A Local Ecosystem

compare the abiotic characteristics of aquatic and terrestrial

environments
Chemicals

Light
Temp.

Aquatic environment
O2
Low solubility in water, but more soluble in cold water
thus more available in colder waters. Mixing with air is
also a factor: water tumbling over waterfalls or rapids
contains more oxygen than stagnant water in a swamp.
H2O
Obtaining water rarely limiting. However drought in
inland regions- animals burrow into mud to survive.
Animals in salt water have problems keeping water
because of osmosis.
Light penetration decreases with depth. Photosynthesis occurs
only in the upper layers. Thus many animals living below the
level of light penetration depend on food material from above.
Water has a high specific heat and will absorb large amounts
with little change in temperature. Land nearby has a much
lower specific heat and will change temperature by a much
greater amount.

Terrestrial environment
Rarely limiting

Availability varies a lot in terrestrial environments.

Rainforests, epiphytes have to survive dry periods in
the treetops. In deserts, plants and animals have many
adaptations to survive the lack of water.
Plants living at lower levels in rainforests have leaves
adapted to low light levels, or grow to reach upper
levels when a hole appears in canopy.
Large fluctuations. Adaptations: plants conserve
water; small or suitably orientated leaves keep its
edge directed to sun. Animals may burrow into soil to
avoid heat.

identify the factors determining the distribution and abundance of a

species in each environment
Distribution and abundance

The distribution of a species is that part of a continent that it inhabits.

However the abundance [numbers] of an organism varies from one part of the distribution to another.
Terrestrial

Aquatic

Eucalypts in dry, open forests

Mineral deficiency: When eucalypts shed their leaves, they reabsorb most of the nutrients in them.
Fire: Eucalypts are adapted to survive fire: epicormic buds found under the bark sprout new leaves soon after a fire.
The bark is often quite thick, thus insulating the trunk, but if the fire is severe a tree can often grow again from
large lignotubers protected beneath the ground.
Lungfish in freshwater streams
Drought: If the water dries up completely, the lungfish can bury itself in the mud where it awaits the next rain.
Oxygen levels: The lungfish is able to obtain oxygen from freshwater by using its gills; however if the water becomes
stagnant and lacking in oxygen, it can obtain oxygen from the air by using its lung.

identify uses of energy by organisms

The chemical energy taken in by a herbivore can be accoutned for as follows:

Some is used by the herbivore for the energy-requiring processes that are part of being alive, such as active transport, muscle
contraction, digestion, nerve transmission and hormone production. Chemical energy converted to heat energy.

Some is lost as organic matter in the faeces, urine and tissue.

Some is used to build new organic matter in the herbivore as part of growth, maintenance and repair.

describe the roles of photosynthesis and respiration in ecosystems

All energy transfers in an ecosystem begin with producers that trap external energy and convert it to chemical energy in organic
matter. Energy in this form can then flow to primary consumers and then to secondary consumers. Producers in ecosystems are
typically photosynthetic organisms, such as plants. These build organic matter from inorganic substances by photosyntheis.
Consumers in an ecosystem obtain their energy in the form of chemical energy in their food, through respiration.

identify the general equation for aerobic cellular respiration and

outline this as a summary of a chain of biochemical reactions
The process of cellular respiration is a complex chain of reactions.

glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water + energy.

In cellular respiration, glucose is oxidised and converted to carbon dioxide and water and energy is released. This is called
aerobic cellular respiration.

examine trends in population estimates for some plant and animal

species within an ecosystem
Measuring populations

The most accurate way to find the size of a population Is to count every member of it. We can estimate the number of plants by
using quadrats. First, mark out a 1 m area and count the number of plants in that area. Do this 5 times on other representative
areas. Then take an average to find the number of grass plants per m. Finally, multiply the average number of plants per m by
the number of m in the oval.

