.4. Frosting
6.3 Wear
6.3.1. Adhesive
6.3.2. Abrasive
6.3.3. Corrosive
6.4. Pitting
6.4.1. Subsurface origin failure
6.4. 2. Surface origin failure
6.5. Plastic Flow
6.5. 1. Cold flow
6.5. 2. Ridging
6.5. 3. Rippling
6.6. Tooth Breakage
6.6. 1. Fatigue breakage
6.6. 2. Overload breakage
6.7. Gear noise
Machine Design II
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Gear failure can occur in various modes. In this chapter details of failure are
given. If care is taken during the design stage itself to prevent each of these
failure a sound gear design can be evolved. The gear failure is explained by
means of flow diagram in Fig.. 1.
6.1 SCORING:
Scoring is due to combination of two distinct activities: First, lubrication failure in
the contact region and second, establishment of metal to metal contact. Later
on, welding and tearing action resulting from metallic contact removes the metal
rapidly and continuously so far the load, speed and oil temperature remain at the
same level. The scoring is classified into initial, moderate and destructive.
Once these high spots are removed, the stress comes down as the load is
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Machine Design II
distributed over a larger area. The scoring will then stop if the load, speed and
temperature of oil remain unchanged or reduced. Initial scoring is nonprogressive and has corrective action associated with it.
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6.2 WEAR
As per gear engineers point of view, the wear is a kind of tooth damage where in
layers of metal are removed more or less uniformly from the surface. It is nothing
but progressive removal of metal from the surface. Consequently tooth thins
down and gets weakened. Three most common causes of gear tooth wear are
metal-to-metal contact due to lack of oil film, ingress of abrasive particles in the
oil and chemical wear due to the composition of oil and its additives. Wear is
classified as adhesive, abrasive and chemical wear.
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
When the load and speed of operation are more than mild wear conditions,
moderate wear takes place with higher rate. Worn out portions appear bright and
shiny. Yet it occurs over a long period. A typical example of this wear in helical
gear is shown in the Fig. 6.6.
Machine Design II
body abrasions. The prior machining marks disappear and surface appears
highly polished as shown in Fig.. 6.8. Noticeable wear occurs only over a long
time. Sealing improvement and slight pressurization of the gear box with air can
reduce the entry of dust particles and decrease this wear.
Machine Design II
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.10 Corrosive wear
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In the helical gear shown in Fig. 6.11 pitting started as a local overload due to
slight misalignment and progressed across the tooth in the dedendum portion to
mid face. Here, the pitting stopped and the pitted surfaces began to polish up
and burnish over. This phenomenon is common with medium hard gears. On
gears of materials that run in well, pitting may cease after running in, and it has
practically no effect on the performance of the drive since the pits that are formed
gradually become smoothed over from the rolling action. The initial pitting is nonprogressive.
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spreads all over the tooth length. Pitting leads to higher pressure on the unpitted
surface, squeezing the lubricant into the pits and finally to seizing of surfaces.
Pitting begins on the tooth flanks near the line along the tooth passing through
the pitch point where there are high friction forces due to the low sliding velocity.
Then it spreads to the whole surface of the flank. Tooth faces are subjected to
pitting only in rare cases. Fig. 6.12 shows how in destructive pitting, pitting has
spread over the whole tooth and weakened tooth has fractured at the tip leading
to total failure.
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.14 Flaking / Spalling
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Machine Design II
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 6.17 Progressive pitting
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Under magnification, surface reveals very fine micro-pits of 2.5m deep. These
patterns follow the higher ridges caused by cutter marks. Frosting results from
very thin oil film and some asperity contact.
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Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
In the case of fatigue failure, the fracture is of concave form in the body of the
gear; it is of convex form when the failure is from overload.
The teeth of
herringbone or wide-face helical gears usually break off along a slanting cross
section. To prevent tooth breakage, the beam strength of the gear teeth is
checked by calculations. Fatigue pitting of the surface layers of the gear teeth is
the most serious and widespread kind of tooth damage that may occur in gears
even when they are enclosed, well lubricated and protected against dirt.
---------
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 7 - SPUR GEAR DESIGN
Contents
7.1 Spur gear tooth force analysis
7.2 Spur gear - tooth stresses
7.3 Tooth bending stress Lewis equation
7.4 Tooth bending stress AGMA procedure
7.5 Bending fatigue strength AGMA procedure
7.6 Permissible bending stress
7.7 Buckingham equation for dynamic load on gears
7.1 SPUR GEAR TOOTH FORCE ANALYSIS
(7. 1)
F r = F sin
(7.2)
(7.3)
dn
6000
(7.4)
Machine Design II
Ft V
1000
(7.5)
where d is the pitch diameter of the gear in millimeters and n is the rotating speed in
rpm and W power in kW.
7.2 SPUR GEAR - TOOTH STRESSES
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Lewis considered gear tooth as a cantilever beam with static normal force F applied at
the tip.
Assumptions made in the derivation are:
1. The full load is applied to the tip of a single tooth in static condition.
2. The radial component is negligible.
3. The load is distributed uniformly across the full face width.
4. Forces due to tooth sliding friction are negligible.
5. Stress concentration in the tooth fillet is negligible.
The Fig. 7.3 shows clearly that the gear tooth is stronger through out than the inscribed
constant strength parabola, except for the section at a where parabola and tooth profile
are tangential to each other.
At point a, bending stress is
Mc 6Ft h
I
b t2
(7.6 )
By similar triangles,
t
2
2 h or t 4x
x t
h
2
(7.7)
6Ft
4b x
(7.8)
2x
3p
(7.9)
Ft
bp y
(7.10)
Machine Design II
Ft
b ym
(7.11)
Ft
bYm
(7.12)
Eqn. 12 is the standard Lewis equation for tooth bending stress based on module.
Both Y and y are functions of tooth shape (but not size) and therefore vary with the
number of teeth in the gear. These values can be obtained from Table 7.1 or Graph in
Fig. 7.4.
Table 7.1 VALUES OF LEWIS FORM FACTOR
Machine Design II
Fig. 7.4 spur gear - graph 1 for modified Lewis form factor
The Lewis equation indicates that tooth bending stress varies with the following:
Ft
bY m
(7.12)
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Ft
K bYm
'
v
(7.13)
where K v is known as velocity factor and is given by Barths equation below for known
pitch line velocity V in m/s and is given by,
K 'v
6
6 V
(7.14)
Eqn. (7.14) is used for cut or milled teeth or for gears not carefully generated.
K 'v
50
50 (200V)0.5
(7.15)
78
K
0.5
78 (200V)
0.5
'
v
(7.16)
Machine Design II
Ft
K K K
bmJ v o m
Where,
(7.17)
J = Spur gear geometry factor. This factor includes the Lewis form factor Y
and also a stress concentration factor based on a tooth fillet radius of 0.35/P. It also
depends on the number teeth in the mating gear.
J=
Where,
Y
Kf
(7.18)
t t
Kf H
r l
Where,
(7.19)
Machine Design II
rf (b rf )2
(7.23)
(d / 2) b rf
Where, r f is the fillet radius, d is the pitch diameter and b is the dedendum.
r
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Kv
6 V
6
(7.24)
Eqn. (7.24) is used for cut or milled teeth or for gears not carefully generated.
Kv
50 (200V)0.5
50
(7.25)
78 (200V) 0.5
Kv
78
0.5
(7.26)
Machine Design II
K m = Load distribution factor which accounts for non-uniform spread of the load across
the face width. It depends on the accuracy of mounting, bearings, shaft deflection and
accuracy of gears.
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25
0 - 50
150
225
400 up
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.2
Over 2.2
Over 2.2
Over 2.2
Over 2.2
(7.27)
Machine Design II
k f = fatigue stress concentration factor. Since this factor is included in J factor, its value
is taken as 1.
k m = Factor for miscellaneous effects. For idler gears subjected to two way bending, =
1. For other gears subjected to one way bending, the value is taken from the
Fig.7.8. Use k m = 1.33 for ut less than 1.4 GPa.
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[]
e
s
(7.28)
[]
(7.29)
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Fd = Ft + Fi
(7.30)
(7.31)
Where
F d dynamic load, N
F t transmitted load, N
F i increment load due to machining errors and the pitch line velocity
V pitch line velocity, m/s
b face width, mm
C factor depending on machining error
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Ft
bYm
(7.12)
Machine Design II
(7.32)
If we substitute permissible stress in Eqn. (7.32) we get on the right side, beam or tooth
strength of the gear F td as,
F td = [] b Y m
(7.33)
-----------
Machine Design II
Module 2- GEARS
Lecture 8 SPUR GEAR DESIGN
Contents
8.1 Surface durability basic concepts
8.2 Surface failures
8.3 Buckingham contact stress equation
8.4 Contact stress AGMA procedure
8.5 Surface fatigue strength AGMA procedure
8.6 Gear materials
Machine Design II
Fig. 8.1 shows the contact of a gear and pinion tooth at the tip. The instantaneous
contact point velocities of gear and pinion are vectorially denoted by Vg and Vp
a. The individual velocity can be resolved into two components normal and tangent
to the tooth surface as Vpn and Vpt for the pinion and Vgn and Vgt for the gear
respectively.
b. When the teeth do not separate or crush together, the components Vpn and Vgn
normal to the surface must be the same.
c. Hence tangential velocity components of the surface are different.
d. The sliding velocity is the difference between Vpt and Vgt
If the contact is at the pitch point P in Fig. 8.2, the sliding velocity is zero; the tooth
relative motion is of pure rolling.
a) At all the other contact points, the relative motion is one of pure rolling and
sliding.
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b) The sliding velocity is directly proportional to the distance between the pitch point
and the point of contact
c) The maximum sliding velocity occurs with contacts at the tooth tips.
d) Gear teeth with longer addenda have higher sliding velocities than gears with
shorter addenda.
The relative sliding velocity reverses the direction as a pair of teeth roll through the pitch
point. During approach, the sliding friction forces tend to compress the teeth and during
recess friction forces tend to elongate the teeth to give smoother action.
2. Scoring:
a) It occurs at high speeds when adequate lubrication is not provided by the
elasto-hydrodynamic action.
b) Lack of lubrication causes high sliding friction. High tooth loading and high
sliding velocities that produce a high rate of heat in the localized contact
region causes welding and tearing of surfaces apart.
c) Scoring can often be prevented by directing adequate flow of appropriate
lubricant that maintains hydrodynamic lubrication.
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d) Surface finish is also an important factor for scoring. Surface finish as fine
as 0.5m cla is desirable to avoid scoring.
3. Pitting or surface fatigue failure:
Complex stresses within the contact zone cause surface and subsurface fatigue
failures. Pitting occurs only after a large a number of repeated loading mainly in the
vicinity of the pitch line where the oil film breaks down because of zero sliding velocity.
(8.1)
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FE
bR
(8.2)
Where F = Ft / cos
(8.3)
H' 0.564
1 1 12 1 22
E
E1
E2
(8.4)
1
1
1
2
2
R R1 R2 d1 sin d 2 sin
(8.5)
Substituting the value of Ft, E and R from equation (8.3), (8.4) & (8.5) into (8.2) we get
2
2
)
d1 sin d 2 sin
0.564
1 12 1 22
b cos (
)
E1
E2
Ft (
H'
(8.6)
Since contact area also increases with load, the contact stress increases only as
the square root of load Ft
Equation (8.6) can be rewritten by combining terms relating to the elastic properties of
the material into single factor Cp given by:
Cp 0.564
1
1 1 22
E1
E2
2
1
(8.7)
Machine Design II
Gear Material
Steel
Cast iron
Al Bronze
Tin Bronze
191
166
162
158
166
149
149
145
162
149
145
141
158
145
141
137
GPa
Combining terms relating to tooth shape into second factor, I, known as the geometry
factor:
(8.8)
sin cos i
2
i 1
H' C p
Ft
b d1 I
(8.9)
In this equation Ft is considered as static since the Hertz equation is derived for static
loads. Rearranging the terms,
'
Ft b d1 I H
C
p
(8.10)
If we substitute H by the permissible stress [H] for the material, then what we get is
the tooth surface strength of the pinion Fts.
[ ]
Ft s b d1 I H
C
p
(8.11)
Machine Design II
Fts > Fd
(8.12)
For safe operation of the gear from surface fatigue considerations, Fd which is the
Buckingham dynamic load on gear tooth should be less than the tooth surface strength
of the gear. This approach gives quick results for preliminary design. This is the
Buckingham design approach for wear strength.
H Cp
Ft
KV K o K m
b d1 I
(8.13)
Kv
6 V
6
(8.14)
Equation (8.14) is used for cut or milled teeth or for gears not carefully generated.
Kv
50 (200V )0.5
50
(8.15)
78 (200V ) 0.5
Kv
78
0.5
(8.16)
Machine Design II
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25
Km = Load distribution factor which accounts for non uniform spread of the load across
the face width. It depends on the accuracy of mounting, bearings, shaft deflection and
accuracy of gears. Values are given in Table 8.3.
0 - 50
150
225
400 up
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.2
(8.17)
Machine Design II
Table 8.4 Surface fatigue strength sf (MPa) for metallic spur gears (107
cycle life 99% reliability and temperature < 1200 C)
Material
sf ( MPa )
Steel
Nodular iron
379
482
551
207
448
(Alloy 9C H. T )
Machine Design II
KR
50
1.25
99
1.00
99.9
0.80
KT = temperature factor,
= 1 for T 120oC based on lubricant temperature.
< 1 for T > 120oC based on AGMA standards.
(8.18)
(8.19)
Machine Design II
Nodular cast iron gears have higher bending strength together with good surface
durability. These gears are now a days used in automobile cam shafts. A good
combination is often a steel pinion mated against cast iron gear. Steel finds many
applications since it combines both high strength and low cost. Plain carbon and alloy
steel usage is quite common.
Through hardened plain carbon steel with 0.35 - 0.6% C are used when gears need
hardness more than 250 to 350 Bhn. These gears need grinding to overcome heat
treatment distortion. When compactness, high impact strength and durability are
needed as in automotive and mobile applications, alloy steels are used. These gears
are surface or case-hardened by flame hardening, induction hardening, nitriding or case
carburizing processes. Steels such as En 353, En36, En24, 17CrNiMo6 widely used for
gears.
Bronzes are used when corrosion resistance, low friction and wear under high sliding
velocity is needed as in worm-gear applications. AGMA recommends Tin bronzes
containing small % of Ni, Pb or Zn. The hardness may range from 70 to 85Bhn.Non
metallic gears made of phenolic resin, acetal, nylon and other plastics are used for light
load lubrication free quiet operation at reasonable cost. Mating gear in many such
applications is made with steel. In order to accommodate high thermal expansion,
plastic gears must have higher backlash and undergo stringent prototype testing.
--------------
Machine Design II
Module 2- GEARS
Lecture 9 - SPUR GEAR DESIGN
Contents
9.1 Problem 1 Analysis
9.2 Problem 2 Spur gear
Machine Design II
Solution:
The bending fatigue stress is found from AGMA equation as,
Ft
K K K
bmJ v o m
We know that,
(9.1)
Z2= Z1 x (N1/N2)
35 mm
Gear
35 mm
860 rpm
36 2.5 mm 90 mm
Kv
50 (200V)0.5
50
(9.2)
J (sharing)
Kv
Ko
Km
Pinion
18
0.338
1.569
1.25
1.6
Gear
36
0.385
1.569
1.25
1.6
The J value is obtained from Fig. 9.2 for sharing teeth as in practice. Ko and Km values
are obtained from Tables 9.3 and 9.4 for the given conditions.
Machine Design II
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25
Machine Design II
0 - 50
150
225
400 up
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.2
Over
Over
Over
Over
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
For pinion:
Ft
K K K
bmJ v o m
Ft
x1.569 x1.25x1.6
(9. 3)
Ft
K K K
bmJ v o m
Ft
=
x1.569 x1.25x1.6
35 x 2.5x 0.385
= 0.0932 Ft
(9.4)
e = e kL kv ks kr kT kf km
ks
Pinion
420
210
0.8
Gear
385
187.5
0.8
Machine Design II
(9.6)
Machine Design II
kT
kr
kf
km
Pinion
Gear
0.50
0.90
0.95
0.99
0.999 0.9999
Factor Kr
1.000
0.897
0.868
0.814
0.753
0.702
[ ]
e
n
(9.7)
(9.8)
FT N
Pinion
150.7
100.5
0.1061 Ft
947
Gear
134.6
89.7
0.0932 Ft
962
Table 9.8 shows that the pinion is weaker than gear. And maximum tangential force that
can be transmitted is: Ft= 947 N
So, the maximum power that can be transmitted is:
W = Ft v / 1000 = 947 x 4.051 /1000
= 3.84 kW
----------------Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
d = mZ
35 mm
Gear
35 mm
860 rpm
36 2.5 mm 90 mm
Reliability Life
Temp
Pinion
340 20o
99 %
108
<120oC
Gear
280 20o
99 %
<120oC
Solution:
The induced dynamic contact stress is given by equation below,
H Cp
Ft
KV Ko Km
b d1 I
(9.9)
When both pinion and gear material are made up of steel, from Table 9.11,
Cp = 191 MPa
(9.10)
MPa
Gear material
Steel
Cast iron
Al
Bronze
Tin Bronze
Steel, E=207Gpa
191
166
162
158
166
149
149
145
Al Bronze, E=121Gpa
162
149
145
141
158
145
141
137
Machine Design II
sin cos i
2
i 1
(9.11)
50 (200V)0.5
50
(9.12)
Kv
Ko
Km
Pinion
18
1.569
1.25
1.6
Gear
36
1.569
1.25
1.6
Ft
KV Ko Km
bd1 I
Ft
1.569x1.25x1.6
35x45x0.1071
26.051 Ft MPa
(9.13)
From table 10, for steel life is 107 cycles & reliability 99% and from Table 9.15,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Machine Design II
Table 9.15 Surafce fatigue strength sf for metallic spur gears (107 cycle life 99%
reliability and temperature <120 0 C)
Material
sf(MPa)
Steel
2.8 (Bhn)-69MPa
Nodular iron
0.95 (2.8(Bhn)-69MPa)
379
482
551
207
448
(Alloy 9C H.T.)
Machine Design II
KR
50
1.25
99
1.00
99.9
0.80
Ft = 931 N
-----------------------
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 10 - SPUR GEAR DESIGN
Contents
10.1 Problem 3 Spur gear design
10.1.1 Buckingham Approach
10.1.2 AGMA Approach
Solution:
i = n 1 / n 2 = 960 / 320 = 3
In order to keep the size small and meet the centre distance, Z 1 = 17 chosen
Z 2 = i Z 1 = 3 x 17 = 51
2n1 2 x x 960
100.48 rad/s
60
60
T1
w 30x1000
298.57 Nm
100.48
Machine Design II
Ft
2T1
[]p
b Y m bYZ1m 2
(10.1)
SAE 1050 hardened by OQT with permissible bending strength of 532 and hardness of
223Bhn is selected for pinion and SAE 1045 hardened by WQT with permissible
bending strength of 487 and hardness of 215 Bhn is selected for the gear from Table
10.1. Face width b = 10m is chosen for both wheels.
Table 10.1 Safe static stresses for use in the Lewis equation
Material
[ ] MPa
BHN
122
183
228
174
212
223
304
380
180
250
274
304
350
380
456
487
532
156
180
190
202
205
215
223
Alloy steel
SAE 2320 case hardened and WQT
SAE 2345 hardened by OQT
SAE 3115 case hardened and OQT
SAE 3145 hardened by OQT
SAE 3245 hardened by OQT
SAE 4340 hardened by OQT
SAE 4640 hardened by OQT
SAE 6145 hardened by OQT
761
761
563
806
989
989
837
1019
225
475
212
475
475
475
475
475
Machine Design II
T1
[]p
5YZ1m3
(10.2)
=20
a=0.8m*
b=m
0.335 12
0.348 27
0.359 85
0.370 13
0.379 31
0.387 57
0.395 02
0.401 79
0.407 97
0.413 63
0.418 83
0.428 06
0.436 01
0.442 94
0.449 20
0.459 20
0.467 40
0.478 46
0.484 58
0.493 91
0.503 45
0.513 21
=20
a=m
b=1.25m
0.229 60
0.243 17
0.255 30
0.266 22
0.276 10
0.285 08
0.293 27
0.300 78
0.307 69
0.314 06
.0319 97
0.330 56
0.339 79
0.347 90
0.355 10
0.367 31
0.377 27
0.390 93
0.398 60
0.410 47
0.422 83
0.435 74
=25
a=m
b=1.25m
0.276 77
0.292 81
0.307 17
0.320 09
0.331 78
0.342 40
0.352 10
0.360 99
0.369 16
0.376 71
0.383 70
0.396 24
0.407 17
0.416 78
0.425 30
0.439 76
0.451 56
0.467 74
0.476 81
0.490 86
0.505 46
0.520 71
Machine Design II
Hence, for the same face width pinion will be weaker and consideration for the design
is,
T
298.57 x1000
13610
3
3
5YZ1m 5x0.25808 x17m
m3
532 MPa
(10.3)
m = 2.93 mm. Since motor shaft diameter is 30 mm, to get sufficiently large pinion m = 4
mm is taken.
b=10m
Pinion 17 4mm 40 mm
Gear
d
68mm
V =wrv
Material
Hardness
223
215
We will now use Buckingham dynamic load approach for the design.
F t = T 1 /r 1 = 298.57/0.034 = 8781 N
Buckingham dynamic load is given by,
9.84V (Cb + Ft )
Fi
9.84V +0.4696 Cb+ Ft
(10.4)
For V=3.42 m/s permissible error is e= 0.088 mm from Fig.10.1. From Table 10.4, if we
choose I class commercial cut gears, expected error is 0.050 for m=4mm. In order to
keep the dynamic load low precision cut gears are chosen. So, e = 0.0125
Machine Design II
0.050
0.056
0.064
0.072
0.080
0.085
0.090
0.025
0.025
0.030
0.035
0.038
0.041
0.044
0.0125
0.0125
0.0150
0.0170
0.0190
0.0205
0.0220
5720 e
7850 e
11440 e
5930 e
8150 e
11860 e
20o Stub
tooth
6150 e
8450 e
12300 e
From Table 10.5, if material for both gear and pinion are steel, then,
Machine Design II
9.84x3.42(148.25x40 +8781)
Fi
5464N
9.84x3.42+0.4696 148.25x40+8781
(10.5)
Cp
(10.6)
From Table 10.6 for steel vs steel, pinion and gear C p = 191 MPa0.5 and substituting i
=3, =200 we
I
sin cos i
sin 20o cos 20o 3
0.1205
2
i 1
2
3 1
Gear Material
Steel
Cast iron
Al Bronze
Tin Bronze
191
166
162
158
166
149
149
145
162
149
145
141
158
145
141
137
Machine Design II
sf (MPa)
Steel
2.8 (Bhn)-69MPa
Nodular iron
0.95(2.8(Bhn)-69MPa)
379
482
551
207
448
Machine Design II
Reliability (%)
KR
50
1.25
99
1.00
99.9
0.80
2
[ ]
455
Fts = bd1 I H = 40x68x0.1205
=1860 N
Cp
191
Since F ts (1860) << F d (14245), the design is not safe. Revision is necessary.
