5. The notion of a
term.Its
characteristics and
st. f-s.Scientific
prose.
T. are w-ds denoting
various scientifical &
techn. Objects,
phenomena & But not everything
processes. They are
found in techn. Texts
where they are
indespensible means
of expressing ideas.
They directly refer to
the o-t they mean.
They are emotionally
neutral. They are: 1-
monosemantic; 2-m-
ng doesn’t depend on
the context;3-it
remains constant until
some new invention
changes it(wireless
set=radio); 4- no
emotional
colouring,but it can
obtain it when taken
out from techn.
Sphere.
St-c f-s: 1- to create a
realistic background
for the novel;2- ### a
humorous effect if t.
are used in lexical
surrounding abs-ly
foreign to them. T.
gradually lose their
quality of terms &
pass into common
literary or neutral
vocabulary.
T. are mainly used in
scient. Prose. This
style includes different
articles, monographs,
conference
proceedings & other
kinds of academic
publications.the main
ch-cs are
precision,logical
cohesion, repeated use
of clichés.
6 newspaper st. var- 7 the style of official 8. publicist style.
s & pecul-s, documents (oratory, speeches,
distinction from it is the most essays, articles) the
pub-c st. conservative. It style is a perfect ex. Of
includes informative preserves cast-iron historical changeability
materials: news in forms of structuring& of stylistic
brief, headlines, ads, uses syntactical constr- differentiation of
additional articles. s words known as discourses. In Greece it
archaic & not observed was practiced in oral
published in the any more else. form which was named
paper can be included Addressing documents P. in accordance with
in N.S. we mean and official letters, the name of its
publicist essays, signing them, corresponding genre.
feature articles, expressing the reasons PS is famouse for its
scient. Reviews are and considerations explicit pragmatic
not N.S. to attract the leading to the subject function of persuasion
readers attention of the doc-t – all this is directed at influencing
special means are strictly regulated both the reader & shaping
used by british & am. lexically & syntact. All his views in accordance
Papers ex: specific emotiveness and subj. with the argumentation
headlines, space modality are of the author. We find
ordering. We find completely banned out in PS a blend of the
here a large of this style. rigorous logical
proportion of dates, ( contracts, treaties, reasoning, reflecting
personal names of agreements etc.) the objective state of
countries, things & a strong
institutions, subjectivity reflecting
individuals. To the authors personal
achieve an effect of feelings and emotions
objectivity in towards the discussed
rendering some fact subject.
or event most of info
is published
anonymously,
without the name of
newsman who
supplied it, with little
or no subjective
modality. But the
position of the paper
becomes clear from
the choice not only
of subj. matter but
also of words
denoting international
or domestic issues.
 9. Peculiarities of
belles-lettres style, its
varieties & genres.
Belle-letters style (the
style of fiction)
embraces:1)poetry;
2)drama; 3)emotive
prose. B-l style or the
style of imaginative
literature may be
called the richest
register of
communication:
besides its own lan-ge
means which are not
used in any other
sphere of
communication, b-l st.
makes ample use of
other styles too, for in
numerous works of
literary art we find
elements of scientific,
official and other
functional types of
speech. Besides
informative and
persuasive functions,
also found in other
functional styles, the
b-l style has a unique
task to impress the
reader aesthetically.
The form becomes
meaningful and carries
additional info.
Boundless possibilities
of expressing one's
thoughts and feelings
make the b-l style a
highly attractive field
of research for a
linguist.
The belles-lettres
style, in each of its
concrete
representations, fulfils
the aesthetic function,
which fact singles this
style out of others and
gives grounds to
recognize its
systematic uniqueness,
i.e. charges it with the
status if an
autonomous functional
style.
10. Archaisms & 11. Peculiarities of 12. Difference b/w
their stylistic poetic & highly foreign words &
functions. literary words. Poetic barbarisms, their
Archaisms: words form a rather stylistic functions. In
a)obsolete insignificant layer of the voc-ry of the E lan-
(устаревшие) words; the special literary e there is a considerable
b) historical words; vocabulary. They are layer of words called
c)archaisms proper. mostly archaic or very bar-ms. These are
a) obsolete – are rarely used highly words of foreign origin,
words which had literary words which which have not entirely
fallen out of use aim at producing an been assimilated into
completely as they elevated effect. They the E lan-ge. They bear
have been replaced have a marked the appearance of a
by syn-ms. Ex. dress tendency to detach borrowing & are felt as
(ModE) - habit themselves from the smth alien to the native
(obsolete word), I common literary word- tongue. The role
think (ModE) – stock and gradually foreign borrowings
methinks (ob.w). assume the quality of played in the dev-nt of
b) historical terms denoting certain the E literary lan-ge is
novelists make use of definite notions and well known, & the
historical w. They are calling forth poetic great majority of these
applied to concepts diction. Poetic words borrowed w-ds now
reflecting the past and expressions are form part of the rank &
stages of the dev-nt called upon to sustain file of the E voc-ry. It is
of humankind. Ex. the special elevated the science of ling-cs,
vassal –слуга. Such atmosphere of poetry. in particular its branch
w-s are numerous in This may be said to be etymology, that reveals
histirical novels as the main function of the foreign nature of
names of social poetic words. Poetical this or that word. But
relations, institutions tradition has kept alive most of what were
& objects of material such archaic words and formerly foreign
culture of the past. forms as quoth (to borrowings are now,
Ex. gonflat – speak); eftsoons from a purely stylistic
перчатка. The (eftsona,— again, soon position, not regarded
limited usage of hist. after), which are used as foreign. But still
words isn’t caused by even by modern ballad- there are some words,
linguistic factors but mongers. The use of which retain their
social ones. Stylistic poetic words does not foreign appearance to a
function of h.w-s: to as a rule create the greater, or lesser
create a true to life atmosphere of poetry in degree. These words,
background in the the true sense; it is a which are called bar-
hist-al novels. substitute for real art. ms, are, like archaisms,
c) archaic words Poetic words are not also considered to be
proper haven’t freely built in contrast on the outskirts of the
dropped out of usage to neutral, colloquial literary lan-ge. Most of
completely as they and common literary them have
are used in poetry & words, or terms. The corresponding E
some official doc-ts. commonest means is by synonyms; e. g. chic
Ex. hither (here) / compounding, e. g. (=stylish); en passant
thither (there) 'young-eyed', 'rosy- (= in passing); and
fingered'. many other w-s and
phrases. It is very imp-
nt for purely stylistic
purposes to distinguish
b/n bar-ms & foreign
w-s proper. Bar-ms are
w-s, which have
13.Main
characteristics of
slang.
Slang-very
ambiguous(двусмысл.
) & obscure(неясн.).S.
seems to mean
everything that is
below the standart
usage of present day
English.It’s the lowest
layer of E-sh voc-
ry,the usage of which
is regarded the
violation of standart E-
sh.S. is used in
dialects(to reflect
informal & emotional
character of a every social group
conversation).S. serves
to charac-ze the person
who is using it.
(E.g.:go mad=go
nuts,shut up=belt
up,boaster=big
head.).Slang words are
more emotive,inpoetic
if compared to their
neutral
synonyms:nonsence=r
ot,money=bucks.S.
can be used for those
words,which are either
mispronounced
phonetically,morph-
ly,lexically:leggo=let
go. S. broad &
embracing.It is
regarded as the quint-
essence(концентрат)
of colloquial speech &
therefore it stands
above all laws of
grammar.Some S.
words loose their
feature of novelty &
become common
literary words.(E.g.:
(Br.)go to the
pictures=go to the
movies(Am).S. needs
to translation. S.
differs from ordinary
lang-ge in its voc-
ry.But the structure of
the sentence and the
14.Proffesional & 15.Place & role of Продолжение 12
social jargonisms & dialectal words in the Bar-ms, on the
their stylistic national lang-ge & in contrary, are not made
functions. a literary text. conspicuous in the text
Jargon-a term for a Dialectal words have unless they bear a
group of words that come from dialects & special load of stylistic
exist in almost every still retain their info. There are foreign
language and their dialectal w-s in the E voc-ry,
aim is to preserve character.Many D. which fulfill a
secrecy within 1 or words have become so terminological
another social familiar in good function. It is evident
group.Jargonism-old colloquial lang-ge,that that bar-ms are a
words with entirely they became historical category.
new meanings universally accepted Many foreign w-s &
imposed on (E.g.:lass=girl,lad=a phrases which were
them(E.g.:greese=mo young man).Many of once just foreign w-s
ney,loaf=head).In Br. them are of Scottish used in literary E to
and USA almost origin.Of quite a dif. express a concept non-
nature-D. words which existent in E reality,
has its jargon.The are easily recognized as have little by little
Jargon of jazz,of corruptions of standard entered the class of
army,of English words,although words named bar-ms
sportsment,of the etimologically they and many of these bar-
youth. Groups of may have sprung the ms have gradually lost
J.:1)social j- pecularities of certain their foreign
n;2)professional j- dialects. peculiarities, become
n.1)-is used by part. (E.g.:hinny=honey,titty more or less naturalized
social classes & =sister).D. words create and have merged with
groups to conceal the a realistic background the native E stock of w-
subject of their (loc. colouring) when s. Another function of
conversation.2)-by used in a novel.They bar-ms and foreign w-s
prof. groups of show from which place is, to build up the
people to give the person stylistic device of non-
new,more expressive came,characterize personal direct speech
names to him(his personality) or represented speech.
tools,machines,proces through the speech & The use of a w-d, or a
ses connected with are mostly used in phrase, or a sentence in
the given emotive prose.Other the reported speech of a
occupation.Prof-s dialects used for local inhabitant helps to
may be regarded as stylistic reproduce his actual w-
colloquial synonyms purposes:1)Southern D. s, manner of speech &
of terms but terms are of the-environment as
supposed to be Britain(Sommersitshch well.
known to a wider er);2)initial [s],[th] are
audience and they voiced & are written in
devoid of emotional literary speech of ch-s
colouring. as z & v(e.g.
(E.g.:bulls=people folk=volk,see=zee).So
who buy the me D. words are
shares,bears=p. who introduced by writer
sell the which are
shares,piper=who understandable to the
plays pipes & p. who intelligent reader(e.g.
decorate cakes).Such maister=master,weel=w
kind of words should heel,enengh=enough).
be explained to
morph-gy remains “foreign people”-who
practically don’t belong to this
unchangeable prof./social gr.J.
differs from ordinary
lang-ge in its voc-
ry.But the structure of
the sentence and the
morph-gy remains
practically
unchangeable. Ways
of creating j-
sms:1)foreign
borrowings;2)phoneti
c deformations.
(E.g.:manany=to
sailor who puts off
job till some other
time;spain-
manjana=tomorrow).
Many non-lit-ry
words become
assimilated and enter
the lit-ry lang-ge.
They become
dejargonized(kid,fun,
bluff).

