Chapter 1

Functions of One Variable

Examples 1, Q1
Examples 1, Q2

1.1

Variables

Quantities which can take a range of values (e.g. the temperature of the air, the concentration of pollutant in a river, etc.) are called variables.

1.2

Functions of One Variable

If there is a process which takes a variable x as an input, and produces another variable
y as a single output, (so that the value of y depends on the value of x) then we say that
y is a function of x. The process, or function, is denoted by a letter (often f ) and this is
written
y = f (x).
For example, the flux of electromagnetic radiation E emitted by a body at absolute
temperature T is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law:
E = T 4

(1.1)

where is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67108 Wm2 K1 ) and is the emissivity

(a property of the surface, 0 1). You can think of this as a process where you dial
up a temperature T (the input) and measure the the flux of electromagnetic radiation
E (the output). In this case
E = f (T )
(1.2)
where
f (T ) = T 4 .

(1.3)

Usually, one variable is given some value, and another is determined from this using a
function. In the above case the temperature may be given a value and the radiative flux
can be deduced from equation (1.2). We call the first variable the independent variable
and the deduced variable the dependent variable. In the above case, T is the independent
variable and E is the dependent variable.

1.3

Graphs

For a known function f (x) of an independent variable x we can plot a graph as a curve
relative to x- and y-axes.

Figure 1.1: A graph of the function y = f (x). For a given value of x (c for example), we
can read o the value of y (equal to f (c)).
Note that the independent variable is usually plotted on the x-axis and the dependent
variable on the y-axis.
Examples 1, Q3

1.4

Inverse Functions

If y = f (x) then given a value of x, we can find the corresponding value of y. Usually this
process can be reversed and given a value of y, we can find one or more corresponding
values of x. We could write
x = g(y).
We say that the function g is the inverse of the function f . Usually the (sometimes
confusing) notation
x = f 1 (y)
is used, where f 1 means the inverse of the function f .
For example, if
y = ax
where a is a constant, then

y
x= .
a

In the example of section 1.2,

T = f 1 (E)
r
4 E
where f 1 (E) =

To find this inverse, we simply rearranged equation (1.1).

Finding inverses: Examples 1, Q4

1.5

Linear Functions

Linear functions are of the form

y = f (x) = mx + c.

(1.4)

Note that if x = 0, y = c and if y = 0, then mx + c = 0 so that mx = c and x = mc .

Suppose that if x = x1 then y = y1 and if x = x2 then y = y2 . Therefore
y1 = mx1 + c
and y2 = mx2 + c.

(1.5)
(1.6)

Subtracting these.
and therefore

y2 y1 = mx2 mx1 = m(x2 x1 )

y2 y1
.
(1.7)
x2 x1
m is called the gradient of the line represented by y = mx + c and c is called the intercept
on the y axis.
m=

Figure 1.2: The function y = mx+c showing the intercept c and how the gradient m may
be found by constructing a right-angle triangle with sides of length y2 y1 and x2 x1 .
Sketching linear graphs: Examples 1, Q5

1.6

Polynomial Functions

Polynomial functions are of the form

y = f (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 .

(1.8)

n is called the order of the polynomial. If n = 1 the polynomial function is a linear

function (see above). If n = 2 it is a quadratic function (e.g. y = 2x2 + 5x + 3) and if
n = 3 it is a cubic function (e.g. y = 4x3 x2 + 3x 1).
4

1.7

Power Functions

These functions are of the form

y = f (x) = axn

(1.9)

so polynomial functions are composed of power functions. However, n here may take any
real value, including negative values (e.g. n = 1) and non-integer values (e.g. n = 32 ).
Some examples are

1
y = x 2 = x,
y = 3x2
1
and y = x3 = 3 .
x
Some rules for exponents:
xa+b = xa xb ,
(xa )b = xab ,
1
xa = a ,
x

1
x a = a x,
(xy)a = xa y a ,
x0 = 1 if x 6= 0.

1.8

The Exponential and Logarithm Functions

Imagine a sort of bacteria that reproduces itself so that after 1hour it doubles the number
of bacteria that are there (e.g. each bacteria splits into 2 every hour). Starting with 1
bacteria, how many would there be after 3 hours? Each hour, it multiplies by 2, so we
get
2 2 2 = 23 = 8 bacteria
How many after 8 hours?
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 = 28 = 256 bacteria
How many after x hours? The answer is 2x .
If, instead, the bacteria managed to multiply by 10 every hour, the answer would
be 103 = 1000 bacteria after 3 hours, 108 = 100, 000, 000 after 8 hours (urgh) and, in
general, 10x after x hours.
Functions like
f (x) = 2x
f (x) = 10x
or, in general
f (x) = ax
where a is just a number are very common in (for example) population growth models.
They are called exponential functions.
5

As a special case, THE exponential function is

y = f (x) = ex

(1.10)

where e 2.7182818285 . . .. To find out what is so special about this number, see chapter
2!

Figure 1.3: The exponential function y = ex and y = ex .

The inverse of the exponential function is the natural logarithm function written as
y = ln(x).