As the SAE1050 can attain a hardness of 800 VPN(~750 Bhn) after oil quenching,
increase the hardness to 475 Bhn and increase the b to 13m
= 13 x 4 = 52 mm.
Machine Design II
2
[ ]
1032
Fts = bd1 I H = 52x68x0.1205
=12439 N
C
191
Since F ts (12439)< F d (14245), still it is not safe. Hence increase the module to 5mm.
Table 10.9 Properties of pinion and gear
Wheel
b=13m
V =wrv
85mm
4.27 m/s
C 50
475
C 45
450
Pinion 17 5mm 65 mm
Gear
Material Hardness
Machine Design II
Solution:
i = n 1 / n 2 = 960 / 320 = 3
In order to keep the size of gears small and avoid interference, Z 1 = 17 is chosen.
Z 2 = i Z 1 = 3 x 17 = 51
1 =
T1
2n1 2x960
100.48rad / s
=
60
60
1000W 1000x30
298.57 Nm
1
100.48
Ft
K K K
bmJ v o m
d1 = m Z1
2T1
K K K [ ]
b Z1 m 2 J v o m
Face width, b= 10 to 13 m.
Machine Design II
Table 10.10 AGMA geometry factor J for teeth having = 20o, a=1m, b=1.25m and
r f =0.300m
Number
of teeth
17
25
35
50
85
300
1000
18
19
20
21
22
24
26
28
30
34
38
45
50
60
75
100
150
300
Rack
78
0.5
1.15
is assumed.
Machine Design II
K o = 1.25 is taken assuming uniform power source and moderate shock load from the
table 7
K m = 1.3 assuming accurate mounting and precision cut gears for face width of about
50mm.
Table 10.11 -Overload factor K o
Driven Machinery
Source of power Uniform Moderate Shock Heavy Shock
Uniform
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25
0 - 50
150
225
400 up
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.2
Over
Over
Over
Over
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2T1
298570 x1.15 x1.25 x1.3
Kv Ko Km
2
10m x17xm 2 x 0.34404
b Z1 m J
9539
m3
Machine Design II
e = e kL kv ks kr kT kf km
The pinion is of steel C50 OQT with 223Bhn hardness and tensile strength of 660MPa
and the gear is of C45 OQT with hardness 210Bhn and tensile strength of 465MPa.
For pinion e = 0.5 ut = 0.5 x 660 = 330MPa
k L = 1 for bending, k V = 1 assumed expecting m to be <5mm; k S = 0.73 from the
Fig.10.4 for ut = 660MPa, k r = 0.897 for 90% reliability
0.50
0.90
0.95
0.99
0.999
0.9999
Factor Kr
1.000
0.897
0.868
0.814
0.753
0.702
= e kL kv ks kr kT kf km
= 330x1x1x0.73x0.897x1x1x1.33 = 287.4MPa
Machine Design II
9539
[ ] 191.6
m3
b=10m
V =wrv
68mm
3.42 m/s
C 50
223
C 45
205
Pinion 17 4mm 40 mm
Gear
Material Hardness
Ft = T1 / r1 = 29857/34 = 8781N
The tooth has to be checked from surface durability considerations now.
The contact stress equation of AGMA is given below:
H Cp
Ft
KV Ko Km
bd1 I
Machine Design II
sin cos i
sin 20o cos 20o 3
I
0.1205
2
i 1
2
3 1
78 (200V) 0.5
Kv
78
0.5
78 (200x3.42) 0.5
78
0.5
1.15
Ft
8781x1.15x1.25x1.3
K V K o K m 191
bd1 I
40x68x0.1205
H = 1209MPa
Machine Design II
Since H (1209) >> [H] (455), the design is not safe and surface fatigue failure will
occur.
Solution:
Increase the surface hardness of the material to 475Bhn and also increase the b to 13m
= 13 x 4 = 52 mm
From Fig. 3 we get,
Surface fatigue strength of the pinion material as
sf = sf KL KR KT
where sf = 2.8(Bhn) 69MPa = 2.8 x 475-69 = 1261MPa
H Cp
Ft
8781x1.15x1.25x1.3
K V K o K m 191
b d1 I
52x68x0.1205
As H (1185) > [H] (1032) the design is not safe from surface durability considerations.
Hence increase the module to 5mm and take b=10m
H Cp
Ft
7025x1.17x1.25x1.3
K V K o K m 191
bd1 I
50x85x0.1205
Machine Design II
H =975MPa < [H ] (1032MPa). Hence the design is safe from surface durability
consideration. Final specification of the pinion and gear are given in the Table 10.20
and 10.21.
b=10m
Pinion
17
5mm
50 mm
85mm
Gear
51
5mm
50 mm
255mm
Material Steel
Pinion
SAE1050 OQT
475Bhn
Precision cut
Gear
450Bhn
Precision cut
-------------------
Machine Design II
Module 2- GEARS
Lecture 11 HELICAL GEARS
Contents
11.1 Helical gears an introduction
11.2 Helical gears Kinematics
11.3 Helical gears geometry and nomenclature
11.4 Helical gears force analysis
11.5 Helical gears bending stress
11.6 Helical gears contact stress
11.7 Crossed helical gears
11.7.1 Tips for crossed helical gear design
11.1 HELICAL GEARS an introduction
In spur gears Fig.11.1 dealt earlier, the teeth are parallel to the axis whereas in
helical gears Fig.11.2 the teeth are inclined to the axis. Both the gears are transmitting
power between two parallel shafts.
Machine Design II
Helical gear can be thought of as an ordinary spur gear machined from a stack of thin
shim stock, each limitation of which is rotated slightly with respect to its neighbours as in
Fig.11.3. When power is transmitted both shafts are subjected to thrust load on the
shaft.
Machine Design II
Herringbone or double helical gear shown in Fig. 11.4 can be two helical gears
with opposing helix angle stacked together. As a result, two opposing thrust loads
cancel and the shafts are not acted upon by any thrust load.
The advantages of elimination of thrust load in Herringbone gears, is obliterated by
considerably higher machining and mounting costs. This limits their applications to very
heavy power transmission.
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
(11.1)
Normal module mn is
mn = m cos
(11.2)
(11.3)
(11.4)
(11.5)
Machine Design II
(11.6)
In the case of helical gear, the resultant load between mating teeth is always
perpendicular to the tooth surface. Hence bending stresses are computed in the normal
plane, and the strength of the tooth as a cantilever beam depends on its profile in the
normal plane. Fig. 11.10 shows the view of helical gear in normal and transverse plane.
The following figure shows the pitch cylinder and one tooth of a helical gear. The normal
plane intersects the pitch cylinder in an ellipse.
(11.7)
The equivalent number of teeth (also called virtual number of teeth), Zv, is defined as
the number of teeth in a gear of radius Re:
Zv
2R e
d
mn
mn cos2
(11.8)
Machine Design II
Zv
Z
cos3
(11.9)
When we compute the bending strength of helical teeth, values of the Lewis form factor
Y are the same as for spur gears having the same number of teeth as the virtual
number of teeth (Zv) in the Helical gear and a pressure angle equal to n.
Determination of geometry factor J is also based on the virtual number of teeth. These
values are plotted in Fig.11.11 and 11.12.
Fig 11.11 Geometry factor for use with a 75-tooth mating gear, pressure angle
(n) 20o, std. addendum of 1m and shaved teeth
Machine Design II
Fig.11.12 J factor multipliers to be used with mating gears other than 75 teeth
11.4 HELICAL GEARS - FORCE ANALYSIS
Machine Design II
Fr = Fn sin n
(11.10)
Ft = Fn cos n cos
(11.11)
Fa = Fn cos n sin
(11.12)
Fr = Ft tan
(11.13)
Fa = Ft tan
(11.14)
Fn
Ft
cos n cos
(11.15)
Fig.11.14 illustrates the tooth forces acting on spur and helical gears. For spur gears,
the total tooth force consists of components tangential Ft and radial Fr forces. For helical
gears, component Fa is added and normal section NN is needed to show a true view of
total tooth force Fn.
Fig. 11.14 The comparison of force components on spur and helical gears
The vector sum Ft and Fa is labeled Fb; the subscript b being chosen because Fb is the
bending force on the helical tooth (just as Ft is bending force on the spur tooth).
Machine Design II
Ft
1000W
V
(11.16)
(11.17)
Fr = Fb tan n
(11.18)
Fr = Ft tan
(11.19)
(11.20)
Ft
K v K o (0.93Km )
bm J
(11.21)
Introduction of constant 0.93 with the mounting factor reflects slightly lower sensitivity of
helical gears to mounting conditions. The J factor can be determined from Figs.11.15
and 1.16.
Machine Design II
Fig.11.16 J-factor multiplier when the mating gear has tooth other than 75
78 (200V) 0.5
Kv
78
0.5
(11.22)
Machine Design II
Km = Load distribution factor which accounts for non uniform spread of the load across
the face width. It depends on the accuracy of mounting, bearings, shaft deflection and
accuracy of gears. Taken from Table 11.2.
Table 11.1 -Overload factor Ko
Driven Machinery
Source of power Uniform
Moderate Shock
Heavy Shock
Uniform
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25
0 - 50
150
225
400 up
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.7
2.0
Over 2.0
Over 2.0
Over 2.0
Over 2.0
(11.23)
Machine Design II
0.50
0.90
0.95
0.99
0.999
0.9999
Factor kr
1.000
0.897
0.868
0.814
0.753
0.702
kf = fatigue stress concentration factor. Since this factor is included in J factor, its value
is taken as 1.
Machine Design II
e
s
(11.24)
[]
(11.25)
Machine Design II
H Cp
Ft cos
K v K o (0.93K m )
bdI 0.95CR
(11.26)
Cp 0.564
1
1 1 22
E1
E2
2
1
(11.27)
Where E and are the youngs modulus and Poissons ratio. Suffix 1 is for pinion and 2
is for gear. The values are given in Table 11.4
Table 11.4 Elastic coefficient Cp for spur gears and helical gears, in MPa
sin cos i
2
i1
(11.28)
Where the speed ratio i =n1 /n2 = d2 /d1 and is the transverse contact angle.
Kv , Ko and Km as taken for bending stress calculation.
The contact ratio is given by:
Machine Design II
mcos
Where r is the pitch circle radius, rb is the base circle radius, suffix 1 for pinion and 2 for
gear. a is the addendum, is the transverse pressure angle.
(11.30)
Where
sf = surface fatigue strength of the material given in Table 11.5
KL = Life factor given in Fig.11.20
Table 11.5 Surface fatigue strength sf (MPa) for metallic spur gears
(107 cycles life with 99% reliability and temperature <120oC)
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
50
99
99.9
KR
1.25
1.00
0.80
KT = temperature factor,
= 1 for T 120oC , based on Lubricant temperature.
Above 120oC, it is less than 1 to be taken from AGMA standards.
(11.31)
H [ H ]
(11.32)
(11.33)
Where is the shaft angle. + sign is used when the gears have the same hand, and sign when they are opposite hand.
c. Opposite hand crossed helical gears are used when the shaft angle is small.
Machine Design II
d. The most common shaft angle is 90 that results in mating gears with complementary
helix angles of the same hand.
e. The action of the crossed helical gears differs fundamentally from that of parallel
helical gears in that the mating teeth slide across each other as they rotate.
f. The sliding velocity increases with increasing shaft angle.
g. For a given shaft angle, the sliding velocity is least when the two helix angles are the
same.
h. Mating crossed helical gears must have the same pn and n but not necessarily the
same transverse p and .
i. The pitch diameter d is:
dmZ
mn Z
cos
(11.34)
j. Furthermore, the velocity ratio is not necessarily the ratio of pitch diameters; it must be
calculated as the ratio of the numbers of teeth.
Fig. 11.22 View of the pitch cylinder of a pair of crossed helical gear
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 12 HELICAL GEARS-PROBLEMS
Contents
12.1 Helical gears Problem 1 Force analysis
12.2 Helical gears Problem 2 Stress analysis
12.3 Helical gears Problem 3 Reworking of gear dimensions of crossed helical gears
12.4 Helical gears Problem 4 Design of double helical gears
12.1 HELICAL GEARS PROBLEM 1
A 75 kW induction motor runs at 740 rpm in clock wise direction as shown in Fig.12.1. A
19 tooth helical pinion with 20o normal pressure angle, 10 mm normal module and a
helix angle of 23o is keyed to the motor shaft. Draw a 3-dimensional sketch of the motor
shaft and the pinion. Show the forces acting on the pinion and the bearing at A and B.
The thrust should be taken out at A.
Machine Design II
tan1 (
tan1 (
tan n
)
cos
tan 20o
) 21.57o
o
cos 23
Machine Design II
Fig. 12.2 Reaction the shaft bearings due to forces at the pinion pitch point
R B y = 4146.7 N
FY = 0, from which R a y = 440.7 N
Taking moment about y axis,
R B z (750) - F t (950) = 0
i.e, 750 R B z - 9375x 950 = 0
R B z = 11875 N
Fig.12.3 Reaction on shaft bearings due to forces at the pinion pitch point from
calculation
----------------
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Solution:
tan n = tan . Cos
1. Transverse pressure angle = tan-1(tan n / Cos ) = tan-1(tan20o/cos 30o) = 22.8o
2. Transverse module: m = m n /cos
i.e., m = 4 / cos30o = 4.62 mm
3. Pinion pitch dia.:d 1 = Z 1 m = 18 x 4.62 = 83.2 mm
4. Gear, no. of teeth: Z 2 = Z 1 (n 1 /n 2 ) = 18(1440/360) = 72
5. Gear dia.: d 2 = Z 2 m = 72 x4.62 = 335.7mm
6. p = m = x4.62 = 14.51 mm
7. p a = p / tan = 14.51 / tan30o = 25.13 mm
8. b = 1.2p a = 1.2 x 25.13 = 30.16 mm
9. V = d 1 n 1 /60000= x83.2x1440 /60000 = 6.27 m/s
10. d b1 = d 1 cos = 83.2cos22.8o = 76.7 mm
d b2 = d 2 cos = 335.7cos22.8o =309.5 mm
11. Addendum: h a or a=1m n = 4.0 mm
12. Dedendum: h f = 1.25 m n = 1.25 x 4.0 = 5.00 mm
13. F t = 1000 W / V = 1000 x 20/6.27 = 3190 N
14. F r = F t tan = 3190x tan 22.8o = 1341 N
15. F a = F t tan = 3190x tan 30o = 1842 N
Machine Design II
Fig. 12.5 View of the forces acting on pitch cylinder of the helical drive pinion
Bending stress on the pinion:
b1
Ft
K v K o (0.93Km )
b mn J
J= 0.45 for Z V1 =Z 1 / cos3 = 18 / cos3 30o = 27.7 or 28 and = 30o from Fig.12.6
J-multiplication factor from Fig.12.7 = 1.013 from Fig.12.7
Z v2 = Z 2 / cos3 = 72/ cos3 30o = 110.9 or 111 teeth mating gear.
J = 0.45 x 1.013 = 0.4559
HELICAL GEAR - TOOTH BENDING STRESS
Fig.12.6 Geometry factor J for helical gear with n = 20o and mating with 75 tooth
gear
Machine Design II
Fig.12.7 J- factor multiplier when the mating gear has tooth other than 75
78 (200V) 0.5
Kv
78
0.5
78
0.5
1.21
K o = 1.25 assuming uniform source of power and moderate shock from driven
machinery, Table 12.1
K m = 1.5 for b=30.16 mm & less rigid mountings, less accurate gears, contact across full
face, Table 12.2
HELICAL GEAR TOOTH BENDING STRESS (AGMA)
Table 12.1 -Overload factor K o
Driven Machinery
Source of power Uniform Moderate Shock Heavy Shock
Uniform
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25
Machine Design II
0 - 50
150
b1
1.3
1.4
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.7
2.0
Ft
K K (0.93 K )
m
b mn J v o
3190
122.2 MPa
For the gear J = 0.525, for Z V2 = 111 & =30o from Fig. 12.6
3190
x1.21x 1.25 (0.93 x 1.5)
30.2 x 4.0 x 0.5066
110 MPa
400 up
1.2
225
Over 2.0
Over 2.0
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
As per Niemen Table 12.4, the minimum factor of safety for infinite life in bending
fatigue is 1.8. Since both the case the factor of safety exceeds this value, the gears will
have infinite life.
Ans: The gear is weaker among the two in bending fatigue as its factor of safety is
lower.
H Cp
Ft cos
K v K o (0.93Km )
bdI 0.95CR
Cp = 166 (MPa) 0.5 for steel pinion vs cast iron gear from Table 12.5.
sin cos i
sin22.8o cos22.8o 4
I
0.143
2
i1
2
41
Machine Design II
CR t
mcos
x
4.62
cos22.8
CR
t
x4.62cos22.8o
1.365
Ft cos
C
K K (0.93Km )
H
p b d I 0.95 CR v o
166
cos 30o
3190
587MPa
MPa
Machine Design II
K R = 1.0
K T = 1.0
Table 12.6 Surface fatigue strength sf (MPa) for metallic spur gears
(107 cycle life, 99% reliability and temperature <120oC)
Machine Design II
KR
1.25
1.00
0.80
Machine Design II
K L = 0.9
K H = 1.005
K R = 1.0
K T = 1.0
H [ H ]
Sf1
Sf2
In both case the factor of safety is more than 1.3 against pitting (Table 12.4) and the
design is adequate. Among these, gear is slightly weaker than pinion and is likely to fail
first.
The factor of safety in surface fatigue is proportional to square root of load and that in
bending fatigue is directly proportional to load. Hence, the equivalent bending factor of
safety for corresponding surface fatigue (s H2 )2 =1.352 = 1.81 is compared with (S b2 ) and
is <2.49. So the gears are likely to fail due to surface fatigue and not due to bending
fatigue.
-----------------
Machine Design II
gears are Z 1 = Z 2 = 50. The above identical gears are to be so changed that the driven
gear has a pitch diameter of around 200 mm in the new arrangement.
Data: = 1 + 2 = 90o;
= 2 = 45o; m n = 4 mm;
d1
mn z1
m z
m z
n 1 and d2 n 2
cos 1 sin 2
cos 2
2
2 1
2 sin 2 cos 2
2 sin 2 cos 2
Also Z
d2 cos 2
mn
Therefore C
Or
cot 2
Hence, Z 2
2C
2 x 282.84
1
1 1.828, 2 28.675o
d2
200
d2 cos 2 200 x cos 28.675o
43.86
4
mn
Machine Design II
2C sin 2 cos 2
mn Z sin 2 cos 2
or
C
282.84 sin 2 cos 2
mn Z
4 x 44 2 sin 2 cos 2
Squaring:
2.5826
1 sin 2 2
sin2 2 2
-------------------
Machine Design II
Solution: Since there are no constraints for the drive design, the number of teeth on the
pinion is assumed as Z 1 = 29. Helix angle of 35o and normal pressure angle n = 20o
are taken for the gears and b = 1.2 p a is assumed.
2n1 2 x 2950
308.77 rad / s
60
60
971.6Nm
308.77
The double helical gear is considered as two single helical gears coupled together
sharing the torque equally. Torque on each half is T 1 =971.6/2 =485.8 Nm=485800
Nmm.
The AGMA bending stress equation:
b
Ft
K v K o (0.93Km )
b mn J
J for the pinion with teeth Z v1 = Z 1 / cos3 =29 / cos335o = 82, =35o is: J=0.47 from
Fig. 12.6
J multiplier for mating with Zv2 = Z 2 /cos3 = 105/cos345o =297, is =1.015 from Fig.
12.7
For pinion J = 0.47 x 1.015 = 0.4771
Machine Design II
Fig.12.6 Geometry factor J for helical gear with n = 20o and mating with 75 tooth
gear.
Fig.12.7 J- factor multiplier when the mating gear has tooth other than 75
J factor for the gear with teeth Z v2 = 297 and =35o is J =0.495 from Fig. 12.6
J multiplier for mating with Z v1 = 82 is = 1.003 from Fig. 12.7
For gear J = 0.495 x 1.003 = 0.4965
78 (200V)
Kv
78
0.5
0.5
1.25
K o = 1.25 assuming uniform source of power and moderate shock from driven
machinery, Table 12.1.
Machine Design II
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25
0 - 50
150
1.3
1.4
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.7
2.0
Over
2.0
Over 2.0
Ft
K K (0.93K )
b1 bmn J v o
m
=
27444
16542
x1.25x1.25x(0.93x1.3)
3
3
6.569mn x 0.4771
mn
400 up
1.2
225
Over 2.0
Over 2.0
Machine Design II
b2
Ft
K K (0.93K )
m
b mn J v o
27444
x1.25x1.25x(0.93x1.3)
3 x 0.4965
6.569mn
15895
3
mn
The pinion material is made from C45 steel with hardness 380 Bhn and tensile strength
ut = 1240 MPa. The gear is made from ductile iron grade 120/90/02 of hardness 331
Bhn and tensile strength ut = 974 MPa. Both gears are hobbed, HT and OQ&T and
ground.
Corrected bending fatigue strength of the pinion:
e = e kL kv ks kr kT kf km
e = 0.5 ut =.0.5x1240 =620 MPa
k L = 1.0 for bending
k V = 1.0 for bending for m 5 module,
k s = 0.645 for ut = 1240 MPa from Fig.12.8
k r = 0.897 for 90% reliability from the Table 12.3
k T = 1.0 with Temp. < 120oC, k f = 1.0
k m = 1.33 for ut = 1240 MPa from the Fig.12.9
e = 620x1x1x0.645x1x1x0.897x1.33 = 477 MPa
Corrected bending fatigue strength of the gear:
e = e kL kv ks kr kT kf km
e = 0.35 ut =.0.35x974 =340.9 MPa
k L = 1.0 for bending
k V = 1.0 for bending for m 5 module,
k s = 0.673 for ut = 974 MPa from Fig.12.8
k r = 0.897 for 90% reliability from the Table 12.3
Machine Design II
b2
16542
[] 298
2
3
mn
m n = 3.81 mm
For the gear,
b2
m n = 4.53 mm
15895
[] 171
2
3
mn
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1.0
1.25
1.5
1.75
2.0
2.25
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
33
36
39
42
45
50
Machine Design II
tan n
tan 20o
) tan1 (
) 23.96o
cos
cos 35o
C p = 166 (MPa)0.5 for steel pinion vs cast iron gear from Table 12.5.