16.Literary coinages 17.Lexical meanings 19.Graphical stylistic 20. The notion of a

& neologisms, ways of a word & their means, kinds of metaphor, its
of their formation & components. graphons. peculiarities &
distinction. Lexical m-gs are In modern advertising, varieties.
There are words which logical nominal & mass media & creative M. is a stylistic device
appear as names od emotional m-gs. prose sound is based on interaction
new Logical m-g is an foregrounded through b/w the logical &
phenomena,presenting expression of the the change of its contextual m-gs of the
one of the ways of general features or accepted graphical word which is based on
enriching the voc- concepts of a given representation. The likeness b/w objects &
ry.There exist dif-nt thing or phenomenon intentional violation of implies analogy &
names e.g.- through 1 of its the graphical shape of comparison b/w them.
terminalogical qualities. Concept word or word comb-n Money burns a hole in
coinages.A great refers to a logical used to reflect its my pocket( wants to
number of words still sphere. authentic pronunciation send).The genuine
remain individual Corresponding ling. is called a graphon. metaphor is the
creations & don’ category is m-g. Introduced into E. expression of a writer's
appear at the pages of In the process of its novels & journalisms in individual vision. It is
the book in which they development the the 18 century graphon through the metaphor
have originated.Such word may acquire proved to be an that the writer reveals
words are called- additional meanings extremely effective his emotional attitude
individual(stylistic)coi & becomes means of supplying towards the described.
nages or polysemantic. A info about speaker’s It implies analogy &
neologisms.Their logical m-g may be origin, social & educ. likeness to concrete
maim f-n-1)to help the subdivided into Background, physical things, makes abstract
writer to achieve dependent & & emot. condition, etc. ideas more complex,
laconism of style & independent. Ind. log. (sellybrated, complex ideas more
expressivness;2)to m-g exists in a word illygitmet). Graphons simple. E.g. there was
create a humorous irrespectively of the are also good at no May morning in his
effect;Most of new word combination conveying atmosphere cowardly heart. the
words of the 16-17th where it is used(to of authentic life stylistic functions of the
cent.-mostly grow-расти). communication. We M. r: 1) by evoking
borrowings(Latin,Gree Dependent log. m-g have such clichés as in images & suggesting
k,French).They are can be brought out conversation as gotta, analogies it makes the
easily understood by only in context.(to wonna, gimme, lemme, author's thought more
the community,they grow older - wille, nowaru.It concrete definite &
follow the становиться becomes popular with clear.2) it reveals the
existengword building старше). advertisers. E.g.: Pik- author's emotional
patterns in Nominal m-g names wik(pick quick). There attitude towards the
structure.Most of a thing or a being & also exist dif. Forms of described. It can be
literary bookish marks it with a foregrounding: expressed with the help
coinages-by means of specific label. It 1)capitalization, f n, adj, adv,v. The
affixation or word- conveys no thoughts, 2)italics, 3)spacing of leaves fell sorrowfully.
compounding.New but simply gives graphemes: - (adv) Metaphors
words built in this name to an object to hyphenation(ч/з дефис, expressed by adj adv
manner will be single it out. There r с пробела); are called metaphorical
immediatlyperdeved words where a multiplication(1 &the epithets. Sometimes M.
because of their nominal m-g prevails. same letter written is not confined to 1
unexpectedness. These are proper several times). A word & the author uses
Unexpectedness in the names. Generally special trend- graphical a sustained or
use of words-the proper names have imagism: e.g. the whole prolonged M. to
natural device for developed from poem is written in form prolong his image. This
those writers who sick common nouns. of a bird. is done by adding a
to achieve the Emotive m-g number of other images
sensational expresses the feeling closely connected with
effect.Conversation,de & emotions the main central one.
rivation & change of connected with the Varieties of metaphors:
meaning-the most object r phenomenon 1)personification - a
productive in creating denoted by a word. E. special kind of
neologisms(e.g.-to bus m-g generally coexist metaphor in which
children to school,cats with the log m-g or abstract ideas or
mother prevails. So it is fixed inanimate objects r
tigers).Affixation in the dictionaries. identified with person.
remains the most There are words They r ascribed human
popular & which have only characteristics. (Mother
common(e.g.-Every emotive m-g - nature always blushes
man in the aura of interjections & before
success tests the exclamatory words. disrobing)2)animalifica
goodhood).Affixes:- Certain adj. & adv. tion - a special kind of
anty=antyhero,- tend to loose their M. in which abstract
ize=villagize,moisturiz log. m-g & have a ideas or inanimate
e,dom=wisdomgangdo strong emotive objects r identified with
m,- coloring. She is the bists.
ship=showmanship,mi terribly sweet ( an Продолжение 20
sessship,- intensifier) These 3 They are ascribed
ese=Johnsonese & lexical m-gs form the animal characteristics
Dickensian style,- semantic str-re of the or actions.
un=to undo,- word. There exists They are generally
thon=marathon,talkath Продолжение 17 based on verbs & adj-s.
on,dancethone(suffixs 1 more lexical m-g ( Words & words &
oid as it is part of a which appears only words how they
word). within the gallop+)
Продолжение 16 given context. this is
Nonce-words-coined called the contextual
to suit 1 particular m-g. The majority of
occasion(e.g. stylistic devices are
importunity- based on the
opportunity,positutly- interaction of
absolutely different lexical m-gs
positive).Vogueish- of the word.
blending(слова
слитки),they are
called telescoping
words(e.g.
motel=motorcar+hotel,
botel=boat+hotel,brun
ch=breakfast+lunch).A
lso there are words
coined by
contractions(усечение
) & abbreviations(e.g.
LOX=liquid oxygen
explosive).