We can estimate the number of animals using the capture-recapture method. Suppose that you want to know the number of
ground beetles in an area. First, you could set some pit-traps- a cup set into the ground- and early in the morning count the
number of beetles you catch [M1]. Then mark each beetle with a small dab of brightly coloured paint before you release them.
When you return next morning, count the number of beetles caught [N] and the number of those with paint on them [M2]. To
estimate the total population of beetles, use the following formula: M1/total population = M2/N

The capture recapture method provides only an estimate because it makes three major assumptions: large numbers of beetles did
not move into or out of the area during the night, nor were any eaten; all members of the population are equally likely to fall into
the traps; no beetle lost its markings.

identify examples of allelopathy, parasitism, mutualism and

commensalism in an ecosystem and the role of organisms in each
type of relationship
Interactions
Mutualism
Commensalism
Parasitism
Allelopathy

Examples from local ecosystem

Lichen [fungi] and algae. The fungi gives living support for the algae, while the
photosynthesis from the algae provides food for the lichen.
An oyster attaches itself to a mangrove pneumatophore. The oyster has a solid
base to live and the mangrove is not disadvantaged.
A vine grows on a Pittosporom tree. The vine penetrates the mangroves bark,
into the tissues, and takes some of its nutrients. The mangrove is
disadvantaged by this.
She-oak casuarinas shed needles to make the surrounding base soil more acidic,
and this is a loss to other species as it is the loss of an extra habitat.

describe the role of decomposers in ecosystems

Decomposers: organisms of decay
Saprophytes e.g. fungi and bacteria, obtain energy by breaking down [or decomposing] the complex molecules in the decaying
tissues of plants and animals.
These organisms of decay are vital to the health of all ecosystems because they play a crucial role in the cycling of most
important nutrients.
Without these invisible but essential heterotrophs, the bodies of dead animals would litter the landscape and the nutrients
accumulated during their lifetimes would be lost to the ecosystem.

explain trophic interactions between organisms in an ecosystem

using food chains, food webs and pyramids of biomass and energy

Beginning with the capture of sunlight by primary producers, energy passes through food chains and webs- from producer to
consumers. As it flows, energy is alternately stored and used to allow the life processes of all organisms to continue.
Biomass- mass of living material in an area. Units of energy i.e. kJm-2 or organic matter i.e. kgm-2.
The energy captured by producers and consumers is temporarily stored until one organism eats another. Each of these storage
stops along a food chain/web is called a trophic level. Primary producers represent the 1st trophic level; herbivores occupy the
second; carnivores that eat herbivores form the third and so on.
Inefficient energy chains create what ecological pyramids, where, each trophic level contains only 10% as much energy in living
tissue as the layer beneath it.

Biomass pyramid- total dry organic matter at each trophic level, independent of time when biomass at different levels built uptherefore can be inverted- fish take many years to accumulate biomass, algae take shorter time- therefore more biomass in
consumer.
Energy pyramid- energy input to each trophic level in a given area of an ecosystem over an extended period. Because the flow
of energy through all ecosystem Is reduced as energy flows from one trophic level to the next, pyramids of energy are never
inverted.

define the term adaptation and discuss the problems associated

with inferring characteristics of organisms as adaptations for living
in a particular habitat
An adaptation is any internal body process of cells or tissues, physical feature or pattern of behaviour in a living thing that makes it
better able to survive and reproduce in its environment. The Sydney rock oyster is adapted to life on a rock platform in that it is
cemented to the rock and cannot be washed off. It is also able to close its shell and survive some drying. By working with its
environment, such as tolerating some daily exposure to the drying air, the oyster can keep the predators and choking growth at
bay.
We must be careful when using the word adaptation. Just because a plant or animal is found in a location does not mean it has any
special adaptations to that environment. For example, old-man saltbush will grow very well if planted in well-watered gardens in
milder climates, but it has no special adaptations for that environment. Instead, it is well adapted to dry, saline plains. The leaf
has a thick cuticle that controls water loss, and uses salt secretion to tolerate high salinity.