I
sin cos i
2
i1
sin 23.96o cos 23.96o
2
3.621
0.1454
3.621 1
Machine Design II
CR
t
mcos
(93.512 80.882
CR
t
o
x6.104
cos
23.96
2
2
(325.46 292.85
x6.104 cos 23.96o
408.97 sin23.96o
78 (200V)
Kv
0.5
78
0.5
1.3044
78 (200x 27.33)
0.5
78
0.5
1.396
(25)
cos 35o
5489
519.8 MPa
MPa
Machine Design II
K L = 0.9
K H = 1.005
K R = 1.0
K T = 1.0
Machine Design II
KR
50
1.25
99
1.00
99.9
0.80
Machine Design II
K T = temperature factor,
= 1 for T 120oC based on Lubricant temperature.
Above 120oC, it is less than 1 to be taken from AGMA standards.
HELICAL GEAR ALLOWABLE SURFACE FATIGUE STRESS (AGMA)
Allowable surface fatigue stress for design is given by
[ H ] = Sf / s H
Design equation is:
H [ H ]
K H = 1.005
K R = 1.0
K T = 1.0
from Fig.12.11
Sf
Sf
Machine Design II
As per the Niemen guidance for factor of safety given in Table 12.4, for long life gearing
the factor of safety has to be more than 1.3 in pitting. Since for both gear and pinion the
factor of safeties is more than 1.3, the design is adequate.
The final specifications of the pinion and gear are:
20o pressure angle involute teeth with helix angle of 35o, h a = 1m n , h f = 1.25m n
Z
mn
mm
d
mm
da
mm
db
mm
Pinion
29
Gear
105
b mm
p t mm
p a mm
35
19.165
27.37
20o 23.96o
35
19.165
27.37
Gear
CR t
CR a
CR
FS s b FS s H
1.99
1.73
Gear
1.89
1.53
dr
mm
mt
mm
Machine Design II
(a)
(b)
Fig. 12.12 Dimensional sketch of the pinion and the gear.
(All dimensions are in mm and not to scale.)
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
The size of the probe should be chosen such that there are no
blockage effects.
The
measurements also are prone to errors due to errors ion alignment of the
probe with respect to the flow direction. For example, a Pitot tube should be
aligned with its axis facing the flow. If the flow direction is not known, it is
difficult to achieve this with any great precision. One way of circumventing
such a problem is to design a probe that is not very sensitive to its orientation.
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
The
Flow
Stagnation point
The basic arrangement for measuring fluid velocity using a Pitot tube is shown
in Figure 98. The Pitot tube consists of bent tube of small diameter (small
compared to the diameter or size of the duct) with a rounded nose. The flow
is axi-symmetric and in the vicinity of the nose is like the flow depicted in
Figure 97. The Pitot tube is connected to one limb of a U tube manometer.
The other limb of the manometer is connected to a tap made on the tube wall
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
as indicated. The tube tap and the nose of the Pitot tube are roughly in the
same plane. It is assumed that the wall tap senses the static pressure p of
the fluid while the Pitot tube senses the stagnation pressure po of the fluid.
From Bernoulli principle we have (for low speed flow, fluid velocity much less
than sonic velocity in the fluid)
1
( po p ) = V 2
(101)
In Equation 101 is the density (constant in the case of low speed flow) of the
fluid whose velocity is being measured. We see that in case of gas flow the
temperature also needs to be measured since the density is a function of
static pressure and temperature. With m as the density of the manometer
liquid the pressure difference is given by
po p = ( m ) gh
(102)
V= 2
( m ) gh
(103)
Incompressible flow assumption is also valid for gases if the flow velocity (V) is
much smaller than the speed of sound (a).
Manometric
liquid
h
Static tap
V
Pitot tube
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
(a)
(b)
Figure 99 Measurement of speed of an aircraft using a Pitot tube
Visit http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/instruments/q0251.shtml
Many a time a Pitot static tube is made use of. Pitot static tube senses both
the stagnation pressure and the static pressure in a single probe.
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
Static Holes
4 to 8, 1mm
Diameter holes
Radius of
curvature =3D
V
8D
>4D
Typically 8D
Figure 100 Pitot static tube (or Prandtl tube) showing typical proportions
The static pressure holes are positioned more than 4D from the stagnation
point. A suitable monometer may be connected between the inner and outer
tubes to measure the fluid velocity. The probe is inserted through a hole in
the side of the duct or wind tunnel, as the case may be.
Example 34
~ A Pitot static tube is used to measure the velocity of an aircraft. If
the air temperature and pressure are 5C and 90 kPa respectively,
what is the aircraft velocity in km/h if the differential pressure is 250
mm water column?
~ We take density of water (manometric liquid) as 999.8 kg/m3.
~ We calculate first the density of air at
p
90000
=
= 1.128 kg / m3
Rg T 287 278
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
2p
2 2446.75
= 65.87 m / s
1.128
1000 m
1
=
m/s
3600 s 3.6
or 1 m / s = 3.6 km / h
1 km / h =
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
po 1 2 1
= 1+
M
2
p
(104)
1 2 1
po p = p 1 +
M 1 = ( m ) gh
2
(105)
2 ( m ) gh
M=
1 +
1
1
p
(106)
In fact we solve for the Mach number first and then obtain the flow velocity.
We shall look at Example 34 again using Equation 105, a little later.
p 1 2 1
M . This may be rearranged
From Equation 104, we have o = 1 +
p
2
2 po
. Let us write p = p p . Then po = p + p = 1 + p .
1
as M =
1 p
p
p
p
p
= 1 +
1+
1 p
.
p
Correspondingly we have M 2
2 1 p 2p V
1+
1 =
=
1
p
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
With a 2 =
V=
p
we then have
2p p
2 p
=
p
(107)
P re ssu re ra tio
Incompressible
Compressible
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Mach number
% Ch a n g e in
p re s s u re ra tio
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Mach Number
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
Example 35
~ Rework Example 34 accounting for density variations of air.
p
90000
=
= 1.128 kg / m3
Rg T 287 278
2 p
=
+
M=
1
1
p
1
(1.41)
2
2446.75 1.4
= 0.196
1 +
1.4
1
90000
(
)
~ With the speed of sound of 334.2 m/s (from Example 30), the
aircraft speed is given by
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
Example 36
~ A Pitot static tube is used to measure the velocity of water flowing in
a pipe. Water of density 1000 kg/m3 is known to have a velocity of
2.5 m/s at the position where the Pitot static tube has been
introduced. The static pressure is measured independently at the
tube wall and is 2 bars. What is the head developed by the Pitot
static tube if the manometric fluid is mercury with density equal to
13600 kg/m3?
~ From the given data, we have
pd =
1
1
V 2 = 1000 2.52 = 3125 Pa
2
2
~ This is also the pressure sensed by the Pitot static probe. Hence
this must equal ( m ) gh . Thus the head developed is
h=
pd
3125
=
m = 0.02531 m = 25.31 mm Hg
13600
1000 ) 9.8
( m )g (
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
Impact
probe
Stagnation
Point, p02
Locally flow is
normal to the shock
1 2 1
1+
M 1
po 2 2 M 12 1 1
2
=
+
1
2 M 2 1
p1 + 1 + 1
1
2
(108)
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
Equation 108 relates the ratio of stagnation pressure measured by the impact
probe to the static pressure of the flow upstream of the shock to the Mach
number of the flow upstream of the shock the quantity we are out to
measure, in the first place. A plot of expression 108 is shown in Figure 104
and helps in directly reading off M1 from the measured pressure ratio.
Wedge probe
A second type of probe that may be used for measurement of supersonic flow
P r e s s u r e r a tio , p 1 / p 0 2
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1
3
4
Mach Number, M1
Figure 104 Pressure ratio Mach number relation for supersonic flow
Oblique shock
p1
p2
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
wedge surface downstream of the oblique shock. The static pressure p2 may
be sensed by using a static pressure tap on the surface of the wedge some
distance away from the apex.
p2
2
-1
=
M 12 sin 2 p1 + 1
+1
(109)
The shock angle itself is a function of M1 and . Tables relating these are
available in books on Gas Dynamics. One may also use the web resource at
http://www.aero.lr.tudelft.nl/~bert/shocks.html to calculate these.
Example 37
~ A wedge probe has a wedge angle of = 8 and placed in a wind
tunnel where the flow is known be at M 1 = 1.5 . Calculate the static
pressure ratio that is expected from the probe.
~ We use the web resource and input M 1 = 1.5 and turn angle (weak
shock) as = 8 . The oblique shock calculator yields the following:
(The entries have been edited to show only three digits after the decimal point and angle
with two digits after the decimal point)
1.4
Angles in degrees.
INPUT: M1 =
1.5
M2=
1.208
p2/p1=
1.489
2/1=
p02/p01=
0.994
M1n=
52.57
1.326
T2/T1=
1.122
1.191
M2n=
0.848
p2 2 1.4
2 1.4 -1
=
= 1.489
(1.5 sin 52.57 ) p1 1.4 + 1
1.4 + 1
~ This will correspond to the pressure ratio indicated by the probe.
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
The probe diameter used was 0.4435 inch or 11.05 cm. Three different probe
tips were used, the one shown in the figure being for the measurement of
static pressure. Eight static pressure ports are positioned 10 D from the cone
shoulder. This design gives accurate flow field static pressure according to
the author.
Orientation effects:
The sensitivity to orientation is also a concern while using probes in subsonic
as well as supersonic flows. It is also possible that the flow direction may be
determined, when it not known, by using this sensitivity. A multiple hole probe
(multi-hole probe, for short) is used for this purpose. Examples of miniature
multi-hole probes for subsonic flow applications are shown in Figure 107 (size
is inferred by the built in scale).
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
(a)
(b)
Figure 107 Miniature (a) three hole and (b) five hole probes for subsonic
flow
Visit: http://www.ltt.ntua.gr/probes.html
These pictures have been sourced from the Laboratory of Turbo-machines,
National University of Athens
We shall explain the basic principle involved in multi-hole probes. Take, for
example, a three hole probe oriented such that the plane passing through the
three holes also contains the plane in which the two dimensional flow is taking
place. The state of affairs, in general, is as shown in Figure 108.
Flow, V
p1
p1
po
p2
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
The argument may be extended to a five hole probe. There are two pressure
differences, ( p1 p4 ) and ( p2 p3 ) that may be monitored. These differences
will be functions of two angles, pitch angle (as in the case of the three hole
probe) and the roll angle as shown in Figure 109.
Calibration of three and five hole probes is done by changing the roll and pitch
angles systematically in a wind tunnel where the direction of flow is known,
collecting the pressure difference data and evolving a relationship between
these and the two angles.
Cp =
(110)
2
V 2
2
It is seen that the pressure coefficient Cp is non-dimensional and the dynamic
pressure is used as the reference. Each and every multi-hole probe needs to
be calibrated because of small variations that are always there between
different probes during the manufacturing process. More details about multihole probes and their calibration may be obtained from specialized literature.
p2
p1
po
p3
p4
Figure 109 Schematic of a five hole probe showing the roll angle
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
Flow
Tungsten wire
Copper coating
5 mm
Let the
resistance of the tungsten wire be Rw. We assume that the wire resistance is
a linear function of temperature and is given by
Rw = R 1 + b (Tw T )
(111)
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
I 2 Rw and
must
equal
the
heat
loss
from
the
wire
surface
given
I 2 Rw = DLh (Tw T )
(112)
In the above expression D is the diameter of the wire, L is the effective length
of the wire and h is the heat transfer coefficient. The heat transfer coefficient
h (we assume that the hot wire element is like a cylinder in cross flow) follows
the so called Kings law which state that
DLh = A + BV n
(113)
Tw T =
Rw R
bR
(114)
( Rw R ) which
bR
I 2 Rw R b
( Rw R )
(115)
Equation 115 is the basic hot wire anemometer equation. There are two ways
of using the hot wire probe.
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
E2
. Here E is the voltage
Rw
across the hot wire that is measured by the voltmeter as shown in Figure 111.
Balance detecting
Galvanometer
R3
R4
R1
R2
Hot wire
sensor
Battery
RS
Figure 111 Hot wire bridge circuit for constant temperature operation
E2
R b
Rw ( Rw R )
(116)
We note that, under CT operation, except E all other quantities on the right
hand side are constant. We may absorb these in to the constants A and B to
write the above equation in the form
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
E 2 = A + BV n
(117)
Let Eo be the output of the sensor when V = 0. The constant A is then nothing
but Eo2. Hence we have
E
B
E E = BV or 1 = 2 V n
Eo
Eo
2
2
o
(118)
Eo
(119)
aspects.
Useful heat transfer correlation
The correlation due to Churchill and Bernstein is useful as long as the Peclet
number (product of Reynolds and Prandtl numbers) is greater than 0.2. We
shall assume a constant Prandtl number for air as 0.7. The above condition
means that the Reynolds number should be greater than about 0.3 for the
correlation to hold. We note that the wire diameter in a hot wire sensor is
such that this condition is quite a limitation in the use of the correlation. The
correlation itself is given by
1
Nu = 0.3 +
0.62 Pr 3
1 + 0.4
Pr
2
3
4
3
Re
(120)
Nu = 0.3 + 0.362 Re
(121)
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
Example 38
~ A hot wire operates at a temperature of 200C while the air
temperature is 20C. The velocity of air may vary between 0 and 10
m/s. The hot wire element is a platinum wire of 4
mm length. What is the sensor output when the air velocity is 4 m/s?
~ Diameter and length of the hot wire element are:
varies
linearly
according
to
the
Rw = R20 1 + b ( t 20 ) =
20 L
1 + b ( t 20 )
2
4
4 10
t + t 200 + 20
=
= 110C . The required properties
2
2
Re =
VD
4 4 106
= 0.663
24.15 106
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
h=
Nu km 0.595 0.032
=
= 4758 W / m 2 C
4 106
D
E2
and hence the output of the sensor is
Rw
We make a plot of sensor output as a function of the air velocity using the
range from 0 to 10 m/s for it.
O u tp u t, V o lts
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0
10
Velocity, m/s
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
10
0.1
0.1
10
2
(E/Eo) -1
As the sensor
resistance changes the series resistance is adjusted such that the total
resistance and hence the current remains fixed. The potential drop across the
sensor thus changes in response to a change in its resistance. This voltage is
I
Hot wire probe
Series
resistance
Battery
Amplifier
E
Output to
recorder
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
sensor when the velocity of the fluid is zero as Eo. With these, Equation 115
takes the form
A + BV n =
bEE
I ( E E )
(122)
We also have
A=
bEo E
I ( Eo E )
(123)
AEo
. Introduce this in Equation
b
A + Eo
I
122 to get
AEo
E
b
A + Eo
AEEo
b
I
=b
A + BV n =
. The denominator on the
I
I
E A + I Eo AEo
AEo
A + Eo
I
right
hand
side
may
b
b b
as E A + Eo AEo = ( E Eo ) A + Eo + Eo2 .
I
I I
be
rewritten
may be rearranged as
( E Eo ) A +
AEo2b
1
1
b b 2 AEob
Eo + Eo =
+
( E Eo )
n
I
N
I
I
A + BV
I A + BV n
N
N
K2
K1
K3
K4
( E Eo ) K1
K3
A + BV n
K4
= A + BV n K 2
Finally we get
=0
A1
P
n
n
K 2 BV ( K 4 K 2 A )
AV
a1V n
1
=
=
( Eo E ) =
K1 A K 3 ) + K1 BV n A2 + A3V n 1 + a2V n
(
N
= A2 = A2
A3
(124)
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
A
A1
and a2 = 3 .
A2
A2
(E o - E )
0.2
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0
10
15
20
25
Velocity, m/s
Figure 115 Output of a typical micro machined hot wire probe in the CC
mode
Length of wire = 100 m, Resistance at room temperature = 2000
Practical aspects:
Hot wire probes are very delicate and need to be handled very carefully.
Rugged probes are made using a film of Platinum deposited on a substrate
rather than using a wire. Two such designs are shown in Figures 116 and
117 below.
The probe shown in Figure 116 is cylindrical while the probe shown in Figure
117 is in the shape of a wedge. A thin film of Platinum is used as the sensor.
It is usually protected by a layer of alumina or quartz. The substrate provides
ruggedness to the film while the protective coating provides abrasive
resistance.
portions. The leads are gold wires (Figure116) or gold film (Figure 117). In
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
the case of wire type probes it is advisable not to expose the wire to gusts of
fluid. The sensor must be handled gently without subjecting it to excessive
vibration.
A typical hot wire system that is supplied by topac has specifications given
in Table 18.
Sensor substrate
made of glass tube
SS supporting
tubes
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
The time
constant may then be based on the conditions that prevail at the mean speed.
Thermal
Bi =
dimension,
the
Biot
number
is
hD 4758 4 106
=
= 0.00028 . The hot wire element may be treated as
k
69
lumped system of first order. The time constant may now be estimated. The
density and specific heat of Platinum are taken as = 21380 kg / m3 and
c = 134 J / kg C .
V D2
D
L ( DL ) = = 106 m .
=
S 4
4
obtained as
c V 21380 134
6
= =
10 = 0.0006 s
4758
h
S
(125)
1
2
1
= 265 Hz
2 0.0006
(126)
This may not be good enough for measurements of transients that occur in
turbulent flows. Literature reports hot wire probes with time constant as low
as 2 s (F. Jiang, Y. C. Tai, C. H. Ho, and W. J. Li. A Micromachined Polysilicon Hot-Wire
Anemometer. Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, Hilton Head, SC, pp. 264-267,
1994). Hot wire anemometer system AN-1003 supplied by A A Lab Systems
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
Range Flow
0.1 m/s 10.00 m/s
Operating temperature
0 to + 50 C
Probe Diameter
13 mm
Dimensions
140 x 79 x 46 mm
Weight
250 gm
From www.topac.com
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
3) Doppler Velocimeter
As mentioned earlier this is basically a non intrusive method of velocity
measurement. This method of velocity measurement requires the presence
of scattering particles in the flow. Most of the time these are naturally present
or they may be introduced by some means. The Doppler effect is the basis
for the measurement. Doppler effect may be used with waves of different
types electromagnetic waves: visible, IR, micro wave, ultrasound.
We
Scattered wave, f,
Incident wave, f,
(127)
It has been observed that the frequency of the scattered wave is different from
the frequency of the incident wave because of the motion of the scattering
particle. The incident wave travels at the wave speed c while the scattered
wave travels at an enhanced speed due to the component of the particle
velocity that is added to it. The wavelength does not change. The frequency
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
of the wave alone undergoes a change. Hence, we have, for the scattered
wave
f '=
c + V cos
(128)
The difference between the two frequencies is referred to as the Doppler shift.
It is given by
f D = f ' f =
c + V cos
V cos
(129)
The general case where the wave is incident along a direction that makes an
angle i and is scattered along a direction that makes an angle s with the
direction of the particle velocity is shown in Figure 119. Note that the incident
and scattered waves need not be in the same plane even though Figures 118
and 119 have been drawn on this basis.
Incident
Wave
Scattered
Wave
i
Scattering particle
Figure 119 General case of scattering of an
incident wave by a moving particle
The Doppler shift in this case is easily seen to be
fD =
( cos s - cos i )
(130)
It is clear from these expressions that the Doppler shift will occur only if the
particle has non-zero component along the direction of travel of the wave.
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
0.68 106
cosine distribution. Doppler shift of 14.7 MHz occurs respectively for
= 0 (forward scatter) and = (backward scatter). The Doppler shift is
zero when = /2.
through lead wires. In case ac power is fed through the leads the crystal
oscillates and produces ultrasound waves (transmitter mode).
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
Casing
Absorbing
material
Piezoelectric
crystal
Power
leads
Tungsten
loaded resin
wherein the transducers are mounted outside but in contact with the pipe wall.
The latter arrangement is preferred with corrosive fluids and when it is not
desirable to make holes in the pipe.
through the pipe wall and undergoes a change in direction that will have to be
taken into account.
Transmitter
Receiver
Incident wave
Scattered wave
V
Moving particle
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
We assume that the particle or some naturally occurring disturbance like air
bubbles in the flow, which is moving at the same speed as that of the fluid,
scatters the incident wave. Figure 122 shows the schematic of the electronic
circuit that is used for signal conditioning. An oscillator drives the transmitter
at the desired or chosen ultrasonic frequency. Let the transmitted ultrasound
wave be given by ut = uto cos (t ) .
represents the frequency of the source and D is the Doppler shift and
represents the phase shift. With reference to the circuit shown in Figure 105
the us may be taken in electrical units such as Volts or milli-volts. is the
circular frequency that is related to the frequency as f =
. If we multiply
2
(131)
cos( A + B) + cos( A B)
.
2
Using this
s=
1
cos ( 2 + D ) t + + cos [D t + ]
2
(132)
The signal s thus contains a high frequency component at roughly twice the
input frequency (usually the Doppler shift is much smaller than the transmitted
frequency) and a low frequency component at the Doppler shift frequency.
Our interest lies with the latter and hence the former is removed by extracting
the latter by demodulation followed by passing the signal through a low pass
filter. The Doppler shift is in the audio frequency range while the transmitted
frequency is in the 100 kHz range.
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
In summary, the scattered radiation contains the signal at the Doppler shift
frequency riding over a high frequency roughly at double the frequency of the
input wave.
Signal
Oscillator
RF Amplifier
Demodulator
Receiver
Output
Figure 122 Circuit for measuring the Doppler shift and hence the flow
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
a
350
=
= 0.0035 m
f 100 103
The Doppler shift is then given by
V
1
fD = =
= 285.7 Hz
0.0035
The signal thus consists of approximately 286 Hz low frequency
component riding over a wave at 200 kHz. Clearly the Doppler shifted
signal is in the audible range and may in fact be heard as a hum if it is
connected to a speaker via an amplifier.
(PMT) are available that allow work with very small amount of scattered light.