21.Oxymoron –a 22.Antonomasia- 23.Methonomy –a 24.Zeugma –a

combination of 2 stylistic device based
words mostly an adj+ on interaction b/w
a noun or adv+adj logical and nominal
expressing 2 m-g of a word. Types
contrasting ideas of an-a:1)when a
opposite in sense (A proper noun is used
living copse, a low for a common
sky scarper, horribly noun.Proper name is
beautiful) this type of a-a
Ox-n m.b. expressed expresses some
by verb+adv-s (to quality which was a
smear-пачкать loading passion w
pleasantly) char-r whose name is
//=//=// by used. It describes a
adj+preposit.phrase(ug person’s features and
ly in a pleasant way). qualities through
In ox-n a logic m-g is those commonly
surpressed by emotive asso-ed with the
m-g.In such a way this name of some
trope the complexity histor.figure or some
of things, mythological,religiou
contedectories of the s,literary ch-r.It’s
wor(l)d. (She cried stylistic f-n:to give
silently) Ox-n is often concrete expression
met within a to abstract
simile(образн. сравн.) things.Ex:Some
(He was gentle as modern Samsons
hell).Ox-n is were walking by.(a
practically never really strong person)
repeated in 2)when a common
diff.context and noun is used for a
doesn’t become proper noun. Often
traid(you are awfully they are used to
nice, pretty bad) The create a humorous
device in which the simultaneous
name of a thing is realization of 2 m-gs of
replaced by the name 1 polysem. word
of an associated within the same
thing.Unlike methaphor context. The boys took
where the interaction their places and their
b/w the m-gs of books . Jane wasn’t
diff.words is based on narrow woman in
resemblance,meth-my mend and body. Here
reflects the actually we feelthe blending of
existing relations.Night 2/more semantically
was a friend(m-r)No incompatible w-groups
eye to see no ear to having an identical
listen(m-y)Those words lexical item make a
have aquired single construction in
contextual, logical m- which this item is used
gs that of people. The only once.The resulting
interaction b/w cont/log effect-strongly
m-g is based on close humorous/ ironical.The
relations objectively same effect is achieved
existing b/w the part of when a word upon
the body itself. which this trope is
based is repeated
Pun(каламбур) –a
play of words . The
diff. b/w is very slight.
For a pun the context
m.b. of a more
expanding ch-r.
Sometimes the whole
novel.(The importance
of being honest(o.w-
d))The same happens
with ambiguous usage
words have lost the effect.In the 18-19c it of prepositions which
primary logical m-g was customary to leads to mixing up of
and are used only provide literary char- attribute with
with emotive m-g as rs with speaking prepositional object.
intensifiers, they have names/telltale To hint
lost their stylistic names.They styl.f- the woman with a child
value. n:to char-ze a person Two homonyms have
through his much less in common
nameMr.Scruge,Oliv than 2 m-gs of a
er Twist. Interesting polysem words.Thus
are cases when their realization within
contextual, nominal the same context brings
m-g is aquired by a force a pun. Puns are
word-comb-n or a often used in riddles
whole phrase.Names and joke.What is the
phrases are usually diff. b/w a
spelled with schoolmaster engine
hypons:b/w their driver (one trains the
components to stress mind and the other
their close syntactical minds the train) We can
and symentic observe a violation of
relations.Mr.Facing- phrasal units –
both-ways(вашим и humorous effect
нашим)