identify some adaptations of living things to factors in their

environment

Snails and limpets move out to feed on algae covering wet rocks and have a muscular foot that allows them to cling tightly and
not be washed off by waves. Adaptations to stop water loss. The blue snails fill their shell with water and then close off the end
with a protective lid. Limpets use their larger muscular foot to pull themselves tight against the surface to retain moisture
The Sydney rock oyster is adapted to life on a rock platform in that it is cemented to the rock and cannot be washed off. It is also
able to close its shell and survive some drying. By working with its environment, such as tolerating some daily exposure to the
drying air, the oyster can keep the predators and choking growth at bay.

identify and describe in detail adaptations of a plant and an animal

from the local ecosystem
Crabs
Body armour to protect soft bodies. Female crabs have a modified abdomen under which they carry their eggs.
Crabs dig burrows to hide from predators. Also used for keeping warm in winter and safe from fish at high tide.
Crabs forage for food at low tide, eating detritus.
Mangroves
Problems
of seed
dispersal
Problems
of high
salinity
Problem of
aeration

Some mangroves drop their seeds as seedlings (vivipary) which already have matured developing roots.
Buoyant seeds allow the young mangroves to be dispersed by tidal movement.
Their root systems assists them to anchor in the mud when deposited by the tide.
Mangroves tolerate salinity by: secreting salts from their leaves; excluding salt [root tissue prevent larger
salt molecules but allow smaller water molecules to pass]; salt storage [stored in leaves which fall off].

Pneumatophores grow up from the underground cable root system. They extract oxygen from the water to
keep the roots aerated.

outline factors that affect numbers in predator and prey populations

As a rule, plant and animal populations do not fluctuate wildly; rather, they are kept under control by interactions with each other
and with their environments. Nearly any population of organisms that has plenty of food and that is free of predators and disease
soon begins to grow rapidly. Or, population growth may slow down and reach equilibrium for any of three reasons: the birth rate
may drop, the death rate may increase, or both at the same time [S-shape]. When birth and death rates precisely balance each
other, the population reaches ZPG.

Predation- The killing and eating of one species by an organism from another species. Predators may increase the preys death
rate by eating adults, decrease its birth rate by eating eggs or both. In nature, predators are usually only able to catch a certain
number of prey- when prey numbers are reduced they become harder to find.
Predator-prey cycle. As we can see from house mice, they tend to increase a little after a good barley crop. The number crashes
when food supplies are exhausted. However ecologists are cautious: when the number plummeted, the mice might have migrated
rather than died. And it is hard to tell if the changes were because of either random variations in the environment or even a
second predator that fed on the mice.

 describe and explain the short-term and long-term consequences on

the ecosystem of species competing for resources

Plants and animals may compete for inorganic nutrients, water and light; animal populations may compete for water, edible
plants, suitable prey or space.
Competitive exclusion: Two species cannot live together in the same place at the same time if they are both limited by one or
more of the same limiting resources. Under those conditions, one species drives the other to extinction locally.

Short term:
Exponential

Long term:
Equilibrium

Nearly any population of organisms that has plenty of food and that is free of predators and disease soon begins
to grow rapidly. Exponential growth is then the larger the population is, the faster it grows- J-shaped growth
curves. This results in a population crash, far exceeding the carrying capacity of the environment, and crashes
instead of reaching equilibrium, because they have seriously degraded their environment.
Limited amount of space and food supply: S-shaped curve. At the top of this curve, population growth is zero:
although new individuals are continually being born, others are dying at the same rate. The total number of
individuals therefore remains constant and the population exists in a steady state or equilibrium.
A population in equilibrium contains as many individuals as its particular environment can support for extended
periods of time- the population has reached the carrying capacity of the environment for that species.