Two possible ways of operating an LDV are a) the fringe based system and b)
reference beam method. We describe these two in what follows.
a) Fringe system:
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
2sin
2
V
. It can be
d
where is the
wavelength of the laser and is the angle between the two beams (see Figure
106). From these two expressions, we get
V=
f
2sin
2
(133)
The aperture helps to discard the main laser beam and collect only the
scattered burst of light to be sensed by the photomultiplier tube (PMT). The
burst signal has to be analyzed by suitable signal conditioning system to get
the burst frequency and hence the velocity of the particle. The particle (may
be smoke particles introduced in to the flow) should have very small size (and
hence the mass) so that it moves with the same velocity as the fluid, without
any slip.
Mirror
Beam Splitter
Aperture
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
Filtered signal
Burst signal
Figure 124 Scattered burst signal
0.68
10. The fringe spacing is d =
=
= 3.9 m . Note that the
2 sin(5)
2sin
2
particle should be much smaller than the fringe spacing so that the
burst signal is not smeared. Consider a scattering particle traveling
with a velocity of 10 m/s. The burst signal has a frequency given
10
V
by f = =
= 2.563 MHz .
d 3.9 106
b) Reference beam system:
Lens
Mirror
Reference beam
Lens
V
Scattered beam
Laser
Beam
Splitter
Aperture
PMT
Mechanical Measurements
PMT. Radiation scattered by the scattered beam within the field of view of the
lens is also communicated to the PMT. The PMT responds to the incident
intensity which consists of a part that varies at the Doppler shift frequency.
This rides over a dc part that is related to the mean intensity of the two
beams. Again suitable electronic circuit is required to extract the Doppler shift
and hence the particle velocity. Table 19 below gives the specifications of a
typical laser Doppler system.
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
Measurement Range
-200
to -50
to
2000mm/sec. 5000mm/sec.
Focal Length
40mm
Depth of focus
5mm
Laser spot size
2.4 x 0.1mm (at focal point)
Velocity
fluctuation 0 to 300Hz
response frequency
Output Signal
Accuracy
less than 1% of full scale
Doppler pulse output
120 to 1000kHz 180
to
2200kHz
Measurement
<100mm/sec : 0.2mm/sec
Certainty
>100mm/sec : 0.2%
Optical shift frequency 200kHz, CMOS level
output
Velocity display
5digit
(mm/sec,
m/min.
selectable)
Light source
Semiconductor laser (680nm)
4) Time of Flight Velocimeter
Time of flight refers to the time it takes an acoustic beam to travel through a
certain length in a moving medium. Since the motion of the medium affects
the time of flight it is possible to use this as a means of measuring the velocity
of the medium. This method does not need the presence of any scattering
particles in the flow as in the case of the Doppler shift method. Consider the
scheme shown in Figure 126.
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
IN
OUT
TR
RE
L
IN
OUT
RE
TR
L
L
.
a V
traverses along path 2-1 (backward path) the speed of wave and the TOF are
respectively given by a f = a + V and T12 =
L
.
a +V
T12 T21 =
L
L
2 LV
= 2
a V a +V a V 2
(134)
And also
T12T21 =
L2
a2 V 2
(135)
Division of Equation 135 by Equation 134 then yields the interesting result
L2
a V
L
T12T21
=
=
2
LV
T12 T21
2V
a2 V 2
2
(136)
We notice that the speed of the wave has dropped off and the velocity is given
by the ratio of path length and time. Thus
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
V=
L
T T
2 12 21
T12 T21
(137)
TR1/RE1
Flow
TR2/RE2
Flow
TR2/RE2
Time
measurement
Pulse
generator
Multiplexer Amplifier
Output
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
In this case the velocity of the fluid has a component in the direction 12 and
hence the equations given earlier are to be modified as under.
Let the diameter of the pipe be D. The path length is then given by L =
D
.
sin
Along the forward path the sound wave travels at a speed of a f = a V cos .
The corresponding time of flight is T12 =
traverses along path 2-1 (backward path) the speed of wave and the TOF are
respectively given by a f = a + V cos and T21 =
sin .
a + V cos
sin
sin = 2 DV cot
T12 T21 = T =
a V cos a + V cos a 2 V 2 cos 2
(138)
2 DV cot
a2
(139)
a 2 T
2D
(140)
(141)
(142)
What is interesting again is that the wave speed has dropped off. In addition
the velocity of the fluid is given by the ratio of the diameter of the pipe to the
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
effective time that measured by the ratio. The velocity measured is the mean
velocity across the path traveled by the ultrasound wave in case the fluid
velocity varies across the pipe.
We see from the above that the transit times are very small and some way of
increasing these are desirable.
shown in Figure 126.
Transmitter
Receiver
Scattered wave
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
TR/RE
Scatterer
Transmitted wave
Back-scattered wave
f
X=0
X=Xs
2Xs
. At the same time if the Doppler shift is measured it is directly
a
related to the velocity of the scatterer, as has been shown earlier. Thus both
the position and velocity may be measured simultaneously. An interesting
variant of this is to gate the measurement such that a reflected pulse received
after a certain time only is sampled. This will correspond to a certain location
of the scatterer. The corresponding Doppler shift will provide the velocity at
the location specified by the gated time.
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
The
reduced to its very definition the ratio of path length to transit time!
TR
Flow
RE
S1 Analyzer
S2
The fluid
Mechanical Measurements
Prof. S.P.Venkateshan
S1
S2(t)S1(t-td)
t
S2
td
td =
t
Machine Design II
Module 2- GEARS
Lecture 14 BEVEL GEARS PROBLEMS
Contents
14.1 Bevel gear analysis
14.2 Bevel gear analysis
14.3 Bevel gear design
14.1 BEVEL GEARS PROBLEM 1
A pair of bevel gears is transmitting 10 kW from a pinion rotating at 600 rpm to gear
mounted on a shaft which intersects the pinion shaft at an angle of 60o. The pinion has
an outside pitch diameter of 200 mm, a pressure angle of 20o and a face width of 40
mm, and the gear shaft is rotating at 200 rpm. Determine ( a ) the pitch angles for the
gears, ( b ) the forces on the gear, and ( c ) the torque produced about the shaft axis
Shaft angle: = 1 + 2 =60o , The semi pitch cone angles are shown in Fig.14.1.
d 1 = 200 mm, = 20o and b = 40mm.
Solution: (a)
n1 600
3
n2 200
Machine Design II
d 2 = i d 1 = 3 x 200 = 600 mm
r 1 = 0.5 d 1 = 0.5x200 = 100 mm
r 2 = 0.5 d 2 = 0.5x600 = 300 mm
tan 2 =
sin
1
+cos
i
2 = 46.1o
sin60o
1
+cos60o
3
=1.0392
1 = - 2 = 60 46.1 = 13.9o
r 2av = r 2 0.5bsin 2 = 300 - 0.5x40x sin46.1 = 285.59 mm
r 1av = r 1 0.5bsin 1 = 100 - 0.5x40x sin13.9 = 95.2 mm
Solution: (b)
V 1 = d 1av n 1 /60000 = x (2x95.2)x600 /60000
= 5.98 m/s
Ft
Fn
1000W 1000x10
1673N
V1av
5.979
Ft
1673
1780N
cos cos20o
Machine Design II
225
d2
d
225
o
2 tan1 2 tan1
71.57
75
d1
Machine Design II
Vav =
d1 n1 x 65.52x960
3.29 m / s
60000
60000
1000W 1000 x 5
=
=1519 N
v
3.29
Fig.14.3 Various forces acting on the bevel gear and the shaft reactions
Machine Design II
F c z = 959.3 N
Machine Design II
F A z = 2769 N
--------------------
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
k f = fatigue stress concentration factor. Since this factor is included in J factor, its value
is taken as 1.
Machine Design II
k m = Factor for miscellaneous effects. For idler gears subjected to two way bending,
= 1. For other gears subjected to one way bending, the value is taken from the Fig.14.7.
Use k m = 1.33 for ut less than 1.4 GPa.
Machine Design II
Table 14.2 Surface fatigue strength sf (MPa) for metallic spur gears
(107 cycle life, 99% reliability and temperature <120oC)
K L = 0.9
K H = 1.005
K R = 1.0
K T = 1.0
Machine Design II
50
99
99.9K R
1.25
1.0
0.80
K H = 1.005
K R = 1.0
K T = 1.0
Machine Design II
2n1 2x750
78.5rad / s
60
60
Torque:
T1
1000W 1000x6
76.43 Nm
1
78.5
F
2T1
b1 t K v K o Km
K v K o Km
bmJ
8m3 Z1J
Assuming b = 8m and putting F t = 2T 1 /d 1 where d 1 = m Z 1
Z v1
Z1
20
21.5
cos 1
cos 21.4o
Z v2
Z2
51
139.2
cos 2 cos 68.5o
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
1.00
1.25
1.75
Light shock
1.25
1.50
2.00
Medium shock
1.50
1.75
2.25
b1 =
2T1
2x(76.43x103 )
K
K
K
=
x1.25x1.75x1.25
v
o
m
8m3 Z1J
8m3 x20x0.37
b1 =
b1 =
7060.4
m3
7060.4
[ b1 ] 218MPa
m3
m = 3.2 mm
Similarly for the gear: J =0.375 for Z v2 = 139.2 mating with Z v1 =21.5 from Fig. 14.10
Machine Design II
b2 =
b2 =
2T2
2x(2.55x76.43x103 )
K
K
K
=
x1.25x1.75x1.25
v
o
m
8m3 Z2 J
8m3 x51x0.375
6966.3
[b2 ] 182.5
m3
Ft
K V Ko Km
b dI
Machine Design II
Fig. 14.12 Geometry factor I for straight bevel gear pressure angle 20o and shaft
angle 90o
I = 0.107 from Fig.14.12. Other factors are same in bending fatigue stress equation.
K v = 1.11 for V = 3.14 m/s from Fig. 14.11, for quality 10 gears
H =Cp
Ft
b dI
K V K o K m =154.38
1911
1.11x1.75x1.25
32x80x0.107
---------------------
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 15 WORM GEARS
Contents
15.1 Worm gears an introduction
15.2 Worm gears - geometry and nomenclature
15.3 Worm gears- tooth force analysis
15.4 Worm gears-bending stress analysis
15.5 Worm gears-permissible bending stress
15.6 Worm gears- contact stress analysis
15.7 Worm gears- permissible contact stress
15.8 Worm gears -Thermal analysis
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Worm gears are used for transmitting power between two non-parallel, non-intersecting
shafts. High gear ratios of 200:1 can be got.
(b)
(a)
Fig.15.1 (a) Single enveloping worm gear, (b) Double enveloping worm gear.
Machine Design II
Fig.15.2 The cut section of a worm gearbox with fins and fan for cooling
Machine Design II
a. The geometry of a worm is similar to that of a power screw. Rotation of the worm
simulates a linearly advancing involute rack, Fig.15.3
b. The geometry of a worm gear is similar to that of a helical gear, except that the
teeth are curved to envelop the worm.
c. Enveloping the gear gives a greater area of contact but requires extremely
precise mounting.
1. As with a spur or helical gear, the pitch diameter of a worm gear is related to its
circular pitch and number of teeth Z by the formula
d2
Z2 p
(15.1)
2. When the angle is 90 between the nonintersecting shafts, the worm lead angle
is equal to the gear helix angle. Angles and have the same hand.
3. The pitch diameter of a worm is not a function of its number of threads, Z 1 .
4. This means that the velocity ratio of a worm gear set is determined by the ratio of
gear teeth to worm threads; it is not equal to the ratio of gear and worm
diameters.
1 Z2
=
2 Z1
(15.2)
5. Worm gears usually have at least 24 teeth, and the number of gear teeth plus
worm threads should be more than 40:
Z 1 + Z 2 > 40
(15.3)
6. A worm of any pitch diameter can be made with any number of threads and any
axial pitch.
7. For maximum power transmitting capacity, the pitch diameter of the worm should
normally be related to the shaft center distance by the following equation
C0.875
C0.875
d1
3.0
1.7
(15.4)
Machine Design II
8. Integral worms cut directly on the shaft can, of course, have a smaller diameter
than that of shell worms, which are made separately.
9. Shell worms are bored to slip over the shaft and are driven by splines, key, or
pin.
10. Strength considerations seldom permit a shell worm to have a pitch diameter less
than
d 1 = 2.4p + 1.1
(15.5)
11. The face width of the gear should not exceed half the worm outside diameter.
b 0.5 d a1
(15.6)
12. Lead angle , Lead L, and worm pitch diameter d 1 have the following relationship in connection with the screw threads.
tan =
L
d1
(15.7)
13. To avoid interference, pressure angles are commonly related to the worm lead
angle as indicated in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1 Maximum worm lead angle and worm gear Lewis form factor for
various pressure angles
Pressure Angle
Maximum Lead
Modified Lewis
Angle (degrees)
form factor Y
14.5
15
0.100
0.314
20
25
0.125
0.393
25
35
0.150
0.473
30
45
0.175
0.550
(Degrees)
Machine Design II
Table 15.2 Frequently used standard values of module and axial pitch of worm or
circular pitch of gear p in mm:
Module m mm
Axial pitch p mm
Module m mm
2.0
2.5
3.15
6.283
7.854
9.896
10
12.5
4.0
5.0
6.3
20
Machine Design II
a) The tangential, axial, and radial force components acting on a worm and gear are
illustrated in the Fig. 15.4
b) For the usual 90 shaft angle, the worm tangential force is equal to the gear axial
force and vice versa.
F 1t = F 2a
(15.8)
F 2t = F 1a
(15.9)
c) The worm and gear radial or separating forces are also equal,
F 1r = F 2r
(15.10)
If the power and speed of either the input or output are known, the tangential force
acting on this member can be found from equation
F1t =
1000 W
V
(15.11)
1. In the Fig. 15.4, the driving member is a clockwise-rotating right hand worm.
2. The force directions shown can readily be visualized by thinking of the worm as a
right hand screw being turned so as to pull the nut (worm gear tooth) towards
the screw head.
3. Force directions for other combinations of worm hand and direction of rotation
can be similarly visualized.
Machine Design II
(a)
(b)
Fig.15.6 (a) and (b) Worm gears thrust force analysis
Machine Design II
The thread angle of a screw thread corresponds to the pressure angle n of the worm.
We can apply the force, efficiency, and self-locking equations of power screw directly to
a worm and gear set. These equations are derived below with reference to the worm
and gear geometry. Figs.15.7 to 15.9 show in detail the forces acting on the gear.
Components of the normal tooth force are shown solid. Components of the friction force
are shown with the dashed lines.
Machine Design II
Fig. 15.9 illustrates the same directions of rotation but with the torque direction reversed
(i.e., gear driving). Then contact shifts to the other side of the gear tooth, and the normal
load reverses.
(15.12)
(15.13)
(15.14)
F
2t = cos n cos - f sin
F
cos n sin + f cos
1t
(15.15)
Combining eqns. (15.12) with (15.14) and (15.13) with (15.14), we have:
Machine Design II
sin n
cos n cos - f sin
= F1t
sin n
cos n sin + f cos
(15.16)
15.4 KINEMATICS
The relationship between worm tangential velocity, gear tangential velocity, and sliding
velocity is,
V2
= tan
V1
(15.17)
15.5 EFFICIENCY
Efficiency is the ratio of work out to work in. For the usual case of the worm serving as
input member,
(15.18)
The overall efficiency of a worm gear is a little lower because of friction losses in the
bearings and shaft seals, and because of churning of the lubricating oil.
Machine Design II
Fig. 15.10 Friction of well lubricated worm gears, A for cast iron worm and gear
and B for case hardened steel worm and phosphor bronze worm gear
The sliding velocity Vs is related to the worm and gear pitch line velocities and to the
worm lead angle by
Vs =
V1
V
= 2
cos sin
(15.19)
F1 t F
cos
s in - f F
cos
(1 5 .2 0 )
Machine Design II
a) Eqn. 15.20 shows that with a sufficiently high coefficient of friction, the gear
tangential force becomes zero, and the gear set self-locks or does not overhaul.
b) With this condition, no amount of worm torque can produce motion.
c) Self-locking occurs, if at all, with the gear driving.
d) This is desirable in many cases and helps in holding the load from reversing,
similar to a self-locking power screw.
The worm gear set self-locks if this force goes to zero, which happens if
f cos n tan
(15.21)
A worm gear set can be always overhauling or never overhauling, depending on the
selected value coefficient of friction (i.e., and to a lesser extent on n ).
Fb Fd
(15. 21)
and
Fw F d
(15.22)
The dynamic load is estimated by multiplying the nominal value of gear tangential
force by velocity factor K v given in the following Fig.15.
Machine Design II
6.1+ V2
(15.23)
6.1
Adapting the Lewis equation to the gear teeth, we have
Fd = F2t K v = F2t
Fb =[ b ] bpy = [ b ] bmY
(15.24)
Where, [ b ] is the permissible bending stress in bending fatigue, in MPa, Table 15.3
[ b ] MPa
23.5
11.3
Zn alloy
7.5
Cast iron
11.8
(15.25)
Machine Design II
K w - A material and geometry factor with values empirically determined from the Table
15.4.
Table 15.4 Worm Gear Wear Factors K w
Material
K w (MPa)
Worm
Gear
<10
<25
>25
Bronze
0.414
0.518
0.621
Hardened steel
Bronze
0.552
0.690
0.828
Chill-cast Bronze
0.828
1.036
1.243
Bronze
1.036
1.277
1.553
(Surface 500
BHN)
Cast iron
(15.26)
Machine Design II
Surface area of A for conventional housing designs may be roughly estimated from the
Eqn 15.27,
A =14.75 C1.7
(15.27)
Machine Design II
Table 15.5 Recommended pressure angles and tooth depths for worm gearing
Lead angle in
degrees
Pressure angle n
in degrees
Addendum h a in
mm
Dedendum h f in
mm
0-15
14.5
0.3683 p
0.3683 p
15-30
20
0.3683 p
0.3683
30-35
25
0.2865 p
0.331 p
35-40
25
0.2546 p
0.2947 p
40-45
30
0.2228 p
0.2578 p
25.2
7.5
71.2
20.0
86.0
2.5
46.8
10.0
76.8
25.0
88.0
5.0
62.6
15.0
82.7
30.0
89.2
22.5o 25o
27.5o 30o
Z 2 minimum
40
17
12
27
21
14
14.5o
20o
25o
30o
16 o
25 o
35 o
45 o
------------------------
10
Machine Design II
Module 2- GEARS
Lecture 16 WORM GEARS WORKED OUT PROBLEMS
Contents
16.1. Worm gears force analysis problem
16.2. Worm gears- design problem
16.3. Gearbox design procedure.
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Solution: (b)
V 1 = V m = (d 1 n 1 /60000) = x 50 x 2950 / 60000 = 7.72 m/s
n 2 = n 1 / i = {n 1 (Z 2 /Z 1 )} = 2950 / (32/2) = 184.38 rpm
V 2 = (d 2 n 2 /60000) = x128x184.38/60000 =1.24m/s
V S = V 1 /cos = 7.72 / cos9.09o = 7.82 m/s
For V S = 7.82 m/s and the given materials f = 0.024 from Fig.16.3.
Since the helix angle of the gear is the same as the lead angle of the worm,
n = tan-1( tan 1 cos ) = tan-1(tan20o cos 9.09o) = 19.77o
F t1 = W / V 1 = 2000/ 7.72 = 259 N
Fig.16.3 Friction of well lubricated worm gears, A for cast iron worm and worm
gear and B for case hardened steel worm and phosphor bronze worm gear.
Fn
Ft
cos n sin f cos
259
1503N
cos19.77 sin9.09o 0.024 cos 9.09o
o
Machine Design II
F r2
F a2 = F t1 = 259 N
F r2 = F r1 = 508 N
F a2
i.e.,
F t2
Machine Design II
F B x = F a2 = 259 N
Fig.16.6 Sketch showing the calculated value of forces acting on worm gear shaft
Machine Design II
80 F C x 259x40 =0
F c x = 129.5 N
F D x = 129.5 N
since Fx = 0
From Fy = 0, F D y = -181 N
Machine Design II
Fig.16.8 Calculated values of forces acting on pinion shaft and bearing reactions.
Solution: (C) Efficiency of the gearbox
The efficiency of the gearbox is given by
cos n - f tan
cos n f cot
0.859
-----------------------
Machine Design II
Maximum
Lead Angle
(degrees)
Lewis form
factor y
Modified
Lewis form
factor Y
14.5
15
0.100
0.314
20
25
0.125
0.393
25
35
0.150
0.473
30
45
0.175
0.550
14.5o
17.5o
20o
22.5o
25o
27.5o
30o
Z 2 minimum
40
27
21
17
14
12
10
Machine Design II
i = n 1 / n 2 = 1500 /75 = 20 = Z 2 / Z 1
1 = 2n 1 /60 = 2x3.14x1500 /60 =157 rad/s
Z 2 = i x Z 1 = 20 x 4 = 80
A centre distance of 250 mm (as per R10 series) is assumed.
C0.875
C0.875
d1
3.0
1.7
d 1 C 0.875 /3 = 2500.875 /3 42 mm and
d 1 C 0.875 /1.7=75 mm.
d 1 = 72 mm is taken.
Since d 1 4p 2 or circular pitch,
p 2 = d 1 /4 = 72 / 4= 18 mm
m = p / = 18/3.14 = 5.73 mm take standard module of 6mm.
Hence, d 2 = m Z 2 = 6 x 80 = 480 mm.
Actual centre distance: C = 0.5 (d 1 + d 2 )
= 0.5(72+480) = 276 mm.
Check for d 1 C 0.875/1.7 80.4 mm, d 1 = 80 mm is taken.
C = 0.5(d 1 + d 2 ) = 0.5(80+480) = 280 mm
Lead = N tw x p a = 4 x 18.84 = 75.36 mm
tan = L / d 1 = 75.36 / 3.14x72 = 0.3333
= 18.43o =
2 = (2n 2 /60) = (2x3.14x75/60) = 7.85 rad/s
V 2 = 2 r 2 = 7.85 x (0.5 x 480) x 10-3 = 1.884 m/s
F t = 1000W/ V = 1000 x 12/ 1.884 = 6370 N
b 0.5 d a1 , b 0.5(d 1 + 2m) 0.5 x (80+2x6) 46
b = 45 mm is assumed.
Y = 0.393 from Table 1 for n = 20o
Machine Design II
Table 16.1 Maximum Worm Lead Angle and Worm Gear Lewis Form Factor for
Various Pressure angles which is reproduced below for convenience of selection.