25.Epithets & their 25. Epithets and 26.Simile,its 26.Simile,its

varieties. their varieties. difference from a difference from a
(КОНСПЕКТ) (КНИГА) traditional traditional
E.-a styl. device based E.-a styl. device comparison. comparison.(КНИГА)
on the interplay of based on the interplay (КОНСПЕКТ) Simile -a structure of
emotive & logical of emotive & logical Simile-expresses three components; is an
meanings in an meanings in an likeness between dif. imaginative comparison
attributive word,phrase attributive objects.It shouldn’t be of two unlike objects
or even a sentence word,phrase or even a confused between an belonging to two
used to charact-ze an sentence used to ordinary comparison,as different classes. Link
object and disclose the charact-ze an object in ordinary comparison words "like", "as", "as
individ.emot- and disclose the no imagination is though", "as like",
lycoloured attitude of individ.emot-ly involved since objects "such as", "as...as",
the writer to the coloured attitude of of the same class are etc.S. should not be
object.(E.g:green the writer to the compared.S. is based confused with simple
meadows,white object.(E.g:green on the comparison of (logical, ordinary)
snow,round table-they meadows,white object of dif. spheres comparison.
describe real natural snow,round table- involves the element Structurally identical
qualities).E. may be they describe real of imagination and they are semantically
expressed natural qualities).E. exclude all the different: objects
by:1)adjective;2)adver expresses char-cs of properties of 2 objects belonging to the same
b(He watched her an object, both except 1 which is more class are likened in a
sadly,eagerly);3)Partic existing and common to them(as simple comparison,
iple I,II(The imaginary.E. basic clever as his mother - while in a S. we deal
freightened feature-its ordinary comparison;as with the likening of
movements of the emotiveness and strong as an ox-S.).The objects belonging to
wind);4)nouns(A brief subjectivity. E. can properties of an objects two different classes.
season of describe may be viewed from So, "She is like her
happiness).Phrase or behaviour,manners,fa dif. angles-its mother" is a simple
sent-ce E. can describe cial expression.E.may states,actions,manners. comparison, used to
behaviour,manners,fac become стертые- S. may be based on adj. state an evident fact.
ial expression.They traditional(Sweet attributed,adverb. "She is like a rose" is a
are charac-c of modern smile.Deep Modifier,verb S. used for purposes of
English prose.There feelings.Sweet predicates.S. have a expressive evaluation,
exist a type of the E. words).E.Through formal element in their emotive explanation,
based on illogical long and repeated use structure,called highly individual
syntactical relationship epithets become connective word- description.The case of
between the modifier fixed. Many fixed like,such as,as,as… sustained expression of
and the modified.It’s epithets are closely if,seem,mostly.The S. likeness is known as
calledthe reversed E. connected with must not be confused epic, or Homeric
composed of 2 nouns folklore and can be with methaphor:My simile. In a S. two
linked in an off- traced back to folk verses flow in objects are compared
phrase.The evaluating ballads (e.g. "true streams(methaphor),M on the grounds of
emotional element is love", "merry y verses flow like similarity of some
emboarded not in the Christmas", etc.). The streams(S.).The ling. quality. This feature is
noun attribute but in structure and nature of these 2 called foundation of a
the noun structurally semantics of E. are devices is different.The S, may be explicitly
described.E. can be extremely variable. styl. func-n of a S. is mentioned as in: "He
regarded as:1)those Semantically, there the same as of stood immovable like a
stressing the existing are 2 main groups methaphor:1)to rock in a torrent", or
qualities of the 1)affective (or eteiplete the object by "His muscles are hard
object(She was emotive proper)- E. comparing it with some as rock".You see that
hopefully,sadly,lonely serve to convey the other object of an the "rock” in two
for smth. emotional evaluation entirely dif. nature, to different S. offers two
Better);2)those of the object by the make the description different qualities as
transferring the speaker(most of the clear and more their foundation -
qualities of 1 object to qualifying words picturesqere.Hacknate "immovable" in the 1st
its closest found in the S.:as strong as a lion. case, and "hard" in the
neighbour(Tobacco dictionary,e.g. 2nd. When the
stained(=teeth) "gorgeous", "nasty", foundation is not
smile).Transferred E.- "magnificent", explicitly named, the S.
are ordinally logical "atrocious".);2) is considered to be
attribute generally figurative, or richer in possible
describing the state of transferred, E. - is associations.So "the
a human being made formed of metaphors, rose" of the previous
to refer to metonymies and case allows to
inanimate(неодуш.) similes expressed by simultaneously
object(Sleepless adjectives(E.g. "the foreground such
pillow.An smiling sun", "the features as "fresh,
anbreakfasted frowning cloud", "the beautiful, fragrant,
mornings).Methaphori sleepless pillow", ''the attractive", etc.
cal E.-a new feature is tobacco-stained Sometimes the
revealed(показываетс smile", "a ghost-like foundation of the S. is
я)(The moon looked face", "a dreamlike not quite clear from the
lovingly).E.may experience".).E. are context, and the author
become стертые- expressed by: supplies it with a key,
traditional(Sweet 1)adjectives or where he explains
smile.Deep 2)qualitative adverbs which similarities led
feelings.Sweet (e.g. "his triumphant him to liken two
words).It shouldn’t be look" = he looked different entities, and
mixed up with logic. triumphantly),3)noun which in fact is an
s;4) participle I,II. extended and detailed
foundation.
Продолжение 25 Продолжение 25 28.Periphrasis and its Продолжение 26
(конспект) (книга) kinds. Euphemistic (книга)
Attribute,with the They are used as periphrasis. S., often repeated,
same syntact. func-n exclamatory (КОНСПЕКТ) becomes
but not convey the sentences ("You, P.-word-combination trite(банальный) and
subjective attribute of ostrich!") or as that is used instead of a adds to the stock of
author towards the postpositive attributes word,designating an language phraseology.
object but show only ("Richard of the Lion object.Every P. Most of trite S. have
objectively existing Heart").E. are used contains a purely the foundation
features of the singly, in pairs, in individ. Perseptionof a mentioned and
object(He unlocked chains, in two-step given phenomen.As a conjunctions "as",
the iron gate structures, and in result of frequent "as...as" used as
easily).Logic. inverted repetition P. may connectives: "as brisk
attributed carried in constructions, also as become well- as a bee", "as strong as
chains of attributes phrase-attributes. All established in language a horse", "as live as a
undergo a certain previous examples as a synonymous bird".S. in which the
changer,being are single E..Pairs expression for the link is expressed by
influenced by their are-two E. joined by word,generally used to notional verbs such as
emotionally coloured a conjunction or signify the object.Such "to resemble", "to
neighbours & also asyndetically as in popular word- seem", "to recollect",
equire an emotive "wonderful and combinations-“pariphra "to remember", "to look
colouring(The money incomparable beauty" sic synonyms” and can like", "to appear", etc.
she had accepted was or "a tired old town". be easily understood are called disguised,
to Chains (strings) of E. without any context. because the realization
soft,green,handsome present a group of (An internal of the comparison is
10-$ bills.(=a new homogeneous city(Rome),A somewhat suspended,
thing). attributes varying in gentleman of a long as the likeness between
number from 3 up to robe(lawyer).P. may the objects seems less
smtimes 20 and be:1)logical-is based evident:"The ball
more(E.g. "You're a on log. notions;a appeared to the batter
scolding, unjust, certain feature of an to be a slow spinning
abusive, aggravating, object is taken to planet looming toward
bad old creature."). denote the whole object the earth." .
Two-step E.-the or a wider notion is
process of qualifying substituted for the
seemingly passes two concrete notion(The
stages: the instruments of
qualification of the distrucktion(pistol)).2)f
object and the igurative- may be
qualification of the based on the
qualification itself, as methaphor(back foolish
in "an unnaturally tears;back to your
mild day", or "a native
pompously majestic spring(=eyes)).May be
female".Two-step E. based on metonomy(he
have a fixed structure married a good deal of
of Adv + Adj money(=rich
model.Phrase- lady)).3)ephimistic-a
epithets always word/phrase used to
produce an original replace a rude word or
impression: "the expression by a
sunshine-in-the- mild,delecate and
breakfast-room conventionally more
smell", or "a move-if- acceptable one.(to die-
you-dare expression". pass away,expire,to be
One more structural no more,join the
 type of E.-inverted majority).These E.P.-
E.- based on the part of a l-ge as a
contradiction system.They haven’t
between the logical been freshly invented
and the syntactical: and are expressive
logically defining means of a l-ge and are
becomes syntactically to be found in all good
defined and vice dictionaries.Thus they
versa. E.g. instead of can’t be regarded as a
"this devilish styl-c devie.E.P. may
woman", where be divided into
"devilish" &"woman" groups:according to the
are both logically and spheres of
syntactically application:1)religious(
defining.W. God-Lord,Our
Thackeray says "this Father);2)moral(to die);
devil of a woman". 3)medical(have a
cold(greek
terms);4)parliamentary(
political);