identify the impact of humans in the ecosystem studied

Human impacts on mangrove ecosystems
Beneficial

From vegetation clearance, people have increased siltation at the mouth of many rivers. This has advantaged
the growth of mangroves in certain areas.
Detrimental
Destroyed in way of garbage dumps and playing fields.
Destroyed and drained for farmland leading to increase in acidity.

process and analyse information obtained from a variety of

sampling studies to justify the use of different sampling techniques
to make population estimates when total counts cannot be
performed
The use of different sampling techniques can help us determine the important value of samples studied.
Number of intervals containing the species
Total number of intervals

X 100

Frequency of a species
Total frequency of all species

X 100

Total number of individuals of a species

Total number of individuals of all species

X 100

Cover

Total intercept length of a species

Total length of transects

X 100

Relative cover

Total intercept length of a species

Total intercept length of all species

X 100

Frequency
Relative frequency
Relative density

Importance value

Relative frequency + relative density + relative cover

 choose equipment or resources and undertake a field study of a

local terrestrial or aquatic ecosystem to identify data sources and:
i. measure abiotic variables in the ecosystem being studied using
appropriate instruments and relate this data to the distribution of
organisms
ii. estimate the size of a plant population and an animal population in
the ecosystem using transects and/or random quadrats
iii. collect, analyse and present data to describe the distribution of the
plant and animal species whose abundance has been estimated
iv. describe two trophic interactions found between organisms in the
area studied
i)
Temperature: Dry bulb thermometer

Soil. Make 10 cm hole with pen/pencil, insert thermometer and pack tightly for a minute. Read and record.
Soil temperatures below about 10C cause most plants to slow down or stop growing. Below 0C plants become
dormant, some losing their leaves. Above 50C, plant tissue can be damaged.
Temperature also influences humidity and transpiration rates.

Humidity: Whirling hygrometer

Fill the reservoir with water, spin hygrometer for 2 minutes. Read and record using scale for relative humidity.
Humidity will affect the type of plants that grow in an area.
Depending on humidity, plant leaves may show adaptations to prevent/promote water loss.

Wind speed: Anemometer

Hold the meter at eye level, rotate it 360 to locate the wind, hold into wind to record max speed.
Some species of plants will only grow in protected areas, whereas others prefer more exposed windy conditions.

ii)

Quadrat Results- crabs

Group
Site:
Site 2
1
1
0
3
2
0
11
3
0
3
4
2
6
5
0
11
Site Total
2
34
Arithmetic
0.4
6.8
mean
Crabs per square metre: 26.6
Mangroves: Transects
Group
(m)

Site 3

Site 4

Total

30
18
0
48
9.6

18
11
10
10
49
12.25

51
22
61
8
21
133
26.6

No.
No. Sea Rush Plant Total
mangroves
1
20
2
9
11
2
20
3
0
3
3
20
3
0
3
4
20
3
0
3
5
20
2
0
2
Totals
100
13
9
22
Arithmetic mean
0.13
0.09
0.22
Mangroves per square metre: 0.13 [evenly distributed though interrupted by board walk]
Sea rush per square metre: 0.09 [despite extremely uneven distribution]

iii)

Total number of crabs

Number of crabs in 4 different sites

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1

Site

Changes in distribution of crabs [and other organisms] could be due to tidal variability and availability of
water influencing changes in habitats.
With river mangroves, the distribution of age is generally older in the 25m-40m region, spreading out from
both sides in growth. Some abiotic variability could be causing the distribution of mangroves to vary,
including the sloping of the soil which will influence water availability, and also the salinity of the soil and
water in different parts of the transect.

iv)
Trophic interactions
Trophic interactions are feeding relationships. All feeding relationships show a one-way flow of energy. As you create food webs and
food chains in your interaction table you will be showing the tropic interactions that occur between the organisms that you observe.
i. Carnivores, e.g. fish, e.g. bream eating crabs
ii. Herbivores, e.g. oyster living in tree