Maximum
Lewis form Modified
Pressure Angle n
(Degrees)
Lead Angle
factor y
Lewis form
(degrees)
factor Y
14.5
15
0.100
0.314
20
25
0.125
0.393
25
35
0.150
0.473
30
45
0.175
0.550
6.1+ V2
6.1+1.884
6370x
8133N
6.1
6.1
Fd =F2t
Choosing phosphor bronze for the gear and heat treated C45 steel for the ground worm,
[ b ] = 80 MPa from Table 16.3
Beam strength of the worm gear
[ b ] MPa
23.5
80
11.3
Zn Alloy
7.5
Cast iron
11.8
Machine Design II
F b ( 8489) > F d ( 8133) Hence the design is safe from bending fatigue consideration.
Check for the wear strength.
Fw =d2 bK w 480x 45x 0.518 11189 N
K w = 0.518 for steel worm vs bronze worm gear with < 25o from Table 16.4.
F w (11189) > F d (8133), the design is safe from wear strength consideration.
Table 16.4 Worm Gear Wear Factors K w
K w (MPa)
Material
Worm
Gear
<10
<25
>25
Bronze
0.414
0.518
0.621
Hardened steel
Bronze
(Surface 500 BHN)
Chill-cast
Bronze
0.552
0.690
0.828
0.828
1.036
1.243
Cast iron
1.036
1.277
1.553
Bronze
Z2
80
) 18.84x(4.5 ) 115mm
50
50
Vs
V1
6.28
6.62 m / s
cos cos18.43o
From the Fig. 16.9 worm gear friction characteristics, for V s = 6.62 m/s f = 0.025
Machine Design II
Fig. 16.9 Friction of well lubricated worm gears, A for cast iron worm and gear
and B for case hardened steel worm and phosphor bronze worm gear
Fn
Ft2
6370
7145N
o
cosn cos cos20 cos18.43o
cos n - f tan
cos n f cot
A =14.75 C1.7
Where A is in m2 and C (the distance between the shafts) is in m.
Machine Design II
H d = C H A (T o T a ) assuming T a = 35oC
= 32 x 1.694x (T o 35o) = 54.21 (T o 35o)
H g = 984 Nm
T 0 = 53.2o C < 93o C permissible for oil.
Hence the design is OK from thermal considerations.
--------------------------
Machine Design II
(16.1)
Z
5
(16.2)
3. The outside diameter of the hubs in larger gears should be 1.8 times the bore for
steel, 2 times for CI and 1.65 times for the forged steel. The hub length should be at
least 1.25 times the bore and never less than the width of the gear.
4. Design of the shaft is based on fatigue strength and rigidity considerations. (At the
contact region the deflection of the shaft should be less than 0.01 module, the slope of
the shaft at the radial bearing should be less than 0.008 radians and for self-aligning
bearings it should be less than 0.05 radians.
5. Bearings selection is based on 90% reliability for the following life:
8 hrs. operation per day life = 20,000 to 30,000 hrs.
8-16 hrs. operations per day life= 40,000-50,000 hrs.
16-24 hrs. operations per day life = 50,000-60,000 hrs.
6. Selection of lubricant is based on peripheral velocity, load, type of application and
operating temperature etc.
SAE 30, 40, 50, 60, 80, 90 are being recommended.
For low friction and high temperature operation synthetic oils are used.
Machine Design II
Up to a
peripheral speed of 15 m/s oil bath (oil immersion / splash) lubrication is used. Higher
depth of immersion is recommended for slow speed application. The maximum depth
should not exceed 100 mm. At higher speed the depth of immersion is reduced to cut
the churning losses. 0.7 tooth height or a minimum of 1 module is taken. However, the
depth of immersion should not be less than 10 mm. Generally recommended depth of
immersion is 3 to 4 times the module and a maximum of 6 modules. Above a peripheral
velocity of 15 m/s stream (jet) lubrication is used. Oil is delivered by a pump through a
filter and if necessary through a cooler directly to the teeth of gears as they are coming
out of mesh.
8. Quantity of oil required is given below by the thumb rule:
For splash lubrication Q = ( 2.5 - 8 ) L t litres
Q = ( 0.35 - 0.7 ) W litres
or
(16.3)
lpm
(16.4)
where
L t - loss of power at the teeth contact ( kW )
W - is the power transmitted ( kW )
T is the difference in oil temperature at the outlet and inlet in oC .
Q
Oil circulation timet ' Q
e
min.
(16.5)
t = 1 - 2.5 for splash lubrication with no external circulation where lack of space is
there in compact design.
t = 4 - 30 for oil circulation with cooling or reservoir.
9. Gear box housing design is based on thumb rule and thermal consideration.
The wall thickness of the CI housing can be found from the empirical formula:
s = 2 (0.1 T)0.25 6 mm
(16.6)
Machine Design II
(16.7)
s ff 1.5 d f .
(16.10)
The width of the flanges at the base and at the two halves of the housing should be:
w f = (2.1 to 2.5 )d
(16.11)
Table 16.5 Alternate approach for wall thickness s in mm for the gearboxes
Non-case hardened
gears
CI castings
0.007L + 6 mm
0.010 L + 6 mm
Steel castings
0.005L + 4 mm
0.007L + 4 mm
Welded construction
0.004L + 4 mm
0.005L + 4 mm
Machine Design II
In designing reducing gear housing simple geometric shapes are to be preferred with
the outside as plain as possible. In order to reduce the air draft noises, the gap between
the gear and the side wall should be at least 15 mm.
L = L t + L ch + L b
(16.12)
kW
0.1
0.3
Lt W
Z1 cos V 2
(16.13)
kW
or
(16.14)
0.7
14
21
42
0.08
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.025
200V
Lch cb V
Z1 Z 2
0.5
x 10 3 kW (16.15)
Where
V - peripheral speed ( m/s)
Machine Design II
( mm )
( cP )
L b = 5.23 x 10-8 F f b d n
kW (16.16)
where
F - radial load on the bearing ( N )
f b - coefficient of friction at the bearing reduced to the shaft diameter 0.005 - 0.01
d - shaft diameter ( mm )
n - shaft speed ( rpm )
The heat generated by the total power loss will raise the temperature of the oil and the
housing. The housing will dissipate heat H by radiation, convection and by conduction
through the foundation plate or the frame. When equilibrium conditions are set in the
heat generated and the heat dissipated will be the same. This equilibrium temperature
should be less that the maximum operating temperature for the oil otherwise the oil will
be getting oxidized. If the temperature exceeds then additional heat has to be dissipated
by separate cooling arrangement.
H = k t (T o T a ) A (1+U)
kcal/h
(16.17)
where A - free surface of the housing from which heat is removed to cool the drive
(included is the 50% of the surface of the fins) m2.
T o & T a - temperature of the oil and the surrounding air, oC
k t - heat transfer coefficient, equal to 10 to 16 kcal / (m2 .oC .h) , larger values are
used under favourable conditions of air circulation; in new standard reducing gears, k t
=14 kcal/(m2. oC .h)
Machine Design II
U - factor taking into account heat transfer to the foundation plate or frame of the
machine and amounting up to 0.3 when the housing seating surface is large.
Heat generated per hour, H g = 3600000 L / J
Where J is the mechanical equivalent of heat
J = 4270 Nm / kcal
And L is the total power loss in kW
H g = 843 L
Hd Hg
(16.18)
(16.19)
And T o 93o C, otherwise provide heat exchanger for cooling the oil.
-------------------------
Machine Design II
Module 2 - GEARS
Lecture 17 DESIGN OF GEARBOX
Contents
17.1 Commercial gearboxes
17.2 Gearbox design.
17.1 COMMERCIAL GEARBOXES
Various commercial gearbox designs are depicted in Fig. 17.1 to 17.10. These include
single to multistage ranging from spur, helical, bevel to worm gears.
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Fig.17.6 Worm gearbox, without cooling fins, sectional front and side views
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
2n1 2 x 2950
308.77 rad / s
60
60
1000W 1000x300
971.6Nm
308.77
2. Torque:T1
3. The details of the gear design carried out are given in Table 1 and 2.
Machine Design II
mn
mm
d mm
da mm db mm
dr mm
mt mm
Pinion
29
177.01
187.01
161.76
164.51
6.104
Gear
105
640.92
650.92
585.69
628.42
6.104
Pinion
20o
23.96o
Gear
20o
23.96o
mm
pt mm
pa
mm
70
19.165
27.37
70
19.165
27.37
CRt
CRa
CR
FS sb
FS sH
Pinion
1.3044
1.2787
2.583
1.99
1.73
Gear
1.3044
1.2787
2.583
1.89
1.53
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
16
(Kb M)2 (K t T)2
(1 k)[ ]
Machine Design II
k = 0.2 i.e, 20% reduction in strength due to keyway is assumed. From Table 17.3, for
rotating shaft with minor shock loads, Kb = 1.5 and Kt = 1.0.
Taking C45 steel for the shaft, yp = 360 MPa
yp = yp /2 = 360/2 = 180 MPa and taking factor of safety of [] = yp /2 = 180/2 =90 MPa
Table17. 3 Combined shock and fatigue factors for ASME code shaft design
equation
Type of loading
Kb
Kt
1.0
1.0
1.5-2.0
1.5-2.0
1.5
1.0
1.5-2.0
1.0-1.5
2.0-3.0
1.5-3.0
Stationary shaft
Rotating shaft
Gradually applied load
Suddenly applied load
16
(KmM)2 (K t T)2
(1 k)[ ]
16 x 106
d
(1.5x0.58)2 (1x0.9716)2 46mm
(1 0.2)x90
Take d = 50 mm. Check for deflection at the pinion centre.
Deflection at C:
Fl3
48EI
15420 x150
0.017mm
x504
48 X2.1x105 (
)
64
Machine Design II
2
Slope: FL
16EI
15420x1502
0.00034 rad.
x504
5
16x2.1x10 x(
)
64
5. Check for the pinion size. The minimum pitch diameter of the pinion should be
d1min 2 x bore + 0.25 m
where d is the bore diameter and m is the module expressed in mm.
D1min 2bore +0.1m= 2x50 + 0.1x5 = 100.5 mm
Since d1 = 177.01 mm > D1min. The design is satisfactory. Pinion drawing is shown in
Fig.17.16 with full dimensions.
6. The outside diameter of the hubs in larger gears should be 1.8 times the bore for
steel. The hub length should be at least 1.25 times the bore and never less than the
width of the gear.
Gear shaft diameter = d (i)1/3 = 50 (3.62)1/3 = 77 mm.
Gear shaft diameter of 80 mm is taken.
The hub diameter: dH = 1.8 x 80 = 144 mm, 150 mm is taken.
Hub length is taken as L =1.25d =1.25 x80 100 mm
Other dimensions of the gear are given in Fig. 17.17.
In view of the dimensions of the pinion and the gear, the dimensions of the shaft layout
is revised as shown in Fig.17.18 When the calculations are redone, there is no change
in shaft diameters. The same diameters are adopted for further computations.
Machine Design II
Pinion
Gear
50 mm
80 mm
d1
1.8d 90 mm
1.8d 150 mm
70 mm
70 mm
0.3B 22 mm
0.3 B 22 mm
De
187.01 mm
650.92 mm
5 mm
5 mm
Do
De 10m = 137 mm
De 10m = 600 mm
0.5 m = 2.5 mm
0.5 m = 2.5 mm
D1
d2
(Do d1) / 5 = 10 mm
(Do d1) / 5 = 90 mm
1.25 d = 70 mm
1.25d 100 mm
0.25 d = 12.5 mm
0.25d = 20 mm
Keyway
0.125d 6 mm
0.125d 10 mm
depth
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Non-case hardened
gears
CI castings
0.007L + 6 mm
0.010 L + 6 mm
Steel castings
0.005L + 4 mm
0.007L + 4 mm
Welded construction
0.004L + 4 mm
0.005L + 4 mm
Machine Design II
= 2.5 x 20 = 50 mm
The width of the flanges at the two halves of the housing should be:
wf = 2.5d = 2.5 x 16 = 40
With welding bead of 5mm, wf = 45 mm is taken.
Outside dimension of the bearing housing 1.2-1.5 times outside diameter of the bearing.
Bearing housing diameters are: 1.5x100 = 150mm and: 1.3x160 = 210 mm taking 6
Nos. M10 bolts for the bearing covers.
The views of the bottom and top half of the gearbox are shown in Fig. 17.19 and
Fig.17.20.
Machine Design II
0.25
0.4
0.63
1.0
1.6
2.5
V50 min
175
145
120
100
83
69
V50 max
350
290
240
200
166
138
v(m/s)
4.0
6.3
10
16
25
40
63
V50 min
57
47
39
32
27
22
18
V50 max
114
94
78
64
54
44
36
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
L = Lt + Lch + Lb + Ls
Machine Design II
0.1
0.3
Lt W
Z1 cos V 2
kW
0.1
0.3
L t 300
4.33kW
O
27.3 2
29 cos 35
200V
Lch cb V
Z1 Z 2
0.5
x 10 3 kW
Where
V - peripheral speed (m/s)
b - face width of the gear
(mm)
(cP)
200V
Lch cb V
Z1 Z 2
0.5
x10 3 kW
200x27.3x35
Lch 0.006x70x27.3x
29 105
Lb = 5.23 x 10-8 F fb d n
0.5
x10 3 0.433 kW
kW
where
F - radial load on the bearing (N)
fb - coefficient of friction at the bearing reduced to the shaft diameter 0.005 - 0.01 for
rough estimation or refer to catalog.
d - shaft diameter (mm)
n - shaft speed (rpm)
From the catalog fB = 0.002 for roller bearings and 0.003 for ball bearings.
Bearings at A & B
Lb = 5.23 x 10-8 F fb d n
= 5.33x10-8x 15420x0.002 x 45x2950 =0.218 kW
Machine Design II
Bearings at D & E
Lb = 5.23 x 10-8 F fb d n
= 5.33x10-8x 15420x0.003 x75x814.92= 0.151kW
LB = 0.369 kW
Seal frictional power loss:
Ls = Ts x10-3 kW
Where Ts seal friction torque
angular velocity of the shaft.
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Fig.17.24 Pinion shaft drawing material C 45 hardened and tempered to 380 Bhn
Machine Design II
Fig.17.25 Gear shaft drawing material ductile iron 120/90/02 hardened to 331 Bhn
Machine Design II
745x260x1020 mm
330 kg
MS welded
construction
Bhn
ground
Lubricant SAE 30
= 98.2%
Machine Design II
The gearbox is of split type with radial assembly. Gears and bearings are mounted on
the shafts separately outside and assembled radially in the gearbox and the top cover is
bolted in position. The oil jet and the outlet connections are made subsequently. 8 lpm
oil is directed at the gear mesh and 2 lpm is directed at the bearings and seals.
The gearbox assembly views are shown in Fig. 17.28 to 17.30. The front view
separately and end view are shown separately in Fig 17.28 and Fig. 17.29 for clarity.
The assembly view front and side together is shown in Fig.17.30.
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
MODULE III
Brakes, Clutches and Flywheel,
Brakes
A brake is a device by means of which artificial resistance is applied on
to a moving machine member in order to retard or stop the motion of the
member or machine
Types of Brakes
Different types of brakes are used in different applications
Based on the working principle used brakes can be classified as
mechanical brakes, hydraulic brakes, electrical (eddy current) magnetic
and electro-magnetic types.
Mechanical Brakes
Mechanical brakes are invariably based on the frictional resistance principles
In mechanical brakes artificial resistances created using frictional contact
between the moving member and a stationary member, to retard or stop the
motion of the moving member.
Machine Design II
magnitude of the frictional force is equal to the co-efficient of friction times the
normal force dN
dN=p.dA
dA
v
dFf =.dN=.p.dA
Figue 3.1.1
The moment of the frictional force relative to the point of motion contributes to the
retardation of motion and braking. The basic mechanism of braking is illustrated
above.
classified
based on the
geometry.
There are two major classes of brakes, namely drum brakes and disc brakes.
Design and analysis of drum brakes will be considered in detail in following
Machine Design II
sections, the discussion that follow on disc or plate clutches will from the basis
for design of disc type of brakes.
Drum brakes basically consists of a rotating body called drum whose motion is
braked together with a shoe mounted on a lever which can swing freely about a
fixed hinge H. A lining is attached to the shoe and contacts the braked body. The
actuation force P applied to the shoe gives rise to a normal contact pressure
distributed over the contact area between the lining and the braked body. A
corresponding friction force is developed between the stationary shoe and the
rotating body which manifest as retarding torque about the axis of the braked
body.
Brakes Classification
Short Shoe
Lining
Shoe
Stationary member
Rigid
Rotating body
(drum)
Long shoe
Pivoted
Figure 3.1.2
Various geometric configurations of drum brakes are illustrated above.
Drum Brakes are classified based on the shoe geometry. Shoes are classified as
being either short or long. A short shoe is one whose lining dimension in the
direction of motion is so small that contact pressure variation is negligible, i.e. the
pressure is uniform everywhere.
Machine Design II
When the area of contact becomes larger, the contact may no longer be with a
uniform pressure, in which case the shoe is termed as long shoe. The shoes are
either rigid or pivoted, pivoted shoes are also some times known as hinged
shoes. The shoe is termed rigid because the shoes with attached linings are
rigidly connected to the pivoted posts. In a
not rigidly fixed but hinged or pivoted to the posts. The hinged shoe is connected
to the actuating post by the hinge, G, which introduces another degree of
freedom
Preliminary Analysis
The figure shows a brake shoe mounted on a lever, hinged at O, having an
actuating force Fa, applied at the end of the lever. On the application of an
actuating force, a normal force Fn is created when the shoe contacts the rotating
drum. And a frictional force Ff of magnitude f.Fn, f being the coefficient of friction,
develops between the shoe and the drum. Moment of this frictional force about
the drum center constitutes the braking torque.
Machine Design II
F
a
Fa
shoe
drum
Ry
Ff c
Rx
Fn
b
(a) Brake assembly
T
Rx
Ry
Figure 3.1.3
Machine Design II
Fa = Fn(b+-fc)/a
The reaction forces on the hinge pin (pivot) are found from a summation of
forces,
i.e.
Fx = 0, R x = fpa A
F = 0, R = p A F
y
y
a
a
Self- energizing
The principle of self energizing and leading and trailing shoes
With the shown direction of the drum rotation (CCW), the moment of the frictional
force f. Fn c adds to the moment of the actuating force, Fa
As a consequence, the required actuation force needed to create a known
contact pressure p is much smaller than that if this effect is not present. This
phenomenon of frictional force aiding the brake actuation is referred to as selfenergization.
Machine Design II
Self Locking
At certain critical value of f.c the term (b-fc) becomes zero. i.e no actuation force
need to be applied for braking. This is the condition for self-locking. Self-locking
will not occur unless it is specifically desired.
find the
Machine Design II
Drum Brakes
Among the various types of devices to be studied, based on their practical use,
the discussion will be limited to Drum brakes of the following types which are
mainly used in automotive vehicles and cranes and elevators.
A schematic sketch of a single shoe located inside a rotating drum with relevant
notations, is shown in the figure below. In this analysis, the pressure at any point
is assumed to be proportional to the vertical distance from the hinge pin, the
vertical distance from the hinge pin, which in this case is proportional to sine of
the angle and thus,
p d sin sin
Since the distance d is constant, the normal pressure at any point is just
proportional to sin. Call this constant of proportionality as K
Machine Design II
f d N cos
f dN
d N sin
dN
dN cos
f dNsin
FX
F
d
FY
RX
d
<
>
>
RY
Figure 3.1.4
Thus
p = K sin
It the maximum allowable pressure for the lining material is pmax then the constant
K can be defined as
K=
p max
p
=
sin sin max
p=
p max
sin
sin max
Machine Design II
The normal force dN is computed as the product of pressure and area and the
frictional force as the product of normal force and frictional coefficient i.e. f dN.
By integrating these over the shoe length in terms of its angle the braking torque
T, and other brake parameters are computed.
To determine the actuating force F, the moment equilibrium about the pivot point
is applied. For this we need to determine the moment of the normal force MN and
moment of the frictional force about the pivot point. Moment of the normal force
is equal to the normal force times its moment arm about the pivot point. From
the figure it is clear that the moment arm in this case is equal to d sin where d
is the distance between the drum center and pivot center
MN =
= b.d.r.
2
p max
sin 2 d
sin
p
b.d.r 1
1
2 1 (sin 22 sin 21 )
M N = max
sin a 2
4
f .p.b.r.d ( r d sin )
2
1
= f .b.r.
2
Mf =
p max
sin ( r d sin ) d
sin max
sin a
2
Machine Design II
M N Mf
c
where,
MN and Mf are the moment of the normal and frictional forces respectively,
about the shoe pivot point.
The sign depends upon the direction of drum rotation,
(- sign for self energizing and + sign for non self energizing shoe)Where the
lower sigh is for a self energizing shoe and the upper one for a self deenergizing
shoe.
The reaction forces are determined by applying force summation and equilibrium
R x = dN.cos + dF.sin
=
2
p
p
b.r. max sin cos d + f b.r. max sin 2 d
sin max
sin max
p max.b r
sin max
pa br
sin a
pa br
sin a
(A fB)
(B fA) Fx
Where
A=
1
1
1 1
2
2
2 2 (2 1 ) 4 sin 22 sin 21 f 2 sin 2 sin 1
1
sin 2 2 sin 2 1
2
Machine Design II
B=
1 1
1
( ) sin 2 sin 2
2 2 2 1 4
2
1
The braking torque T on the drum by the shoe is of the frictional forces f.dN times
the radius of the drum and resulting equation is,
T=
f .b.p.r.d.r
1
1
= fbr 2
1
T=
p max
sin max
sin d
of
shoes
being
a
are
used
single
shoe
has
been
combined
into
to
maximum
cover
discussed
complete
area
at
practical
and
to
length.
Two
brake
unit,
minimize
the
If both the shoes are arranged such that both are leading shoes in which
self energizing are prevailing, then all the other parameters will remain
same and the total braking torque on the drum will be twice the value
obtained in the analysis.
However in most practical applications the shoes are arranged such that
one will be leading and the other will be trailing for a given direction of
drum rotation
Machine Design II
If the direction of drum rotation changes then the leading shoe will
become trailing and vice versa.
Thus this type of arrangement will be equally effective for either direction
of drum rotation. Further the shoes can be operated upon using a single
cam or hydraulic cylinder thus provide for ease of operation
However the total braking torque will not be the twice the value of a single
shoe, if the same normal force is applied or created at the point of force
application on both the brake shoes which is the normal practice as they
are actuated using a common cam or hydraulic cylinder.