27.Overstatement Продолжение 25(2) 28.Periphrasis and its 33. Stylistic usage of

and (книга) kinds. Euphemistic proverbs,
understatement(hype Here "of a woman" is periphrasis.(КНИГА) sayings, allusions,
rbole). syntactically an Periphrasis is a very citations.
Hyperbole - a styl-c attribute, i.e. the peculiar stylistic device A proverb is a brief
device in which defining, and "devil" which basically witty phrase of
emphasis is achieved the defined, while the consists of using a generalizing nature
through deliberate logical relations roundabout form of characterized by a
exaggeration,relies on between the two expression instead of a completeness of
the foregrounding of remain the same as in simpler one, i.e. of thought & generally
the emotive the previous example using a more or less expressing the wisdom
meaning.H.-one of the - "a woman" is complicated syntactical of people. Many of
most common defined by "the structure instead of a them have a verse-like
expressive means of devil".All inverted E. word. Depending on shape(Early to bed
our everyday speech. are easily the mechanism of this early to rise makes a
When we describe our transformed into E. of substitution,P.are man healthy&
admiration or anger a more habitual classified into wise).Brevity in
and say "a hundred structure where there 1)figurative proverbs manifests
times" - we use trite is no logico- (metonymic and itself in the omission of
language hyperboles syntactical metaphoric),2)logical.1 connectives (First come
which, through long contradiction.: "the )is made of phrase- first served).
and repeated use, have giant of a man" (a metonymies and A saying is a common
lost their originality gigantic man); "the phrase-metaphors:"The phrase dif. from a
and remained signals prude of a woman" (a hospital was crowded proverb in that the
of the speaker's roused prudish woman), with the surgically thought is not
emotions. etc.Do not mix up an interesting products of completely expressed.
H. may be the final inverted E. with an the fighting in Africa" Proverbs & sayings
effect of another SD - ordinary off- where the extended used in fiction make it
metaphor, simile, phrase.The second metonymy stands for clearer & more
irony, as we have in noun will help you in "the wounded".Logical emotional (which side
the cases "The man doubtful cases: "the P. are phrases his bread was buttoned
was like the Rock of toy of the girl" (the synonymic with the – not to be foolish,
Gibraltar".H. can be toy belonging to the words which were know how to behave)
expressed by all girl); "the toy of a substituted by P.:"Mr. Allusion is a reference
notional parts of girl" (a small, toylike Du Pont was dressed in to a well-known
speech.Words though girl). the conventional historical, literary or
which styl. device are disguise with which mythological object.
used more often "all", Brooks Brothers cover The use of allusions
''every", the shame of American presupposes the
"everybody"."Calpurni millionaires." "The knowledge of the fact,
a was all angles and conventional disguise" thing or person alluded
bones"; also numerical stands here for "the to n the part of the
nouns ("a million", "a suit" and "the shame of reader or listener. As a
thousand"), as was American millionaires" rule no indication of
shown above; and — for "the paunch (the thought is given.(I’m
adverbs of time belly)". Because the going to clean Again
("ever", "never").Was direct nomination of stables –means that u
stressed the the not too elegant have a disorder. The
importance of both feature of appearance last of the Mohican)
communicants clearly was substituted by a Allusions like citations
perceiving that the roundabout description often show that the
exaggeration, used by this P. may be also character is eager to
one of them is considered display his education o
intended as such and 3)euphemistic, as it wit.
serves not to denote offers a more polite Citation is a repetition
actual quality or qualification instead of of a phrase or statement
quantity but signals a coarser one.The main from a book, speech or
the emotional func-n of P. is to the like used by the
background of the convey a purely way of authority,
utterance. If this individual perception illustration, proof. They
reciprocal of the described object. r usually marked in the
understanding of the To achieve it the text by inverted
intentional nature of generally accepted commas, dashes, italics
the overstatement is nomination of the & other graphical
absent, hyperbole object is replaced by means. This is a natural
turns into a mere lie.H. the description of one utterance made by a
is aimed at of its features or certain author.
exaggerating quantity qualities, which seems
or quality. When it is to the author most
directed the opposite important for the
way, when the size, characteristic of the
shape, dimensions, object, and which thus
characteristic features becomes foregrounded.
of the object are hot
overrated, but
intentionally
underrated, we deal
with understatement.
The mechanism of its
creation and
functioning is identical
with that of H.,
Продолжение 27 34. Stylistic Продолжение 35.stylistic use of the
and it does not signify peculiarities of oral 28(книга)
the actual state' of speech, syntactical The often repeated P. interrogative &
affairs in reality, but stylistic devices become
presents the latter characteristic for it. trite(банальный) and negative constructions
through the Syntax deals with the serve as universally
emotionally coloured arrangement of words accepted periphrastic a)rhetorical ?-s(it is
perception and into combinations. synonyms: "the gentle / not supposed to be
rendering of the Stylistic study begins soft / weak sex" answered, since the
speaker. It is not the with the study of (women); "my better only answer is implied
actual diminishing or length & structure of half (my spouse); within the boundaries
growing of the object a sent-ce. "minions of Law" of the ?-n. They are
that is conveyed by a The human can (police), etc. often used in the “– “
H. or Underst-t.They receive & transmit form. Have I not
differ only in the info only if it is slit suffered things to be
direction of the flow of by pauses. forgiven? The
roused emotions. Theoretically a sent- discrepancy b/w the
English is well known ce can be of any form(“-“) & the
for its preference for length, but essence(the statement is
understatement in psychologically no positive) makes the rh?
everyday speech - "I reader can receive very emphatic &
am rather annoyed" info where a stop widely used in
instead of "I'm comes after 128 oratorical style(style of
infuriated”.Some H. words.(James public speaking)It is
and U. (both used “Ulysses”-a stop after widely used in modern
individually and as the 45 pages). fiction in informal
final effect of some The lowest limit is 1 dialogues, when in
other styl. device) word.1-wod sent-s distress or anger with
have become fixed, as have a very strong the phrases like: what
we have in "Snow emphatic impact. have I dne to deserve
White", or "Liliput", This word obtains it? what shall I do
or "Gargantua". both the word & sent- when? Such forms r
ce stress. further stressed by
(On.Off.)Word order, exclamation alongside
structure of a sent-ce, with interrogation
punctuation, marks.
intonation are an imp. The stylistic force of
part for perception of rh? is in the
a text. simultaneous
Intonation m.create, realization of 2
add & reverse both syntactical m-ngs: the
logical & emotional m-g of a ?, statement.
info of an utterance. b)Litotes(a statement
Punctuation is much in the form of a double
poorer than int-n. It negation, where 2 are
isn’t used alone, but joined to give a “+”
emphasizing & evaluation. E.g. not
substantiating the unkindly means kindly,
lex/syntect m-g of the thus the “+” effect is
components of a sent- weakened.the str-re of
ce.( its marks- oints L. is rigid.Besides the
of exclamation(!), not there is a 2-nd
interogatin(?), element negative in
dots(…), form or in m-
dashes(-),commas, g.Sometimes L. is used
semicolon(;),full
 stop. to create the effect of
Groups of syntactical irony, but the main its
devices:1)devices function is to make the
used within a s- statement less
ce;2)devices used categoric.
within an ut-ce;
3)devices based on
special use of
connection b/w s-ces
& phrases.
D-ces used within a
s-ce:
1)based on
juxtaposition
a)inversion(the
violationof traditional
wod order which
doesn’t alter the m-g
of the s-ce,but gives
it an addit./emotional
colouring. I-n is used
to single out some
parts f the s-ce &
heighten the
emotional tension.

3. The notion of an Продолжение 34 Продолжение 34(3) 36. Stylistic devices

idiolect, an individual b)isolated members Stylistic devices used
style, registers of of a s- within an ut-ce: based on special
speech. ce(detachment) 1)d. based on
Stylistics – is a science (based on singling repetition(the arrangement of the
which deals with the out a secondary recurrence of the same
result of the act of member of the s-ce word, w.-comb-n, arts f an utterance.
communication. When with the help of phrase for 2 or more
we speak about inton-n & punct-n. times(anaphora(a..,a…) 1)climax(gradation)
individual style it The word order isn’t , a structure in which
means the individual violated,but second epiphora(…a,…a), every successive s-ce is
manner of writing. The members obtain there framing(a…,…a),catch emotionally stronger r
speach of an individ. own stress & inton-n rep-n(…a,a…),chain r- log-ly more imp. than
which is ch-ed by as they are detached n(…a,a…b,b…c), the preceding one.E.g.
peculiarities typical of from the rest of the s- ordinary r-n(has no For that one instant
that particular ce by: commas, cetain place …a,a,a…), there was none else in
individual is called an dashes,full stops. I successive r-n(a steam the room, in the house
idiolect. For a writer have to beg u for of closely fol-ing each in the world besides
it’s marked by its money. Daily. other repeated units On themselves. 3 types of
uniques. We shall call Detachment is used her father’s being climax: quantative,
an individual style – a to give prominence to groundlessly suspective qualative(emotive),
unique combination of some words to help she felt logical(every new
language. Expressive the author laconically sure,sure,sure).Stylistic concept is stronger,
means peculiar to a draw the reader’s f-n of r-n is to more imp. & valued)As
given writer, which attention to a certain emphasize the most counterpart to C. stands
makes his works easily detail. imp part of the ut-ce anti-C.(emotion or
recognized 2)styl. use f the rendering emotions of logical imp-ce is
peculiarities of oral the speaker.There r accumulated only to be
speech: some d-s based on r-n unexpectedly broken &
ellipses of some
a)ellipses(Omission idea(synonymical
of some part of a s- r-n:1)pleonasm(the use
ce. It may occur due of more words in the s-
to a careless informal, ce then necessary to
careless char-r of express the m-
speech.(Serve him g),2)tautology-the r-
right)El-s not only n(the r-n of the same
makes the s-ces word/phrase or the
laconic, but also same idea or statement
creates the effect of in other words often in
implication. dif. gram.forms).
b)aposiopesis(умолч 2)Devices based on
-е) parallelism. Parallel
A sudden break in constructions are
speech,caused by formed by the same
strong emotion or by syntactical pattern
some reluctance to closely following one
finish the s-ce. break another. Par. c-s effect
is a result of seaker’s the rhythmical org-n of
uncertainty as to what the paragraph.It is
exactly he is to widely used in
romise or threaten.Is oratorical speech. 2
graphically marked types of parallelism:
by a series of dots or a) complete(the str-re
a dash. Good of the whole sent-ce is
impatience, but - repeated),b)partial(som
c)represented e parts of the
speech(representation successive s-
of the actual ut-ce by ces/clauses are
a second person repeated)
usually the author as - the reversed parallel
if it had been spoken, constr-n(chiasmus)(I
whereas it has not know the world the
really been spoken, world knows me)
but is only The 2nd part of ch-s –
represented in the the inversion of the 1st
author’s words). construction.
brught t a sudden
cadence) This was
appalling & soon
forgot.
2)suspense(обманутое
ожидание) a deliberate
slowing down of a
thought postponing its
completion till the end
of the ut-ce. To hold
the reader in suspense
means to keep the final
solution just out of the
sight.
Detective/adventure
stories – examples of
suspense fiction.
3)antithesis a styl.
device presenting 2
contrasting ideas in
close neighborhood.
Synt-ly it is another
case of parallelism but
unlike p-sm which is
indifferent to the
semantics, the 2 parts
of antithesis must be
semantically opposite
to each other. Its styl .f-
n is to create the effect
of contrast.