(1.11)

So if y = ex then x = ln(y). (You can think of ln(y) as asking the question, what power
must e be raised to in order to obtain y?). Hence

ln e2 = 2

ln e5.3 = 5.3
ln (65.3) = 4.1789 because e4.1789 = 65.3
Further, if
y = eax
where a is a constant, then taking the inverse
ax = ln(y)
1
ln(y).
and therefore x =
a
Sometimes the natural logarithm is called the logarithm to base e.
Some rules for manipulating logarithms:
ln(xy)

x
ln
y
ln(xa )
ln(1)
ln(0)

= ln(x) + ln(y),

(1.12)

= ln(x) ln(y),

(1.13)

= a ln(x),
= 0,
= i.e. it is meaningless.

(1.14)
(1.15)
(1.16)

Figure 1.4: The exponential function and its inverse function, the natural logarithm.
Examples 1, Q6
Examples 1, Q7

1.9

The Logarithm to Base 10

Analogous to the exponential function, if

y = 10x
then there must be an inverse function which we denote by
y = f (x) = log10 (x)
You can think of log10 (x) as asking the question, what power must 10 be raised to in
order to obtain x?. Since 102 = 100 then log10 (100) = 2, 103 = 1000 then log10 (1000) =
3, etc.

1.10

Trigonometric Functions

Firstly, with reference to Fig. 1.5(a) below, we define the angle in radians to be
=

s
r

(1.17)

where s is the length of the arc of radius r. We know that if s forms a complete circle,
then s = 2r (where 3.141592654 . . .). Then clearly, = 2. Hence
2 radians = 360

or 1 =
radians.
180

Figure 1.5: (a) The definition of the angle in radians with reference to the arc of length
s, radius r; (b) The definitions of sin() and cos(); (c) A right-angled triangle with angle
and side lengths x (adjacent to ), y (opposite to ) and r (the hypotenuse).
Refer now to Fig. 1.5(b), showing the circle of radius 1 and a radius indicated making
an angle with the x-axis as shown. Then the trigonometric functions sin(x) and cos(x)
are defined as the lengths of the sides of the right-angled triangle as shown. Finally, with
reference to Fig. 1.5(c), we know from Pythagoras theorem for a right-angled triangle
r2 = x2 + y 2 .
In this figure,
y
y
=p
r
x2 + y 2
x
x
=p
cos() =
r
x2 + y 2
sin()
y
=
.
tan() =
x cos()
sin() =

and

(1.18)
(1.19)
(1.20)

You might also recall definitions of these in terms of the opposite side (O), the adjacent
side (A) and the hypotenuse (H), which you can remember with the word SOHCAHTOA.
O
H
A
cos() =
H
O
.
tan() =
A
sin() =

and

REVISE: solving for angles/lengths of triangles

8

(1.21)
(1.22)
(1.23)

Figure 1.6: Graphs of y = sin(x) and y = cos(x).

Figure 1.7: Graph of y = tan(x).

Some relationships involving sin and cos functions:
sin(x)
cos(x)
2
sin (x) + cos2 (x)
sin(x + y)
sin(x y)
cos(x + y)
and cos(x y)

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

sin(x)
cos(x)
1,
sin(x) cos(y) + cos(x) sin(y)
sin(x) cos(y) cos(x) sin(y)
cos(x) cos(y) sin(x) sin(y)
cos(x) cos(y) + sin(x) sin(y).

(1.24)
(1.25)
(1.26)
(1.27)
(1.28)

More details (and derivation) of these given in Appendix B

Examples 1, Q8
It follows that
and

sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x)

cos(2x) = cos2 (x) sin2 (x) = 2 cos2 (x) 1 = 1 2 sin2 (x).
9

(1.29)
(1.30)

Two useful results are:

sin(x) x for |x| 1
cos(x) 1 for |x| 1.

(1.31)
(1.32)

More details of this is given in Appendix B

Three more trigonometric functions which are derived from the previous three are:
1
,
cos(x)
1
cosec(x) =
sin(x)
1
cos(x)
and cot(x) =
=
.
tan(x)
sin(x)
sec(x) =

1.11

(1.33)
(1.34)
(1.35)

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

If v = sin(x) then given a value of x, we can find v. We would hope also to be able to
perform the reverse operation: given a value of v, we could attempt to find x. We write
x = sin1 v.
In words, this means x is the angle whose sine is v. So for example, since sin( 6 ) = 12 , it
follows that sin1 21 = 6 . But note also that sin( 5
) = 12 and therefore sin1 21 = 5
also.
6
6
1
There are infinitely many other values of x such that sin(x) = 2 , so in fact the function
sin1 v must have infinitely many values. Fig. 1.8 shows the functions y = f (x) = sin1 x,
y = f (x) = cos1 x. Fig. 1.9 shows the function y = tan1 x.

10

Figure 1.8: Graphs of y = sin1 x and y = cos1 x. Note that x cannot lie outside the
range 1 x 1.

Figure 1.9: Graph of y = tan1 x.

11