This is because the effective contact pressure (force) on the trailing shoe
will not be the same, as the moment of the friction force opposes the
normal force, there by reducing its actual value as in most applications
Machine Design II
F.a
p'a = pa .
(M n + M f )
Resulting equation for the braking torque
p
TB = f .w.r 2 . a (cos 1 - cos 2 )(pa + pa ')
sin a
Figure 3.1.6
Machine Design II
Figure 3.1.7
Animation
Machine Design II
Figure 3.1.9
Figure 3.1.10
Machine Design II
Figure 3.1.11
Machine Design II
F=
M N Mf
c
p bra 1
1
2 1 (sin 22 sin 21 )
MN = a
sin a 2
4
Mf =
fpa br
sin a
2
2
r cos 1 cos 2 2 (sin 2 sin 1 )
p
TB = f .w.r 2 . a (cos 1 - cos 2 )(pa + pa ')
sin a
Machine Design II
When
the
frictional
shoe
force
lever.
This
is
rigidly
(f.Fn)
is
is
fixed
to
eliminated
to
the
lever,
the
tendency
of
the
unseat
the
block
with
respect
to
the
in
hinged
shoe
brake
the
shoes
are
not
rigidly
fixed
but
actuating
degree
of
position
in
post
by
freedom
which
the
the
so
hinge,
G,
which
shoe
tends
to
the
pressure
distribution
introduces
assume
over
it
is
another
an
optimum
less
peaked
G
BG
OH=a
OG=b
Fy
Fx
Figure 3.1.12
As
wear
proceeds
the
extra
degree
of
freedom
allows
the
linings
Machine Design II
rigid
shoes.
This
permits
the
linings
to
act
more
effectively
and
extra
expense
the
grounds
of
of
providing
more
another
uniform
lining
hinge
wear
is
thus
and
justified
on
consequently
longer life. This is the main advantage of the pivoted shoe brake
This is possible only if the shoe is in equilibrium.
For
equilibrium
of
the
shoe
moments
of
the
forces
MG=T+Fxby-Fybx=0 where bx
by
This
needs
(and
due
to
the
normal
force)
zero,
so
that
no
rotation
of
point.
To
that
the
facilitate
resultant
this
= b.cos G
= b.sinG
moment
about
the
location
shoe
of
due
to
the
pivot
will
occur
the
pivot
the
is
frictional
point
should
about
to
force
the
be
be
pivot
selected
carefully.
The actuating force P is applied to the post HG so the shoe itself
is subject to actual and ideal contacts only - the (ideal) at pin G
and the actual as distributed contact with the drum.
The location is in such a way that the moment of frictional force
(and
the
normal
force)
about
distributed
contact
leads
to
the
the
pivot
ideal
is
zero.
i.e
the
(concentrated)contact
actual
at
the
hinge or pivot.
i.e the actual distributed contact leads to the ideal contact at the
hinge or pivot Further it is desirable to minimize the effect of pin
reaction for which the shoe pivot and post pivot points are made
con current.
Machine Design II
Let us now look how this can be met, satisfying the conditions set above and
consequently the derive the equations relating the location of the pivot from the
center of the drum
A schematic sketch of a single shoe is shown in the figure
fdN sin
fdN cos
fdN
(hcos r)
dN
dN cos
rcos
Rx
Ry
element
of
friction
lining
element
is ( r.d.b ) ,
located
is
the
the
element
is
p,
the
normal
width
angle
of
and
The area if
the
friction
lining
reaction
dN
given by
dN = (rdb)p
an
is shown in figure.
where
at
(a)
on
the
element
is
Machine Design II
Distribution of pressure
If the shoe is long then the pressure will not be uniform
We
need
lining;
to
the
determine
pressure
the
distribution
distribution
of
should
pressure
be
along
the
conducive
for
the
wear
the shoe.
shape
of
occurs
on
the
friction
lining,
which
is
attached
to
brake
drum
when
wear
occurs.
After
the
radial
wear
in
direction.
towards
the
direction
and
is
the
wear
In figure x is
in
the
radial
brake
drum
to
compensate
to
wear,
should
be
r
= constant
cos
(b)
x
x
x'
X
wear
Machine Design II
The
radial
frictional
upon
wear
force.
the
r
The
frictional
is
proportional
work
force
done
( fdN )
to
by
and
the
the
the
work
done
by
frictional
force
depends
rubbing
velocity.
Since
the
the
r fdN
Or r ( frdbp )
Therefore r p
(c)
Where C1
is
the
constant
of
proportionality.
(d)
The
pressure
is
maximum when = 0 .
Substituting,
(e)
p max = C1
From Eqs (d) and (e),
p = p max cos
Substituting this value in Eq. (a
dN = (rdb)p max cos
The
forces
acting
on
the
element
(f)
M f == 0
Machine Design II
Mf =
fdN(h cos r) = 0
Mf =
( h cos
r cos d = 0
1 + cos 2
h
d r cos d = 0
2
0
0
or
+ 2 sin 2
h
R ( sin )0 = 0
2
0
4R sin
h=
2 + sin 2
or
The
elemental
torque
of
frictional
force
fdN about
the
TB = 2 fdNr
TB = 2fr 2 bp max
cos d
( dN cos )
and
( fdN sin )
axis
of
Machine Design II
Due
to
symmetry,
the
other
two
vertical
components
of
the
force
considering
two
balances
i.e
fdN sin = 0
dN sin = 0
Therefore,
Rx =
dN cos
= rbp max
cos
reaction
Ry
2 + sin 2
= 2rbp max
1
or R x = rbp max (2 + sin 2)
2
can
( fdN cos )
Due to symmetry,
dN sin =0
Therefore,
be
determined
by
Machine Design II
Ry =
fdN cos
= frbp max
cos
Ry =
or
As noted earlier,
1
frbp max (2 + sin 2)
2
TB = frbp max
2 + sin 4r sin
.
2
2 + sin
= fFn h
Machine Design II
are
limited
because
of
the
physical
problem
Their
in
Machine Design II
Energy Consideration
It has been noted that the most common brakes employ friction to transform
the braked system's mechanical energy, irreversibly into heat which is then
transferred to the surrounding environment Kinetic energy is absorbed during slippage of either a clutch or brake, and this
energy appears as heat.
If the heat generated is faster than it is dissipated, then the temperature rises.
Thorough design of a brake therefore requires a detailed transient thermal
analysis of the interplay between heat generated by friction, heat transferred
through the lining and the surrounding metalwork to the environment, and the
instantaneous temperature of the surface of the drum as well as the lining. For
a given size of brake there is a limit to the mechanical power that can be
transformed into heat and dissipated without lthe temperatures reaching
damaging levels. Temperature of the lining is more critical and the brake size is
characterized by lining contact area, A.
The capacity of a clutch or brake is therefore limited by two factors:
1. The characteristics of the material and,
2. The ability of the brake to dissipate heat.
Machine Design II
U = E = T
(2)
Where E is the loss of system total energy which is absorbed by the brake
during deceleration, transformed into heat, and eventually dissipated.
The elementary equations of constant rotational deceleration apply, thus when
the brake drum is brought to rest from an initial speed o :Deceleration =
o2/ 2
(1)
m.t
; m =
o/2
= U / t = T m
Temperature Rise
The temperature rise of the brake assembly can be approximated by the classic
expression,,
E
C.m
Where is temperature T is rise in temperature in oC,C is the specific heat of
T =
the brake drum material (500J/Kg for steel or Cast Iron) and m is the mass
(kg) of the brake parts dissipating the heat into the surroundings.
Though the equation appears to be simple, there are so many variables involved
that it would be most unlikely that such an analysis would even approximate
experimental results.
Machine Design II
On the other hand the temperature-rise equations can be used to explain what
happens when a clutch or brake is operated frequently. For this reason such
analysis are most useful, for repetitive cycling, in pin pointing those design
parameters that have the greatest effect on performance.
An object heated to a temperature T1 cools to an ambient temperature Ta
according to the exponential relation
Time-temperature relation
Ti Ta = (T1 Ta )e(AU / WC)t
Where T1 = instantaneous temperature at
time t, C
Machine Design II
T2
A
T1
T
T
B
C
Ta
tA
tC
tB
Time t
Figure 3.1.16
At time tA
a clutching or braking
distortion, to fade (the fall-off in friction coefficient) or, worse, to degradation and
charring of the lining which often incorporates organic constituents
Machine Design II
Energy to be Absorbed
If t is the time of brake application and m the mean or average angular velocity
then the energy to be absorbed in braking E
E = T. m .t = Ek+ Ep+ Ei
where Ek is the kinetic energy of the rotating system
Ep is the potential energy of the moving system
Ei is the inertial energy of the system
Energy to be absorbed
1
2g
1
= mv 2
2
1 2
v 2 v12
=
2g
Ek =
E p = mgh = h
1 2
I
2
1
= I 22 12
2
Ei =
Frictional Material
A brake or clutch friction material should have the following characteristics to a
degree, which is dependent upon the severity of the service.
A high and uniform coefficient of friction.
Imperviousness to environmental conditions, such as moisture.
The ability to withstand high temperatures together with good thermal
conductivity.
Good resiliency.
High resistance to wear, scoring, and galling.
Machine Design II
Linings
The choice of lining material for a given application is based upon criteria such as
the expected coefficient of friction; fade resistance, wear resistance, ease of
attachment, rigidity or formability, cost, abrasive tendencies on drum, etc. The
lining is sacrificial - it is worn away. The necessary thickness of the lining is
therefore dictated by the volume of material lost - this in turn is the product of the
total energy dissipated by the lining throughout its life, and the specific wear rate
Rw (volume sacrificed per unit energy dissipated) which is a material property
and strongly temperature dependent. The characteristics of a typical moulded
asbestos lining material is illustrated in the figure below. The coefficient of
friction, which may be taken as 0.39 for design purposes, is not much affected by
pressure or by velocity - which should not exceed 18 m/s. The maximum
allowable temperature is 400C. However at this temperature the wear is very
high. From a lower wear or higher life point, the maximum temperature should
not exceed about 200 oC
0.5
0
0
Temperature ( C )
Figure 3.1.17
400
Machine Design II
Linings traditionally were made from asbestos fibers bound in an organic matrix,
however the health risks posed by asbestos have led to the decline of its use.
Non-asbestos linings generally consist of three components - metal fibers for
strength, modifiers to improve heat conduction, and a phenolic matrix to bind
everything together.
Machine Design II
300
30
100.9
R=125
120
Pin
120
Pin
86.6
300
50
30
50
30
Figure 3.1.18
Analysis based on leading shoe
Pa = 1 MPa
b
= 40 mm
= 0.32
max = 900
a = 187.5 mm
d = 1002 +86.12
= 99.99 100mm
1 = 50 2 = 1200
r =125 mm
Machine Design II
p a brd 2 1
Mn =
=
sin a
1
4
(sin 22 sin 21 )
=40*125*0.1 1.003-
1
4
180
1
4
( 1.03)
M n = 631.459 N.m
Mf =
f .b.rpm
d
sin a
2
M f = 224.85 N - m
F*a= M N M f
F=
T = fbr
B
M n M f 631.459 224.85
=
=
a
0.187
2174.3N
p
F
( cos cos ) ) 1 +
sin
M +M
a
406.609
T = 0.32 * 40 *10 * (0.125) *10 (Cos5 Cos120) 1 +
856.36
T = 441.329 N-m
3
=100*5/8
= 27.7 m/s
Machine Design II
U= 27.7 m/s
Deceleration =0.5*9.8=4.9
V 2 U 2 = 2aS
0 (27.7) 2 = 2 * (4.9) *S
S=
27.7 2
= 78.29 m
2 * 4.9
E = T.av .t
1 27.7 78.24
= 441.329
.
2 0.125 27.7
= 138206
= 138.2KJ
friction coefficient of 0.3 and permissible pressure of 0.8 MPa. The width of the
brake shoe is to be third of drum diameter and the remaining proportion's are as
shown in figure.
a = 1.4 D
1
b= D
3
0.6 D
d=
= 0.693 D
cos 300
Machine Design II
1.4 D
90
0.6 D
30
Determine the required brake drum diameter, width of the lining and the spring
force required to be set.
a = 1.4D
1
b= D
3
0.6D
d=
= 0.693D
cos 300
Machine Design II
1
D
sin(210) sin 30
= 0.8 *106 * D * * 0.6028D.
3
2
4
4
M N = 92373.3D3 *1.035
P brf
MJ = a
1
( r a cos ) sin d
D D
0.6928
D
= 0.8 *106 * * * 0.3 (1.225 )
( 0.866 )
3 2
2
2
= 12500D3
M N + MF
95606.36 12500
= Pa
95606.36 + 12500
= 0.7687Pa
Torque due to trailing and leading shoe=
= fdN.r
= f .r
Pa sin
.rd.b
sin a
fbr 2 2
=
Pa sin d + Pa ' sin d
sin a
1
1
0.3*
fbr 2
. ( Pa + Pa ') . ( cos 1 cos 2 )
sin a
D D2
*
3 4 1.7687 * 0.8 *106 ( cos15 cos1.5 )
= 43324 D3
Ttotal = 600 Nm
Therefore
D = 240.14mm
Machine Design II
F=
M N M F 83106 * 0.2402
=
= 3423.22N
1.4 * D
1.4
Living width =
D
3
= 80.04 mm
Machine Design II
CLUTCH
Clutch Introduction
A Clutch is ia machine member used to connect the driving shaft to a driven
shaft, so that the driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping
the driving shaft. A clutch thus provides an interruptible connection between two
rotating shafts
Clutches allow a high inertia load to be stated with a small power.
A popularly known application of clutch is in automotive vehicles where it is used
to connect the engine and the gear box. Here the clutch enables to crank and
start the engine disengaging the transmission Disengage the transmission and
change the gear to alter the torque on the wheels.
Mechanical Model
Two inertias I1and I2
and 2,
and
by engaging. Slippage occurs because the two elements are running at different
speeds and energy is dissipated during actuation, resulting in temperature rise.
Clutch or brake
1
1
1
Dynamic Representation of Clutch or Brake
Figure 3.2.1
Machine Design II
Animated
Figure 3.2.2
To
FRICTION CLUTCHES
As in brakes a wide range of clutches are in use wherein they vary in their are in
use their working principle as well the method of actuation and application of
normal forces. The discussion here will be limited to mechanical type friction
Machine Design II
clutches or more specifically to the plate or disc clutches also known as axial
clutches
power/motion is transmitted from one member to the other. When the power of
motion is to be interrupted the driven disc is moved axially creating a gap
between the members as shown in the figure.
Figure 3.2.3
Machine Design II
Flywheel
Clutch cover
Clutch plate
Diaphragm
spring
to transmission
Throw out
Bearing
Pressure plate
Animated
Figure 3.2.4
METHOD OF ANALYSIS
The torque that can be transmitted by a clutch is a function of its geometry and
the magnitude of the actuating force applied as well the condition of contact
prevailing between the members.
together with a uniform pressure all over its contact area and the consequent
analysis is based on uniform pressure condition
Machine Design II
Elementary Analysis
Assuming uniform pressure and considering an elemental area dA
dA = 2.r dr
dN = 2.r.dr.p
dF = f .2.r.dr.p
Machine Design II
lining
dr
F
<
di
do
<
>
Machine Design II
ro
Fa = 2prdr
ri
Fa = ro2 ri2 .p
Equation 1 and 2 can be combined together to give equation for the torque
T = fFa .
2 (ro3 ri3 )
3 (ro2 ri2 )
V = r.
The largest pressure pmax must then occur at the smallest radius ri ,
K = p max ri
Hence pressure at any point in the contact region
p = p max
ri
r
Machine Design II
In the previous equations substituting this value for the pressure term p and
integrating between the limits as done earlier we get the equation for the torque
transmitted and the actuating force to be applied.
I.e The axial force Fa is found by substituting
and integrating equation
p = p max
ri
for p.
r
dN = 2prdr
ro
ro
r
ri
ri
Similarly the Torque
ro
T = f 2pmax ri rdr = fp max ri (ro2 ri2 )
ri
Substituting the values of actuating force Fa
The equation can be given as
(r + r )
T = fFa . o i
2
Machine Design II
Clutch plate
(driven disk)
Flywheel
Friction
planes
Pressure plate
Pressure spring
Release
bearing
Engine
crankshaft
Housing
To
transmission
To release
Figure 3.2.6
Machine Design II
the driver has pushed down the clutch pedal the clutch is released. This action
forces the pressure plate to move away from the friction disc. There are now air
gaps between the flywheel and the friction disc, and between the friction disc and
the pressure plate. No power can be transmitted through the clutch.
Operation Of Clutch
When the driver releases the clutch pedal, power can flow through the clutch.
Springs in the clutch force the pressure plate against the friction disc. This action
clamps the friction disk tightly between the flywheel and the pressure plate. Now,
the pressure plate and friction disc rotate with the flywheel.
As both side surfaces of the clutch plate is used for transmitting the torque, a
term N is added to include the number of surfaces used for transmitting the
torque
By rearranging the terms the equations can be modified and a more general form
of the equation can be written as
T = N.f .Fa .R m
Note that N = n1 + n2 -1
Where n1= number of driving discs
n2 = number of driven discs
Values of the actuating force F and the mean radius rm for the two conditions of
analysis are summarized and shown in the table
Machine Design II
Clutch Construction
Two basic types of clutch are the coil-spring clutch and the diaphragm-spring
clutch. The difference between them is in the type of spring used. The coil
spring clutch shown in left Fig 3.2.6 uses coil springs as pressure springs (only
two pressure spring is shown). The clutch shown in right figure 3.2.6 uses a
diaphragm spring.
Figure 3.2.6
The coil-spring clutch has a series of coil springs set in a circle.
At high rotational speeds, problems can arise with multi coil spring clutches
owing to the effects of centrifugal forces both on the spring themselves and the
lever of the release mechanism.
These problems are obviated when diaphragm type springs are used, and a
number of other advantages are also experienced
Machine Design II
Figure 3.2.7
First to ensure that the drive is taken up progressively, the centre plate, on which
the friction facings are mounted, consists of a series of cushion springs which is
crimped radially so that as the clamping force is applied to the facings the
crimping is progressively squeezed flat, enabling gradual transfer of the force
On the release of the clamping force, the plate springs back to its original
position crimped (wavy) state
Machine Design II
This plate is also slotted so that the heat generated does not cause distortion that
would be liable to occur if it were a plain plate. This plate is of course thin to keep
rotational inertia to a minimum.
Machine Design II
grooves in both sides of the friction-disc facings. These grooves prevent the
facings from sticking to the flywheel face and pressure plate when the clutch is
disengaged. The grooves break any vacuum that might form and cause the
facings to stick to the flywheel or pressure plate. The facings on many friction
discs are made of cotton and asbestos fibers woven or molded together and
impregnated with resins or other binding agents.
wires are woven or pressed into the facings to give them added strength.
However, asbestos is being replaced with other materials in many clutches.
Some friction discs have ceramic-metallic facings.
Such discs are widely used in multiple plate clutches
The minimize the wear problems, all the plates will be enclosed in a covered
chamber and immersed in an oil medium
Such clutches are called wet clutches
Figure 3.2.8
The properties of the frictional lining are important factors in the design of the
clutches
Machine Design II
Typical characteristics of some widely used friction linings are given in the table
Table
Friction Material
Against Steel or Cl
Dynamic Coefficient
of Friction
in oil
dry
Molded
0.25-0.45
0.06-0.09
1030-2070
204-260
Woven
0.25-0.45
0.08-0.10
345-690
204-260
Sintered metal
0.15-0.45
0.05-0.08
1030-2070
232-677
0.15-0.25
0.03-0.06
690-720
260
Table 3.2.1
Machine Design II
Energy considerations
Kinetic energy is absorbed during slippage of a clutch and this energy appears
as heat.
The clutch or brake operation is completed at the instance in which the two
angular velocities 1 and 2 become equal. Let the time required for the entire
operation be t1, then,
(
(
I I 2
t1 = 1 2 1
T I1 + I2
I1 1 = T
I 2 2 = T
T
1 = t + 1
I1
T
2 = t + 2
I2
T
= 1 2 = t + 1 t + 2
I1
I2
I +I
= 1 2 T 1 2 t
I1I 2
from which
t=
I1I2 ( 1 2 )
T ( I1 + I 2 )
operation 1-2 = 0
Assuming the torque to be constant, the rate of energy dissipation during the
operation is then,
I +I
U = T = T 1 2 T 1 2 .t
I1I 2
Machine Design II
The total energy dissipated during the clutching operation or braking cycle is
obtained by integrating the above equation from t=0 to t = t1 . The result can be
summed up as,
E=
I1I 2 ( 1 2 )2
2 ( I1 + I 2 )
I +I
U = T = T 1 2 T 1 2 .t
I1I 2
t1
t1
I +I
E = udt = T 1 2 T 1 2 t dt
I1I 2
0
0
2
I1I2 1 2
E=
2 I1 + I2
(
(
Thus the energy absorbed during clutch slip is a function of the magnitude of the
inertia and the angular velocities only. This energy compared to the brake
energy may be negligible. Heat dissipation and temperature rise are governed
by the same equations presented during brakes. To contain the temperature rise
when very frequent clutching operations, wet clutches rather than dry clutches
are often use
The
Machine Design II
Solution: As noted the friction disc of the automotive clutch is fixed between the
flywheel on one side and the pressure plate on the other. The friction lining is
provided on both sides of the friction disc.
Therefore two pairs of contacting surfaces-one between the fly wheel and the
friction disc and the other between the friction disc and the pressure plate.
Therefore, the torque transmitted by one pair of contacting surfaces is (550/2) or
275 N-m
( M t )f = pa ri ( ro2 ri2 )
The above equation is solved by the trial and error method. It is a cubic equation,
with following three roots:
(i) ri = 87.08 mm
(ii) ri = 56.145 mm
(iii) ri =-143.23 mm
Mathematically, all the three answer are correct. The inner radius cannot be
negative. As a design engineer, one should select the inner radius as 87.08 mm,
which results in a minimum area of friction lining compared with 56.145. For
minimum cost of friction lining.
ri=87 mm
Machine Design II
Since N must be an even integer, use N= 8. It is evident that this requires a total
of 4+5, or nine discs, remembering that the outer disks have friction surfaces on
one side only. 3. With no other changes, this will give a clutch that is over
designed by a factor of 8/6.69= 1.19. Possible alternatives include (a) accepting
Machine Design II
the 19 percent over design, (b) increasing ri, (c) decreasing ro, and (d) leaving
both radii unchanged and reducing both pmax and F by a factor of 1.19
4. With the choice of alternative d, the clamping force is computed to be just
sufficient to produce the desired torque:
r +r
T = Ff o i
2
F = 4483 N
0.050 + 0.029
m 8,
N = 85 N.m = F(0.06)
2
Machine Design II
Flywheel
flywheel
energy
when
it
is
and
the
during
an
inertial
serves
supply
the
as
of
energy-storage
energy
period
when
device.
reservoir,
storing
is
than
more
the
absorbs
energy
the
requirement
It
of
during
requirement
energy
is
mechanical
the
and
more
period
releases
than
the
supply.
of
shaft
caused
by
torque
fluctuations.