Продолжение 34(2) Продолжение 34(4)

3)stylistic use of the
interrogative & 3)stylistic use of the
negative
constructions interrogative &
a)rhetorical ?-s(it is
not supposed to be negative constructions
answered, since the
only answer is
implied within the a)rhetorical ?-s(it is
boundaries of the ?-n. not supposed to be
They are often used answered, since the
in the “– “ form. only answer is implied
Have I not suffered within the boundaries
things to be forgiven? of the ?-n. They are
The discrepancy b/w often used in the “– “
form. Have I not
the form(“-“) & the suffered things to be
essence(the statement forgiven? The
is positive) makes the discrepancy b/w the
rh? very emphatic & form(“-“) & the
widely used in essence(the statement
oratorical style(style is positive) makes the
of public speaking)It rh? very emphatic &
is widely used in widely used in
modern fiction in oratorical style(style of
informal dialogues, public speaking)It is
when in distress or widely used in modern
anger with the fiction in informal
phrases like: what dialogues, when in
have I dne to deserve distress or anger with
it? what shall I do the phrases like: what
when? Such forms r have I dne to deserve
further stressed by it? what shall I do
exclamation when? Such forms r
alongside with further stressed by
interrogation marks. exclamation alongside
The stylistic force of with interrogation
rh? is in the marks.
simultaneous The stylistic force of
realization of 2 rh? is in the
syntactical m-ngs: the simultaneous
m-g of a ?, statement. realization of 2
b)Litotes(a statement syntactical m-ngs: the
in the form of a m-g of a ?, statement.
double negation, b)Litotes(a statement
where 2 are joined to in the form of a double
give a “+” evaluation. negation, where 2 are
E.g. not unkindly joined to give a “+”
means kindly, thus evaluation. E.g. not
the “+” effect is unkindly means kindly,
weakened.the str-re thus the “+” effect is
of L. is rigid.Besides weakened.the str-re of
the not there is a 2-nd L. is rigid.Besides the
element negative in not there is a 2-nd
form or in m- element negative in
g.Sometimes L. is form or in m-
used to create the g.Sometimes L. is used
effect of irony, but to create the effect of
the main its function irony, but the main its
is to make the function is to make the
statement less statement less
categoric. categoric.
31. SD based on 32. SD based on 30. Types of syntactic 29.Types of lexical
parallelism. juxtaposition repetition. repetitions.
Parallel constructions a)inversion(the repetition-the There are some devices
are formed by the violationof traditional recurrence of the same based on r-n of some
same syntactical wod order which word, w.-comb-n, idea:synonymical r-n-
pattern closely doesn’t alter the m-g phrase for 2 or more the rep-on of the same
following one another. of the s-ce,but gives times:1)anaphora(a..,a idea by using
Par. c-s effect the it an addit./emotional …)-when the beginning synonymous words and
rhythmical org-n of colouring. I-n is used of some successive phrases which by
the paragraph.It is to single out some sent-ce(clauses) is adding a slightly dif.
widely used in parts f the s-ce & repeated;styl. f-n:to shapes of m-g intensify
oratorical speech. 2 heighten the create the bachground the ut-ce;2 terms to
types of parallelism: emotional tension. for the non repeated show attitude to all
a) complete(the str-re b)isolated members unit,which through its kinds of synonymous r-
of the whole sent-ce is of a s- novelty becomes n:1)pleonasm-the use
repeated),b)partial(so ce(detachment) foregrounded;2)epipho of more words in the s-
me parts of the (based on singling ra(…a,…a)-the last ce then necessary to
successive s- out a secondary element is repeated,it express the m-
ces/clauses are member of the s-ce adds stress to a final g),2)tautology-the r-n
repeated) with the help of words in a sent- of the same
- the reversed parallel inton-n & punct-n. ce;3)framing(a…,…a) word/phrase or the
constr-n(chiasmus)(I The word order isn’t (ringing repet-n)-the same idea or statement
know the world the violated,but second 1st or the last element is in other words often in
world knows me) members obtain there repeatí;it makes the dif. gram.forms).
The 2nd part of ch-s – own stress & inton-n whole ut-ce compact
the inversion of the 1st as they are detached and complete,it’s most
construction. from the rest of the s- effective in singling out
ce by: commas, paragraphs & instances
dashes,full stops. I in a text; 4)catch rep-
have to beg u for n(…a,a…)-rep-tionof
money. Daily. the same word/phrase
Detachment is used at the end of 1 clause&
to give prominence to at the beginning of the
some words to help following one;5)chain
the author laconically r-n(…a,a…b,b…c)-
draw the reader’s represents a series of
attention to a certain anidiplosice;the effect
detail. is smoothly developing
logical
reasoning(Living is the
art of loving.Loving is
the art of
carrying.Carying is the
art of
sharing.).6)ordinary r-
n-has no certain place
in the sent-ce,it
emphesisis log. &
emot. mean-gs of the
repeated word or
phrase, 7)successive r-
n(…a,a,a…)-1 & the
same element is
repeated one after
another;a steam of
closely fol-ing each

4. Stylistic 2. The notion of the
Differentiation of the functional
vocab. style.Classification.
The word-stock of any Fun style(by Galperin)
given lang can be is a system of
divided into 3 groups, coordinated,
differing each other by interrelated & trend in stylistics that
the sphere of use (1- interconditioned
neutral, possessing no language means
styl connotation & intended to fulfil a
suitable for any specific function of
communicative com-n & aiming at a
situation, 2-literary & definite effect.
3- colloquial words) Classification:
Lit-ry & col-al contain 1 official style,
a number of subgroups represented in all
having some common kinds of of documents.
property. Lit-ry words 2 scientific, found in
are more or less stable. articles, brochures,
Col-l has a lively monographs & other
spoken character, is academic publications
unstable and fleeting. 3 publicist, covering
The neutral has a such genres as essay,
universal ch-r.Its public speeches.
unrestricted in use. It 4 newspaper style,
can be employed in all observed in the
spheresof human majority of materials
activity.it can be met printed in newspapers
at any style of speech. 5 belles-lettres style,
They have no local embracing numerous
cvh-r, no emotive genres of creative
colouring.Lit-ry & col- writing. it fulfils the
l can be general & aesthetic function ,
special. which fact singles this
style out of others &
Special lit-ry:1 terms, gives grounds to
words denoting recognize its
objects, humanities, systematic uniqueness.
techniques,2 archaism- Each of the style has 2
denoting historical forms: written & oral.
other repeated
units;show the peak of
emotions.(e.g. On her
father’s being
groundlessly suspective
she felt
sure,sure,sure).Stylistic
f-n of r-n is to
emphasize the most
imp part of the ut-ce
rendering emotions of
the speaker.
37. Stylistics of the 38. Main concepts of
author & of the DS analisys and types
reader. The notions of of foregrounding.
encoding & decoding. DS investigates the
Decoding stylistics same levels as
(DS) – the most recent linguasty-cs – phonetic,
graphical, lexical,
employs the knowledge grammatical. The basic
of such sciences as difference: it studies
information theory, expressive means of
psychology, linguistics, each level not as
literary theory, history isolated devices but as
of art, etc. a part of the whole text
DS tries to regard the on lengthy segments of
esthetic value of a text text (from paragraph to
based on the interaction the level of the whole
of specific textual work).
elements, stylistic Ideas, events,
devices & characters, author’s
compositional structure attitudes are encoded in
in delivering the the text through the lan-
authors message. This ge. The reader is to
method does not perceive & encode
consider the styl. these things by reading
function of any styl. the text. DS is the
feature separately but reader's sty-cs that is
as a part of a whole engaged in recreating
text. DS helps the the author's vision of
reader in understanding the world with the help
of a lit. work by of concrete text
explaining (decoding) elements & their
the info that may be interaction through the
hidden from immediate text.
view. The term “DS” One of the fundamental
came from the concepts of DS is
application of the foregrounding (F-g).
theory of information The notion of it was
to ling-cs (Jackobson, suggested by scholars
Arnold, Lotman…). of the Prague linguistic
The process is circle at the beg. of the
phenomena ,which are Only recently, most presented in the 20th c-ry. Among its
no more in style class included: following way: the members were
use(vassal)=historical Poetic style- deals writer receives dif. Info Trubetskoy, Jacobson,
words:poetic with verbal forms from the outside world. Skalichka, etc. F-g
words(17-19 specific for poetry. He processes this info means a specific role
cen=steed =horse) & Oratoric style- in & recreates it in his that some lang-ge items
archaic words(nay=no) ancient Greece was own images. The play in a cert.context
Special subgroups of instrumental in the process of internalizing when the reader's
col-l words: creation of “Rhetoric”. of the outside info & attention cannot but be
Slang-used by most All the mentioned translating it into his drawn to them. In a
speakers in informal styles are specified own imagery – lit.text such items
com-n,are highly within the literary encoding. become styl-ly marked
emotive & expressive( type of the language. Encoder(writer) sends features that build up
pretty girl) Their functioning is the info to recipient its stylistic func-n.
Jargonisms-are close characterized by the (addressee, reader) & There are cert.modes of
to slang, also international the reader is supposed lang-ge use &
expressive & emotive, approach of the to decode the info. This arrangement to achieve
but used by limited speaker towards the process is not easy. A the effect of F-g.it may
groups of ppl choice of lang-e lit. work on its way to be based on dif types of
Vulgarism-words with means suitable for a the reader encounters deviation, redundancy,
a strong emotive particular com-ve many obstacles – unexpected comb-n of
meaning, normally situation & the social, historical, lang-ge units.
avoided in polite con-n official, formal nature temporal, cultural… Arnold: the effect of F-
Dialectal words are of the latter. Readers & authors may g can be achieved in a
normative & of any be separ-ed by peculiar way by the
stylistic meaning in hist.epoch, soc. absence of any
regional dialects, but conventions, religious expressive or
used outside of them, & pol.views, cult. & descriptive features
carry a strong flavour national traditions. The when they are expected
of the locality where author & the reader in cert.types of texts
they belong may be dif. in (e.g. the absence of
emotional, intellectual rhythmical arrangement
plan. Many lit.works in verse)
are roo sophisticated,
they require of the
reader a wide
educational
background,
knowledge of history,
mythology, philosophy.

39. The notions of Продолжение 39 Продолжение 37 Продолжение 38(1)

convergence & An example from O. All these factors DS laid down a few
defeated expectancy Wilde's play «The preclude easy decoding principle methods that
Convergence denotes Importance of Being & show how dif. it is to ensure the effect of F-g.
a comb-n of stylistic Earnest” illustrates the message to reach They are: convergence
devices promoting the how predictability of the reader. The of expressive means,
same idea, emotion or the structure plays a message encoded & irradiation, defeated
motive. Any type of joke on the speaker: sent may differ from expectancy, coupling,
expr. means will make Miss Fairfax, ever the mes-ge received semantic fields, semi-
sense styl-ly when since I met you I have after decoding. marked structures.
treated as a part of a admired you more So the result may be a Convergence – denotes
bigger unit, the than any girl... I have failure on both sides. a combin-n of
context, or the whole met... since I met you. The reader may styl.devices promoting
text. It means that (Wilde) complain that he could the same idea, emotion
there is no immediate The speaker is not understand what the or motive; any type of
dependence between a compelled to unravel author wanted to say, exp.means will make
cert. styl. device and a the structure almost while the author may sense styl-ly when
definite stylistic fun-n. against his will, and resent being treated as a part of the
A stylistic device is the pauses show he is misinterpreted. So, the whole unit (the context,
not attached to this or caught in the trap of DS deals with the the whole text). The use
that stylistic effect. the structure unable notions of stylistics of of more than 1 type of
Therefore a hyperbole, either to stop or say the author & stylistics exp.means in close
for ex., may provide anything new. of the reader. succession – a powerful
any number of effects: Without predict-y technique to support the
tragic, comical, there would be no idea that is of particular
pathetic or grotesque. coherence and no imp-ce to the author.
Inversion may give the decoding. At the Defeated E-y. The
narration a highly same time linear org-n of the text
elevated tone or an stylistically mentally prepares the
ironic ring of parody. distinctive features reader for the
This «chameleon» are often based on the consequential & log-l
quality of a stylistic deviation from the devel-nt of ideas. The
device enables the norm and predict-y. normal arrangement of
author to apply dif. An appearance of an the text is based on its
devices for the same unpred-le element predictability (the
purpose. The use of may upset the process appearance of any
more than one type of of decoding. Even element in the text is
expr. means in close though not prepared by the
succession is a completely unpred-le producing arrangement
powerful technique to a styl. device is still a & choice of elements).
support the idea that low expectancy DE may be found on
carries paramount element and it is sure any ling.level. It may
importance in the to catch the reader's be expressed by
author's view. Such eye. The decoding unusual suffix, zeugma,
redundancy ensures process meets an oxymoron, paradox….
the delivery of the obstacle, which is Coupling is based on
message to the reader. given the full force of the affinity of elements
Defeated exp-cy (DE) the reader's attention that occupy similar
is a principle DF may come up on position thoughtout the
considered by some any level of the lang- text. C. provides
linguists (Jacobson) as ge. It may be an cohesion, consistency
the basic principle of a author's coinage with & unity of the text form
styl. func-n. The linear an unusual suffix; it & content. It may be
org-n of the text may be a case of found on any ling.level.
mentally prepares the semantic incongruity The affinity may be
reader for the logical or gram.transposition. phonetic (alliteration,
devel-t of ideas. The Devices that are assonance, rhyme,
normal arrangement of based on DE : pun, rhythm..) &
the text both in form zeugma, paradox, semantic(use of
and content is based oxymoron, irony, synonyms, antonyms,
on its predict-y which anti-climax, etc. DE root repetition,
means that the is partic-ly effective paraphrase..) &
appearance of any when the preceding structural(all kinds of
element in the text is narration has a high parallelism, syntactical
prepared by the degree of orderly repetition- anadiplosis,
preceding arrangement organized elements framing… ).
and choice of that create a
elements, e.g. the maximum degree of
subject of the sentence predictability and
will normally be foll. logical arrangement
by the predicate, you of the contextual
can supply parts of linguistic material.
certain set phrases or
collocation after you
see the first element,
etc.