If
the
source
of
the
called
torque
time
engines
for.
Many
function
with
compressors,
one
punch
to
or
machines
vary
two
presses,
have
over
the
cylinders
rock
load
patterns
cycle.
are
crushers
etc.
that
cause
Internal
typical
are
combustion
example.
the
the
Piston
other
systems
its
angular
absorbs
mechanical
energy
by
increasing
T2
Tm
T1
C D
max
min
Figure 3.3.1
Machine Design II
Design Approach
There are two stages to the design of a flywheel.
First,
the
smoothening
amount
must
of
be
energy
found
required
and
the
for
(mass)
the
desired
moment
of
degree
of
inertia
needed
caters
the
required
and
safe
flywheel
moment
of
geometry
inertia
in
must
be
reasonably
defined
sized
that
package
is
against
Design Parameters
Flywheel
inertia
(size)
needed
directly
depends
upon
the
acceptable
Speed fluctuation
The
change
in
the
shaft
speed
during
cycle
is
called
the
dividing
it
speed
Fl = max min
We
can
normalize
this
to
dimensionless
ratio
by
by
max min
max min
the
Machine Design II
Where
shaft
is
speed
nominal
angular
desired.
This
velocity,
and
coefficient
is
ave
a
the
design
average
parameter
or
mean
to
be
the
cost
and
weight
to
be
added
to
the
system.
However
the
is
typically
machinery
set
and
as
to
value
high
as
between
0.20
0.01
for
to
0.05
applications
for
precision
like
crusher
entire
rotating
hammering machinery.
Design Equation
The kinetic energy Ek in a rotating system
=
( )
1
I 2
2
Im 2max 2min
2
E K = E 2 E1
avg =
( max + min )
2
1
I 2avg
2 s
E 2 E1 = Cf I2
Ek
Is =
2
Cf avg
EK =
Thus
system
the
in
mass
moment
order
to
obtain
of
inertia
selected
)( Cf avg )
Im
needed
coefficient
in
of
the
speed
fluctuation
is
Machine Design II
EK =
Is =
The
Im
above
equation
corresponding
can
to
the
1
I 2avg
2 s
Ek
)( Cf avg )
2
Cf avg
be
used
known
to
obtain
appropriate
energy
change
energy
Ek
Ek
for
flywheel
a
specific
inertia
value
required
change
in
kinetic
is
obtained
from
the
known
@ max
Tl Tavg d = E K
@ min
typical
torque
time
relation
for
example
of
mechanical
punching
the
initially
during
absence
and
can
fly
intermedialty
punching
fluctuation
of
and
be
wheel
and
stripping
noted.
surplus
or
positive
enery
absorbtion
operations.
large
out
the
To
smoothen
enregy
or
is
avalible
negative
energy
magitidue
speed
of
speed
fluctuation
fly
Machine Design II
Torque
Area
+20 073
34 200
Area
+15 388
D
rms
Average
7 020
0
Shaft angle
time t
max
min
Area
-26 105
-34 200
Area
-9 202
360
Figure 3.3.2
Accumulation of Energy pulses under a Torque- Time curve
From
Area= E
Accumulated sum =E
A to B
+20 073
+20 073
B to C
-26 105
-6 032
C to D
+15 388
D to A
-9 202
min
@B
max
@C
+9 356
+154
Total Energy= E @min- E@min
=(-6 032)-(+20 073)= 26 105 Nmm2
Figure 3.3.3
Machine Design II
Torque
Cf =0.05
8730
Average
7020
Time t
Shaft angle
360
Figure 3.3.4
Geometry of Flywheel
The geometry of a flywheel may be as simple as a cylindrical disc of
solid
material,
wheels
with
wheels
are
to
may
hub
solid
requirements
changes
or
discs
and
disc
and
be
of
rim
connected
of
size
of
central
hollow
of
circular
the
hub
spoked
and
construction
by
spokes
cross
flywheel
peripheral
or
section.
increases
rim
like
conventional
arms
As
Small
the
the
connected
fly
energy
geometry
by
webs
Machine Design II
D
D0
do
Figure 3.3.5
D0
The
latter
arrangement
is
more
efficient
of
material
especially
for
large flywheels, as it concentrates the bulk of its mass in the rim which
is
at
the
largest
radius.
Mass
at
largest
radius
contributes
much
more
Machine Design II
For a solid disc geometry with inside radius ri and out side radius ro,
the mass moment of inertia I is
Im = mk 2 =
m 2 2
(r + r )
2 o i
m=
= ro2 ri2 t
g
g
Im =
4 4
r r t
2g o i
equation
is
better
solved
by
geometric
proportions
i.e
by
upon
its
similar
to
assuming inside to out side radius ratio and radius to thickness ratio.
Stresses in Flywheel
Flywheel
being
rotating
distributed
mass
and
attempts
disc,
to
centrifugal
pull
it
apart.
stresses
Its
acts
effect
is
t =
2 3 + v 2 2 1 + 3v 2
r
ri + ro
g 8
3+ v
r =
2 3 + v 2 2 ri2 ro2
2
+
r
r
r
o
i
g 8
r2
to
thick
cylinder
under
internal
pressure
the
tangential
Machine Design II
Radius
t
Tang. stress
Radial stress
r
Radius
The
point
of
most
maximum.
What
stress
at
that
fragments
can
Since
forces
speed
the
also,
interest
causes
point
failure
from
explode
the
inside
in
where
the
of
flywheel
for
where
is
are
the
typically
originated
extremely
stresses
checking
radius
fracture
resulting
causing
instead
is
and
stress
the
is
tangential
upon
fracture
dangerous
consequences,
function
the
stresses,
the
of
maximum
rotational
speed
at
which the stresses reach the critical value can be determined and safe
operating
factor.
speed
Generally
can
some
be
calculated
means
to
or
specified
preclude
its
based
operation
on
beyond
safety
this
Machine Design II
2.2 *103
= 21.88Nm
960
2**
60
Energy supplied= work don per cycle
= 2 * 21.88 * 6
= 825 Nm
Thus the mechanical efficiency of the system is =
600
=
= 0.727 = 72%
825
Machine Design II
Cf avg
538.125
960
0.02 2 *
60
= 2.6622 kg m2
r 2 2
. r ri .t
2 g o
r
Assuming i = 0.8
ro
78500
2.6622 = *
0.304 0.244 t
2 9.86
= 59.805t
I=
t=
2 .6622
= 0.0445
59.805
or
45 mm
t =
r 2 3 + 2 2 1 + 3 2
r
r + ro
g
3+
8 i
78500 2 3 + 0.3
2
2 1.9 * 0.242
.
0.24 + 0.3
9.81
3.3
8
960 2
t = 0.543* 2 *
60
= 55667N / m 2
t =
= 0.556MPa
or if t = 150 MPa
150 *106 = 7961.42 ( 0.4125 )( 0.0376 )( 0.090 )( 0.0331)
= 0.5482
= 16544 rad / sec2
N OS =
yield
= 164.65
16544
32
Machine Design II
MODULE 4
MECHANICAL SPRINGS
INTRODUCTION
A spring is a resilient member capable of providing large elastic deformation. A spring is
basically defined as an elastic body whose function is to distort when loaded and to
recover its original shape when the load is removed. Mechanical springs are used in
machines and other applications mainly
to exert force,
to provide flexibility
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.2
Machine Design II
and
elliptical
type
(leaf)
usually
called
Belleville
springs.
Figure 4.4
EYE
2L
MASTER LEAF
TWO EXTRA
FULL LENGTH LEAVES
GRADUATE LEAVES
U- BOLT
CENTER CLIP
2P
Figure 4.6
Figure 4.5
Belleville
Figure 4.7
Machine Design II
COIL SPRINGS
Among the various springs helical or coil
compression springs are the widely
used ones and hence discussions will
be
confined
to
the
helical
(coil)
basic
compression
springs
The
nomenclature
of
springs
this
are
illustrated below.
Figure 4.8
Nomenclature
A Material constant
y Deflection
C Spring index=D/d
Density
d Wire diameter
number of coils=N t
Di
p
D
D0
L Length
N Number of coils
T Torsional Moment
U Strain energy
Helix angle
Figure 4.9
Lf
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Design Consideration
The primary consideration in the design of the coil springs are that the induced stresses
are below the permissible limits while subjected to or exerting the external force F
capable of providing the needed deflection or maintaining the spring rate desired.
D
2
t max = +
Tr F
+
J A
d
F
T=
FD
d
d 4
d 4
,r = ,J =
and A=
2
2
32
4
Figure 4.10
Machine Design II
And re-arranging,
= Ks
8FD
8FC
or = Ks
d3
d 2
Ks =
2C + 1
2C
Figure 4.11
Machine Design II
Curvature Effect
The curvature of the wire increases the
stress on the inside of the spring, an
effect
very
similar
to
stress
Kw =
4C 1 0.615
+
4C 4
C
Machine Design II
u=
T 2 l F2 l
+
2G J 2A G
U=
4 F 2 D 3 N F 2D N
+
4
G. d
Gd2
Machine Design II
Where N is the number of active coils. The deflection in the spring, using
Castiglianos theorem
y=
U 8FD 3 N 4FDN
=
+
4
F
Gd
Gd 2
y=
8 F D 3N
1
1 +
Gd 4 2C 2
For normal range of C, the term within bracket (contribution of direct shear) is so
negligible we can write
y=
8FD3 N
Gd 4
or
8FC3 N
Gd
F
G.d
Gd 4
k= =
=
y 8C3 N 8D3 N
The spring stiffness or springs rate,
k=
F
G.d
Gd 4
=
=
y 8C3 N 8D3 N
Using the equation the number of active coils needed to maintain the desired
deflection or spring stiffness will be determined. In order to maintain proper
contact and align the force along the spring axis the ends are to be properly
shaped.
Machine Design II
End Construction
Coil compression springs generally use four different types of ends. These are
illustrated in Fig. 4.13. and Table shows how the type of end used affects the
number of coils and the spring length. Foe important applications the ends of
springs should always be of both squared and ground, because a better or even
transfer of the load is obtained.
Na= Nt -2
Na = Nt
(a) plain ends
Na = Nt -1
(b) plain-ground ends
Na= Nt -2
(d) squared-ground ends Fi
Figure 4.13
Machine Design II
preload
no load
maximum
working
load
initial
indefinite
load
La
Lm
assembled length
free length
Ls
Figure 4.14
load, F
yield limit
Fs
hi
F
k
lo
definition,
working
range
solid
length
Ls
clash
allowance
free length L0
Figure 4.15
Animate
shut height
Machine Design II
The coil compression springs will have a tendency to buckle when the
Machine Design II
free to tip
fixed end
(a) Non parallel ends
diameter (D)
constrained parallel
fixed end
(b) parallel ends
Figure 4.16
Machine Design II
0.70
0.60
stable
unstable
0.50
stable
0.40
unstable
parallel ends
0.30
0.20
nonparallel ends
(b)
0.10
(a)
2
10
1
D 2(E G) 2
Lo <
2G + E
For steels this can be simplified as:
Lo < 2.63
Where is a constant related to the nature of support of the ends simply referred
as end constant
Machine Design II
f=
d
D2 Na
G.g
32.
f = 38.5 104
d
Na D2
Machine Design II
the natural frequency is not high enough, the spring should be redesigned to
increase k or decrease the weight W.
Fatigue Loading
The springs have to sustain millions of cycles of operation without failure, so it
must be designed for infinite life. Helical springs are never used as both
compression and extension springs. They are usually assembled with a preload
so that the working load is additional. Thus, their stress-time diagram is of
fluctuating nature.
Now, for design we define,
Fmin
F
Fa = max
2
F
+ Fmin
Fa = max
2
Certain applications like the valve spring of an automotive engine, the springs
have to sustain millions of cycles of operation without failure, so it must be
designed for infinite life. Unlike other elements like shafts, helical springs are
never used as both compression and extension springs. In fact they are usually
assembled with a preload so that the working load is additional. Thus, their
stress-time diagram is of fluctuating nature. Now, for design we define,
Then the stress amplitude and mean stress values are given by: if we employ the
Goodman criterion, then
The best data on torsional endurance limits of spring steels are those reported by
Zimmerli. He discovered the surprising fact that the size, material and tensile
strength have no effect on the endurance limits (infinite life only) of spring steels
in sizes under 10mm(3/8 inches). For all the spring steels in table the corrected
Machine Design II
values of torsional endurance limit can be taken as: = 310 Mpa (45.0 kpsi) for
unpeened
The stress amplitude and mean stress values are given by:
a = K c
8Fa D
d3
and
m = K s
8Fm D
d3
1
+ m =
Sse Ssu n
or
n=
Sse .Ssu
a .Ssu + m .Ssu
The design or resulting factor of safety will depend on the spring material
selected and their endurance strength. In the absence of data on the endurance
limit, the best data on torsional endurance limits of spring steels are those
reported by Zimmerli. He discovered the surprising fact that the size, material
and tensile strength have no effect on the endurance limits (infinite life only) of
spring steels in sizes under 10mm(3/8 inches). For all the spring steels the
corrected values of torsional endurance limit can be taken as:
= 310 MPa for unpeened springs
= 465 MPa for peened springs.
Machine Design II
springs
must
necessarily
that
the
stress-concentration
Figure 4.18
torsional stress.
In designing the spring with a hook end, the stress concentration effect must be
considered as failure, predominantly occurs here. Further as the spring elongates when
loaded, no built in safety is available, as in coil compression springs and very often
spring
fails
or
loses
its
resilience
when
the
extension
exceeds
limit.
Machine Design II
To mitigate this problem, the springs are initially wound with certain pre-stressing
and consequently will have closed coils. The initial pre stress and the stress due
to external loading should not exceed the permissible strength. The stress
concentration effect further limits the useful load range for a given size. The
stresses in the coils are found from the same formulas used for compression
springs. However the standard hooks or loops have two locations of high
stresses as shown in the figure below.
F
ri
d
rm
rm
ri
ri
rm
d
rm
ri
Figure 4.19
Machine Design II
The maximum torsional stress occurs at point B where the bend radius is
smallest.
There is also bending stress in the hook or loop at point A
A = K b
16DF 4F
+
3
d
d 2
Kb =
4C12 C1 1
4C1 ( C1 1)
C1 =
2rm
d
B = K w
K w2 =
C2 =
8DF
d3
4C2 1
4C2 4
2ri
d
r
K= m
ri
The springs are designed such that the maximum stresses at these points are
well below the permissible limits.
All coils in the body are considered to be active coils, but one is typically added
to obtain the body length.
Machine Design II
The free length is measured from the inside of one loop to the other end, and can
be varied by changing the end configuration without changing the number of
coils. While deciding the number of coils needed, the spring rate for a known
magnitude of deflection is to be determined and number of active coils needed is
calculated.
This is because the preload in the coils must be overcome to separate them as
they are closely wound by pre stressing
i.e
k=
F Fi
d4G
=
y
8D3 N a
Spring Materials
A great variety of spring materials are available to the designer, including plain
carbon steels, alloy steels, and corrosion resisting steels, as well as non-ferrous
materials such as phosphor bronze, spring brass, beryllium copper, and various
nickel alloys.
Commonly used spring steel materials are listed in Table 4.1. For designing hotworked, heavy coil springs as well as flat springs, leaf springs, and torsion bar
springs. The UNS steels listed in Appendix should be used.
The materials and its processing, also, of course have an effect on tensile
strength. It turns out that the graph of tensile strength versus wire diameter is
almost a straight line for some materials when plotted on the log-log paper.
Hence their tensile strength can be determined, writing the equation of this line
as,
Machine Design II
A
Sut =
dm
Constants for computing their minimum tensile strengths are given in Table 105Springs are manufactured by hot or cold-working process, depending upon the
size of the material, the spring index, and the properties desired.
NAME OF
MATERIAL
SIMILAR
SPECIFICATION
DESCRIPTION
Music wire,
UNS G10850
AISI 1085
ASTM A228-51
Oil-tempered wire,
0.60-0.70C
UNS G10650
AISI 1065
ASTM 229-41
Hard-drawn wire,
0.60-0.70
UNS G10660
AISI 1066
ASTM 227-47
Chrome Vanadium
UNS G61500
AISI 6150
ASTM 231-41
Chrome silicon
UNS G92540
AISI 9254
Table 4.1
Machine Design II
Material
EXPONENT
m
ASTM
NO.
INTERCEPT
A, kpsi A,MPa
Music wire
A228
0.163
186
2060
A229
0.193
146
1610
Hard-drawn wire
A227
0.201
137
1510
Chrome vanadium
A232
0.155
173
1790
Chrome silicon
A401
0.091
218
1960
Table 4.2
Machine Design II
Belleville Springs
The inset of Fig-4.7 shows a coned-disc spring, commonly called a Belleville
spring. Although the mathematical treatment is beyond the scope, one should at
least be familiar with the remarkable characteristics of these springs.
Miscellaneous springs
Flat stocks are used for a great variety of springs, such as clock springs, power
springs, torsion springs, cantilever springs and hair springs; frequently is
specially shaped to create certain spring actions for fuse chips, relay springs,
spring washers, snap rings and retainers. They may be analyzed and designed
by using the above and the other fundamental concepts discussed earlier.
Machine Design II
MULTI-LEAF SPRINGS
Multi-leaf springs are widely used for automobile and rail road suspensions. It consists
of a series of flat plates, usually of semi- elliptical shape as shown in fig. 4.20. The
leaves are held together by means of two U-bolts and a centre clip. Rebound clips are
provided to keep the leaves in alignment and prevent lateral shifting of the plates during
the operation. The longest leaf, called the master leaf, is bent at both ends to form the
spring eye. At the center, the spring is fixed to the axle of the car. Multi- leaf springs are
provided with one or two extra full length leaves in addition to the master leaf. These
extra full-length leaves are stacked between the master leaf and the graduated-length
leaves. The extra full-length are provided to support the transverse shear force.
2F
L
2F
2F
Figure 4.20
For the purpose of analysis, the leaves are divided into two groups namely master leaf
along with graduated-length leaves forming one group and extra full-length leaves
forming the other. The following notations are used in the analysis:
nf = number of extra full-length leaves
ng =number of graduated-length leaves including master leaf
n= total number of leaves
b= width of each leaf (mm)
t= thickness of each leaf (mm)
L=length of the cantilever or half the length of semi- elliptic spring (mm)
F= force applied at the end of the spring (N)
Ff=portion of F taken by the extra full-length leaves (N)
Fg=portion of F taken by the graduated-length leaves (N)
Machine Design II
Main leaf
Half of 2nd leaf
Half of 3rd leaf
Figure 4.21
leaves
h
n leaves
b/h
Figure 4.22
( b )g =
( b )g =
Mb y
I
Fg L ) ( t / 2 )
(
=
1
3
12 ( n g b ) (t )
6Fg L
n g bt 2
Machine Design II
It can be proved that the deflection g at the load point of the triangular plate is given
by
Fg L3
g =
=
2EImax
g =
Fg L3
( )
2E
n g b (t 3 )
12
6Fg L3
En g bt 3
Similarly, the extra full length leaves can be treated as a rectangular plate of thickness
t and uniform width (nfb), as shown in Fig 4.22 The bending stress at the support is
given by
Mb y
( Ff L )( t / 2 )
=
I
1
3
12 ( n f b ) (t )
6F L
( b )f = f 2
n f bt
( b )f
Ff L3
f =
=
2EI
Ff L3
( )
2E
n f b (t 3 )
12
4Ff L3
g =
En f bt 3
g = f
6Fg L3
4Ff L3
=
En g bt 3 En f bt 3
or
Fg 2n g
=
Ff 3n f
Machine Design II
Also
Fg + Ff = F
(f)
Ff =
Ff =
3n f F
(3nf + 2ng ))
2n g F
(3nf + 2ng ))
( b )g =
( b )f =
12FL
It is seen from the above equations that bending stresses in full-length leaves are 50%
more than those in graduated length leaves. The deflection at the end of the spring is
determined from Eqs(b) and (h). It is given by
12FL3
Multi-leaf springs are designed using load stress and load deflection equations. The
standard dimensions for the width and thickness of the leaf section are as follows:
Nominal thickness (mm): 3.2, 4.5, 5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5 8,9, 10,11,12,14, and 16.
Nominal width (mm) 32, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 90, 100 and 125.
Figure 4.3.4
Machine Design II
The leaves are usually made of steels, 55Si2Mn9-, 50Cr1 or 50Cr1V23. The plates are
hardened and tempered. The factor of safety based on the yield strength is between 2
to 2.5 for the automobiles suspension.
r1
LINE REPRESENTS
FULL LENGTH LEAVES
r2
Fb
c
AFTER ASSEMBLY
Fb
LINE REPRESENTS
GRADUATED LEAVES
The radius of curvature decreases with shorter leaves. The initial gap C between the
extra full-length leaf and the graduated-length leaf before the assembly is called a nip.
Such pre-stressing, achieved by a difference in radii of curvature, is known as nipping.
Nipping is common in automobile suspension springs.
Machine Design II
6Fg L
n g bt 2
6F L
b = f
f n bt 2
f
( b )g =
( )
( b )g = ( b )f
From(a) and (c),
Also,
Fg n g
=
Ff n f
Pg + Pf = P
ii
Fg =
n
n F
Ff = f
n
n = ng + nf
Where
Rewriting Eqs (b) and (d) of the previous section,
6Fg L3
g =
En g bt 3
4Ff L3
f =
En f bt 3
iii
iv
Machine Design II
Under the maximum force P, the deflection of graduated-length leaves will exceed the
deflection of extra full length leaves by an amount equal to the initial nip C.
6Fg L3
4Ff L3
=
C=
En g bt 3 En f bt 3
Substituting (iii) and (iv) in the above equation,
2FL3
Enbt 3
C=
The initial pre-load Pi required to close the gap C between the extra full-length leaves an
graduated-length leaves is determined by considering the initial deflection of leaves.
Under the action of pre-load Pi
( )
( )
C = g + f
i
i
3 4 F / 2 L3
2FL3 6 Fi / 2 L
i
=
=
Enbt 3
En g bt 3
En f bt 3
2n g n f F
Fi =
n 3n f + 2n g
iv
Or,
The resultant stress in the extra full-length leaves is obtained by superimposing the
stresses due to initial pre-load Pi and the external force P. From Eq.(c).
( b )f =
6 Pf 0.5Pi L
n g bt 2
Machine Design II
Substituting Eq (g) of the previous section and Eq. in the above expression, we get
( b )f = 6FL2
nbt
Since the stresses are equal in all leaves, the above expression is written as
b =
6FL
nbt 2
The deflection of the multi-leaf spring due to the external force P is the same as the
given by above equation.
Machine Design II
Contents
1.1 Sliding contact bearings - introduction
1.2 Sliding contact bearings - advantages and disadvantages
1.3 Classification of sliding contact bearings
1.4 Journal bearings
1.5 Hydrodynamic lubrication
1.6 Lubricants and their properties
1.7 Lubricants for journal bearing application
1.8 Journal bearing problem 1
1.1 SLIDING CONTACT BEARINGS - INTRODUCTION
Bearings are machine elements which are used to support a rotating member viz., a
shaft. They transmit the load from a rotating member to a stationary member known as
frame or housing.
They permit relative motion of two members in one or two directions with minimum
friction, and also prevent the motion in the direction of the applied load.
The bearings are classified broadly into two categories based on the type of contact
they have between the rotating and the stationary member
a. Sliding contact
b. Rolling contact
The sliding contact bearings having surface contact and are coming under lower
kinematic pair.
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Fig.1.4(c) Boundary
lubrication
Machine Design II
1.3. 2(a) Thick film lubrication As in Fig.1.4 (a) the surfaces are separated by thick
film of lubricant and there will not be any metal-to-metal contact. The film thickness is
anywhere from 8 to 20 m. Typical values of coefficient of friction are 0.002 to 0.010.
Hydrodynamic lubrication is coming under this category. Wear is the minimum in this
case.
1.3.2(b) Thin film lubrication Here even though the surfaces are separated by thin
film of lubricant, at some high spots Metal-to-metal contact does exist , Fig.1.4
(b).Because of this intermittent contacts, it also known as mixed film lubrication. Surface
wear is mild. The coefficient of friction commonly ranges from 0.004 to 0.10.
1.3.2(c).Boundary lubrication Here the surface contact is continuous and extensive
as Shown in Fig.1.4(c). The lubricant is continuously smeared over the surfaces and
provides a continuously renewed adsorbed surface film which reduces the friction and
wear. The typical coefficient of friction is 0.05 to 0.20.
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig.1.8 (a) Gear, (b) Rolling contact bearing and (c) Cam
Machine Design II
(a)Full
(b) Partial
(c) Fitted
Machine Design II
develop a pressure distribution in the film that can support useful load. Two
mechanisms responsible for this are wedge film and squeeze film action.
The load supporting pressure in hydrodynamic bearings arises from either (1) the flow
of a viscous fluid in a converging channel, the wedge film, or (2) the resistance of a
viscous fluid to being squeezed out from the between approaching surface, the squeeze
film.
1.5.1 Stages in hydrodynamic lubrication
Consider a steady load F, a fixed bearing and a rotating journal.
Stage 1 :
At rest, the bearing clearance space is filled with oil, but the load F has squeezed out
the oil film at the bottom. Metal-to-contact exists. The vertical axis of bearing and journal
are co-axial. Load and reaction are in line fig.1.10.
Fig.1.10 At rest
Machine Design II
Stage 2:
When the journal starts rotating slowly in clockwise direction, because of friction, the
journal starts to climb the wall of the bearing surface as in Fig.1.11. Boundary
lubrication exists now. The wear normally takes place during this period. However, the
journal rotation draws the oil between the surfaces and they separate.
Stage 3:
As the speed increases, more oil is drawn in and enough pressure is built up in the
contact zone to float the journal Fig.1.12. Further increase in speed, additional
pressure of the converging oil flow to the right of the minimum film thickness position
(ho) moves the shaft slightly to the left of center. As a result full separation of journal and
bearing surfaces occurs. In stable operating condition, the pressure distribution on the
journal is shown in Fig.1.13. This is known as Hydrodynamic lubrication or full
film/thick film lubrication. At this equilibrium condition, the pressure force on journal
balances the external load F. The animation of this lubrication is shown in Fig.1.14.
Fig.1.12 At running
(hydrodynamic lubrication)
lubrication
Machine Design II
The higher the viscosity, the lower the rotating speed needed to float the journal
at a given load.
Machine Design II
The higher the rotating speed, the lower the viscosity needed to float the journal
at a given load. ( n / p )
p = F / (ld)
(1.1)
The smaller the bearing unit load, the lower the rotating speed and the viscosity
needed to float the journal.
Thus the bearing coefficient of friction, which is the ratio of friction drag force to
radial load F, increases.
Machine Design II
U
h
(1.2)
U
F A
h
(1.3)
The unit of viscosity in SI units is Ns/m2 or Pa.s. Since this is a large unit, it is normally
expressed as millipascal second mPa.s or centipoise cp.
Machine Design II
One poise is the force, in dynes, required to move one face of a 1cm3 of liquid at the
rate of 1 cm/s relative opposite face. Since this unit is very large one hundredth of it is
taken normally and expressed as centipoise or cp.
In FPS unit viscosity is expressed as reyns. 1 reyn = 6890 Pa.s.
Viscosity is also expressed as
SUS (Saybolt Universal Seconds),
SSU (Saybolt Seconds Universal),
SUV (Saybolt Universal Viscosity).
Kinematic viscosity = (absolute viscosity)/(mass density)
Units are length2 /time, as cm2/sec, which is named stoke, abbreviated as St.
1.6.2 Viscosity Measurement
Saybolt universal viscometer is widely used for the measurement of viscosity, Fig.1.17.
The time required for a given quantity of the liquid to flow by gravity through a precision
opening. Absolute viscosity expressed in saybolt seconds s.
(in cp) = (0.22 s - 180/s)
(1.4)
(1.5)
(1.6) or
= 0.89 0.00035 ( To 60 )
(1.7)
Machine Design II
VI
L U
x100 (6)
L H
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
The various viscosity grades are designated as ISO VG followed by a number equal to
the nominal kinematic viscosity at 40C.
Eighteen grades are specified, with kinematic viscosities at 40C of,
3,5,7,10,15,22,46,68,100,150, 220,320,460, 680, 1000 and 1500 cSt (mm2/s).
The properties of various grades of oil against operating temperatures are given Figs. 1.
18 to 1.20
Machine Design II
Fig. 1.19 Viscosity temperature chart for multiviscosity lubricants derived from
known viscosities at two points, 40 and 100oC
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Or
=0.145(22s- 180/s)
= 0.145(22x46-180/46)0.837
= 0.735 reyn
SAE oil corresponding to viscosity 5.19cp at 100oC from Fig.1.18a is SAE 20.
At 100oC, the kinematic viscosity of the oil from is
= / = 5.19/0.837 = 6.2 cSt.
Oil corresponding to the kinematic viscosity 6.3 cSt at 100oC from Fig.1.19a is
ISO VG 46.
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
--------------------
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
With reference to Fig.2.1, an expression for viscous friction drag torque is derived
by considering the entire cylindrical oil film as the liquid block acted upon by
force F.
From Newtons law of Viscosity:
F=
AU
h
(2.1)
4 2 nlr 3
Tf
c
(2.2)
Machine Design II
If a small radial load W is applied to the shaft, Then the frictional drag force f w
and the friction
Torque will be:
Tf = f w = 0.5 f (d l p) d
(2. 3)
(2.4)
Machine Design II
0.00012 0.0134
p c
44x10
Machine Design II
-pdydz dxdz (p
dp
dx)dydz - (
dy)dxdz 0
dx
y
2.5
Machine Design II
which reduces to
dp
dx y
(2.6)
In eqn. (2.7)
(2.7)
u
y
(2.8)
where the partial derivatives is used since the velocity u depends upon both x
and y. Substituting eqn (8) in (6), we get
dp
2u
2
dx
y
(2.9)
Machine Design II
2u 1 dp
y2 dx
(2.10)
u 1 dp
y C1
y dx
(2.11 )
1 dp y2
u
C1y C2
dx 2
( 2.12 )
Machine Design II
The assumption of no slip between the lubricants and the boundary surfaces
gives boundary conditions enabling C1 and C2 to be evaluated:
u=0 at y=0, u=U at y=h
Hence,
U h dp 2
U
y hy y
h 2 dx
h
C1
and C2 =0
(2.13)
(2.14)
1 dp 2
U
y h y y
2 dx
h
(2.15)
Machine Design II
1 dp 2
U
y hy y
2 dx
h
Parabolic
Linear Dashed
Let the volume of lubricant per-unit time flowing across the section containing the
element in Fig. 2.6 be Qf. For unit width in the Z direction,
h
Q f udy
o
Uh h3 dp
2 12 dx
(2.16 )
For an in-compressible liquid, the flow rate must be the same for all cross
sections, which means that
dQ f
0
dx
(2.17)
Machine Design II
Or
dQ f U dh d h3 dp
0
dx
2 dx dx 12 dx
(2.18)
d h3 dp
dh
6U
dx dx
dx
(2.19)
This is the classical Reynolds equation for one dimensional flow. This is valid for
long bearings.
In short bearings, flow in the Z direction or end leakage has to be taken into
account. A similar development gives the Reynolds Equation for two dimensional
flows:
d h3 dp
d h3 dp
dh
6U
dx dx dz dz
dx
(2.20)
Modern bearings are short and (l / d) ratio is in the range 0.25 to 0.75. This
causes flow in the z direction (the end leakage) to a large extent of the total flow.
For short bearings, Ockvirk has neglected the x terms and simplified the
Reynolds equation as:
d h3 dp
dh
6U
dz dz
dx
((2.21)
2.21)
Unlike previous equations (2.19) and (2. 20), equation (2. 21) can be readily
integrated and used for design and analysis purpose. The procedure is known as
Machine Design II
(l / d) ratios more than 1.5. Ocvirks short bearing approximation on the other
hand gives accurate results for bearings with (l /d) ratio up to 0.25 and often
provides reasonable results for bearings with (l / d) ratios between 0.25 and 0.75.
Fig.2.8 Chart for minimum film thickness variable and eccentricity ratio.
The left shaded zone defines the optimum ho for minimum friction; the right
boundary is the optimum ho for maximum load
Machine Design II
Fig.2.9 Chart for determining the position of the minimum film thickness ho
for location refer Fig.2.10
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Fig.2.13 Chart for determining the ratio of side flow to total flow.
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.15 Chart for finding the terminating position of oil film and position of
maximum film pressure
2.5 DESIGN CHARTS FOR HYDRODYNAMIC BEARINGS Problem 2
A journal of a stationary oil engine is 80 mm in diameter. and 40 mm long. The
radial clearance is 0.060mm. It supports a load of 9 kN when the shaft is rotating
at 3600 rpm. The bearing is lubricated with SAE 40oil supplied at atmospheric
pressure and average operating temperature is about 65oC. Using RaimondiBoyd charts analyze the bearing assuming that it is working under steady state
condition.
Analysis:
1. p= F / ld = 9 x1000 /40 x 80 = 2.813 MPa
2. = 30 cP at 65oC for SAE 40 oil from Fig. 2.3a.
Machine Design II
3.
3
r n 40 30x10 x 60
0.284
S
6
c p 0.06 2.813 x 10
Machine Design II
Fig.2.8a Chart for minimum film thickness variable and eccentricity ratio.
The left shaded zone defines the optimum ho for minimum friction; the right
boundary is the optimum ho for maximum load
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Fig.2.13a Chart for determining the ratio of side flow to total flow
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.15a Chart for finding the terminating position of oil film and position
of maximum film pressure
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Hg = F f v
(3.1)
Tvar CH
(3.2)
(3.3)
Where, Hd = in W or Nm/s
C = combined the heat transfer coefficient (radiation and convection), W/m2 .OC
A = exposed surface area of the housing, m2
= 20 d l
TH = surface temperature of the housing, oC
TA= temperature of surrounding air, oC.
The value of C depends on the material, colour, geometry and roughness of the
housing, temperature difference between the housing and surrounding objects
Machine Design II
C = 15.3 W/m2.oC
C = 33.5 W/m2.oC
(3.4)
1
Hd C A
(TO TA )
b 1
Hd C AB(TO TA )
(3.5)
(3.6)
Machine Design II
Condition
Range of B
Oil ring
Moving air
0.333 - 0.500
Oil ring
Still air
0.667 0.500
Oil bath
Moving air
0.667 0.500
Oil bath
Still air
0.714 -0.833
.
Fig.3. 5 Chart for temperature variable, Tvar = CH (T/p)
The use of this chart will be illustrated with worked out problems in arriving at
equilibrium temperature.
Machine Design II
r n 40 30x10 3 x 60
3. S
0.284
6
c p 0.06 2.813 x 10
4. For S = 0.284 and l /d = , Tvar = 25 from Fig.3.5 (a).
5. Rewriting the equation 2.23,
Tvar p
CH
25 x 2.813 x 106
46o C
861x 1760
Tvar CH
(2.23)
Machine Design II
8. S = 0.246, for this Tvar = 22.5 from Fig. 3.5 (b), calculated value of T = 41.4oC
9. Tav = Ti + 0.5 T = 45+0.5x41.4 = 65.7oC. Hence equilibrium temperature will
be about 66oC.
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
3
x 10
r n
2 26.5x10
4. S
0.085
1000
6
c p
3.13 x 10
5.
r
f 3.05
c
6.
f 3.05
7.
c
3.05x103 0.00305
r
x40 x 600
dn
1.26m / s
60000
60000
from which
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Iteration 2
1. For oil temperature of 61.9oC,
24.5x103 x 10
r n
2. S 10002
0.078
6
c p
3.13 x 10
3. f = 0.00285
4. Hg = F f v = 2500 x0.00285 x 1.26 = 8.98 Nm /s
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Applications
Electric motors
0.8 1.5
Air compressors
Main bearing
1.0 - 2.0
Steam turbines
1.0 2.0
Air compressors
Crank pin bearing
2.0 4.0
Gear reducers
0.8 1.5
Centrifugal pumps
0.6 1.2
Machine Design II
Diesel
Engines
Applications
Unit loads
MPa
Automotive
gasoline engines
Main bearings
6 12
Main bearings
4-5
Connecting
rod bearings
8 15
Connecting rod
bearings
10 15
ho 0.005 + 0.00004 d
(units in mm)
(3.7)
This equation applies only to bearings that have finely ground journal with
surface roughness not exceeding 5m, that have good standards of geometric
accuracy circumferential out of roundness, axial taper, and waviness both
circumferential and axial; and that have good standards of oil cleanliness.
A factor of safety of 2 is suggested for steady loads that can be assessed with
good accuracy.
Machine Design II
In any specific design the clearance ratio has a range of values, depending on
the tolerances assigned to the journal and bearing diameter.
Peripheral speed m/
Low to medium
Low <2
Medium -2 to 3
High >3
0.7 1.2
1.4-2.0
2-3
0.3-0.6
0.8-1.4
1.5-2.5
p<8
High
p>8
Roughness
values
Type of
machining
Roughness
values
Rough turning
finish
16 - 40
Fine turning,
reaming,
grinding,
broaching finish
2.5 6.0
Medium
turning finish
6 - 16
Very fine
grinding, lapping,
honing
1 2.5
Machine Design II
loss ensuring
adequate oil film thickness. Operation in the optimum zone in Raimondi chart
ensures good design.
3. Ensure adequate supply of clean and cool oil at the bearing inlet.
4. Ensure that the oil temperature never exceeds 93oC for long life of the oil.
5. Grooves are to be provided for distribution of oil admitted to the bearing over
its full length. If so, they should be kept away from highly loaded areas.
9. To arrive at a good design, right combinations of clearance and oil viscosity for
given operating condition should be chosen. This will ensure running of the
bearing with minimum friction and wear, and lowest possible temperature by
dissipating the heat.
---------------------------------
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
5. Should have good thermal conductivity to dissipate the frictional heat and
coefficient of thermal expansion similar to the journal and housing material.
6. It should be compatible with journal material to resist scoring, welding and
seizing.
7. Should have good corrosion resistance against the lubricant and engine
combustion products.
10% Sn,
Machine Design II
bearings are grooved to facilitate the supply of lubricant to the surface of the
journal. Various groove pattern used in industry are shown in Fig. 4.2
Fanged
(d) Straight
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Applications
Electric motors
0.8 1.5
Air compressors
Main bearing
1.0 - 2.0
Steam turbines
1.0 2.0
Air compressors
Crank pin bearing
2.0 4.0
Gear reducers
0.8 1.5
Centrifugal
pumps
0.6 1.2
Machine Design II
10. The recommended viscosity of oil for the centrifugal pump application is
30 80 cP. Hence from the chart SAE 30 oil is chosen.
11. Assuming the bearing to operate between 50 to 60OC and average oil
temperature of 55OC, = 34 cP from Fig. 2.3e
12. Clearance ratio of for p < 8 MPa and v > 3 m /s. (c/r) =2x10 -3 assumed. Or
r/c = 500.
2
3
x29
2 34x10
r n
0.296
13. S 500
6
c p
0.833x 10
Medium 2 to 3
High >3
Low to medium
p< 8 MPa
0.7-1.2
1.24 2.0
2-3
High
p>8 MPa
0.3 0.6
0.8 1.4
1.5 2.5
Roughness
values
Type of machining
Roughness
values
Rough turning
finish
16 - 40
Fine turning,
reaming, grinding,
broaching finish
2.5 6.0
Medium
turning finish
6 - 16
1 2.5
14. S = 0.296 and l/d = 0.75, Tvar = CH (T/p) =26.5 from Fig.2.20c.
15. T = 26.5 p/ CH = 26.5 x 0.833 x 106 / 861x1760 = 14.6oC
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
l = 80mm
l/d = 0.75
SAE 30 oil
C= 120m
ho =59 m
p=0.833MPa
pmax=1.98MPa Tav=56.9oC
Ti = 50oC
= 54.8o
pmax = 17.8o
po =78o
Q =73.4cc/s
Qs=45 cc/s
Bearing
material
Cast Bronze
Reamed and
honed
f = 0.0132
Fit
120 H7/ f8
Journal
Hardened &
ground
TH =63.8oC
= 32.5 cP
Fig.2.8b Chart for minimum film thickness variable and eccentricity ratio.
The left shaded zone defines the optimum ho for minimum friction; the right
boundary is the optimum ho for maximum load
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Fig.2.13b Chart for determining the ratio of side flow to total flow
Machine Design II
Machine Design II
Fig. 2.15b Chart for finding the terminating position of oil film and position
of maximum film pressure
Machine Design II
lubrication
lubrication
lubrication
Machine Design II
Hence, in boundary lubricated regime to keep the adhesive wear low, oils with
some amount of blend with solid lubricants like MoS2, Teflon and graphite are
quite often used. Since wear is proportional to the frictional work done or pv
value, the design is based on this factor.
Further to prevent cold flow of the bearing material, pmax should be less than the
permissible value for the material and the maximum sliding velocity is also limited
to permissible value for the material, as it increases the dynamic load. Hence for
a good design,
(p v) (p v) max
(4. 2)
permissible value of ,
p pmax
(4.3)
and
v vmax
(4.4)
The choice of journal and bearing material pairing play vital role in design apart
from the lubricant in reducing adhesive wear, seizure, scoring etc. The
permissible value of the
pv
Where
k (TB TA )
fm
( 4.5)
Machine Design II
k is the constant that depends upon the ability of the bearing to dissipate
the heat. A best estimate of the k value is from the previous design application
and working performance. A rough estimate done by considering maximum pv
value and minimum friction in Fig. 3.6 and maximum pv value from Table 4.5.
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Temperature
Speed
pv value
pmax MPa
TBmax oC
Vmax m/s
MPa.m/s
Cast Bronze
31
165
7.5
1.75
Sintered bronze
31
65
7.5
1.75
Sintered Fe
55
65
1.75
Pb-bronze
24
150
7.6
2.1
Sintered Fe-Cu
28
65
1.1
1.2
Material
Machine Design II
Maximum
pressure
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Temperature
Speed
pv value
pmax MPa
TBmax oC
Vmax m/s
MPa.m/s
Cast iron
150
1.5
0. 5
Hardenable Fe-Cu
55
--
0.2
2.6
Bronze-iron
17
--
4.1
1.2
Lead- iron
--
4.1
1.8
Aluminium
14
--
6.1
1.8
Maximum
pressure
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Temperature
Speed
pv value
pmax MPa
TBmax C
Vmax m/s
MPa.m/s
Phenolics
41
93
13
0.53
Nylon
14
93
0.11
TFE
3.5
260
0.25
0.035
Filled TFE
17
260
5.1
0.35
TFE fabric
414
260
0.76
0.88
Maximum
pressure
pmax MPa
Maximum
Temperature
TBmax oC
Maximum
Speed
Vmax m/s
Maximum
pv value
MPa.m/s
104
5.1
011
Acetal
14
93
0.11
Carbon graphite
400
13
0.53
Rubber
0.35
66
20
-------
Wood
14
71
10
0.42
Polycarbonate
Machine Design II
(4. 6)
MPa
m/s
(pv)max MPa.ms-1
Tmax
25
0.3
1.636
90
0.03
6 30 x 10-6
Lower values of K refer to oil lubricated bearings with ground journal and steady
load. Higher values refer to Oscillatory loads.
4.4. BOUNDARY AND MIXED-FILM LUBRICATED BEARINGS- PROBLEM 1
A bush bearing has to operate under boundary lubricated condition with a radial
load of 150 N and speed of 4 rps. Its wear should be less than 0.03 mm in 5000
h of operation. Maximum operating temperature is 85oC. Factor of safety desired
is 2. Choose suitable oiles bearing for the application. Assume an air
temperature of 30OC.Take k = 15.3 W/m2. oC
Machine Design II
OK
Machine Design II
4. 4 THRUST BEARINGS
When shaft axial loads are great (as with vertical shafts of substantial weight,
and propeller shafts subjected to substantial thrust loads),hydrodynamic thrust
bearings can be provided which is shown in the following figure.
a. Oil supplied to the inside diameter of the rotating collar or runner flows outward
by centrifugal force through the bearing interface.
b. As the oil is dragged circumferentially through the bearing, it experiences a
wedging action, which is due to the tapered pads on the stationary member.
Machine Design II
--------------------------