Продолжение 38(2)
Semantic field. It
identifies lex. elements
in text segments and
the whole work that
provide its thematic and
compositional
cohesion. Lex. ties
relevant to this kind of
analysis will include
synonymous and
antonymous relations,
morphological
derivation, relations of
inclusion (various types
of hyponymy and
entailment), common
semes in the denotative
or connotative
meanings of different
words.
Semi-marked
structures is associated
with the deviation from
the grammatical and
lexical norm. It's an
extreme case of
defeated expectancy
much stronger than low
expectancy encountered
in a paradox or anti-
climax, the
unpredictable element
is used contrary to the
norm so it produces a
very strong emphatic
impact.
40. The notions of Продолжение 40(1) Продолжение 40(2)
coupling, sem.field, SF shows how Lex. deviation from the
semi-marked cohesion is achieved norm usually means
structures on a less explicit breaking the laws of
While convergence level sometimes sem. compatibility and
and defeated called the vertical lex. valency. Arnold
expectancy both focus context. Lex.l considers SS as a part
the reader's attention elements of this sort of tropes based on the
on the particularly are charged with unexpected or
signif. parts of the text implications and unpredictable relations
coupling (C) deals adherent meanings established between
with the arrangement that establish objects & phenomena
of textual elements invisible links by the author
that provide the unity throughout the text If you had to predict
& cohesion of the and create a kind of what elements would
whole structure. C. is semantic background combine well with such
more than many other so that the work is words and expressions
devices connected laced with certain as to try one's best to...,
with the level of the kind of imagery. to like ... you would
text. This method of Lex. ties relevant to hardly come up with
text analysis helps to SF will include such incompatible
decode ideas, their synonymous and combinations:
interaction, inner antonymous relations, She ... tried her best to
semantic & structural morphological spoil the party.
links of the text. derivation, relations (Erdrich)
C. is based on the of inclusion (various I liked the ugly little
affinity of elements types of hyponymy college... (Wnugh)
that occupy similar po- and entailment), com- Such combination of
sitions throughout the mon semes in the lex. units in our
text. C. provides denotative or everyday speech is
cohesion & unity of connotative meanings rare. However in spite
the text form and of different words. of their apparent
content.C. can be Semi-marked incongrtiily SS of both
found on any level of structures (SS) are a types arc widely used
the language, so the variety of defeated in lit-ry texts that arc
affinity may be expectancy associ- full of sophisticated
different in nature: it ated with the correlations which help
may be phonetic deviation from the to read sense into most
(alliteration, gram.l and lex. norm. unpredictable
assonance, It's an extreme case combinations of lex.
paronomasia, rhyme, of defeated units.
rhythm, meter), expectancy much
structural (all kinds of stronger than low ex-
parallelism and syntac- pectancy encountered
tical repetition- in a paradox or anti-
anadiplosis, anaphora, climax, the
framing, chiasmus, unpredictable
epiphora,etc.) & element is used
semantic (the use of contrary to the norm
synonyms and so it produces a very
antonyms, both direct strong emphatic
and contextual, root impact. For ex.,
repetition, paraphrase, The stupid heart that
sustained metaphor, will not learn
semantic fields, The everywhere of
recurrence of images, grief.
connotations or The word everywhere
symbols). is not a noun, but an
Semantic field (SF) is adverb and cannot be
a method of decoding used with an article
stylistics closely and a preposition,
connected with besides grief is an
coupling. It identifies abstract noun that
lex.l elements in text cannot be used as an
segments and the object with a noun
whole work that denoting location.
provide its thematic However the lines
and compositional make sense for the
cohesion. To reveal poet & readers who
this sort of cohesion interpret them as the
decoding must poetic equivalent of
carefully observe not the author's
only lex. and overwhelming feeling
synonymous repet-n of sadness and
but sem. affinity which dejection.
finds expression in .
cases of lexico-
semantic variants,
connotations and
associations aroused
by a specific use or
distribution of lexical
units, thematic
pertinence of
seemingly unrelated
words.

1. St-s is a The Продолжение 1(1) Продолжение 1(2)

subject of - Individual style General (non-stylistic)
stylistics. Its study –studies the morphology treats
connection style of the author. It
morphemes and gram-l
with other looks for correlationsmeanings expressed by
disciplines. between the creative them in lan-ge in
branch of general concepts of the general, without regard
linguistics. It has author and the to their stylistic value.
mainly with two tasks: language of his work. Stylistic mor-gy is
St-s – is regarded as a interested in gram-l
lang-ge science which - st-s of encoding - forms and gram-l
deals with the results The shape of the info meanings that are
of the act of (message) is coded peculiar to particular
communication. There and the addressee sublanguages, explicity
are 2 basic objects of plays the part of or implicity comparing
st-s: - stylistic devices decoder of the them with the neutral
and figures of speech; information which is ones common to all the
- functional styles. contained in message. sublanguages.
Branches of st-s: The problems which Lexicology deals with
- Lexical st-s – studies are connected with stylistic classification
functions of direct and adequate reception of (differentiation) of the
figurative meanings, the message without vocabulary that form a
also the way any loses part of st-s (stylistics
contextual meaning of (deformation) are the lexicology). In stylistic
a word is realized in problems of st-s of lexicology each units
the text. L.S. deals encoding. are studied separately,
with various types of St-s is not equal to instead of as a whole
connotations – linguistics science, text (group of words,
expressive, evaluative, such as phonetics, word classification).
emotive; neologisms, linguistics disciplines General syntax treats
dialectal words and – lexicology, word combinations and
their behavior in the morphology, syntax sentences, analyzing
text. because they are level their str-res and stating
- Grammatical st-s – is disciplines as they what is permissible and
subdivided into treat only one what is inadmissible in
morphological and linguistic level and constructing correct
syntactical. Morph-l s. st-s investigates the utterances in the given
views stylistic questions on all the lan-ge. Stylistic syntax
potential of gram-l levels and dif-t shows what particular
categories of dif-t aspects of the texts in constructions are met
parts of speech. general. The smallest with in various types of
Potential of the unit of lang-ge is the speech, what
number, pronouns… phoneme. Several syntactical str-res are
- Syntactical s. studies phonemes combined style forming (specific)
syntactic, expressive make a unit of a in the sublanguages in
means, word order and higher level – question. Semantic
word combinations, morpheme level – connected with
dif-t types of sentences (morphemic level). meaning
and types of syntactic One or more
connections. Also morphemes makes a
deals with origin of the word, a lexeme
text, its division on the (lexical level). One or
paragraphs, dialogs, more than one words
direct and indirect make an utterance, a
speech, the connection sentence (sentence
of the sentences, types level). St-s must be
of sentences. subdivided into
- Phonostylistics – separate, independent
phonetical branches – stylistic
organization of prose phonetics, Stylistic
and poetic texts. Here morphology, Stylistic
are included rhythm, lexicology, Stylistic
rhythmical structure, syntax
rhyme, alliteration, Whatever level we
assonance and take, st-s is describes
correlation of the not what is in
sound form and common use, but
meaning. Also studies what is specific in
deviation in normative this or that respect,
pronunciation. what differentiates
- Functional S (s. of one sublanguage
decoding) – deals with from others. General
all subdivisions of the (non-stylistic)
language and its phonetics investigates
possible use the whole articulatory
(newspaper, colloquial - audial system of
style). Its object - language. Stylistic
correlation of the ph-cs describes
message and variants of
communicative pronunciation
situation. occuring in dif-t
types of speech.
Special attention is
also paid to prosodic
features of prose and
poetry.
18. Phonetic Продолжение 18(1)
expressive means and prove),masculine
stylistic devices. rhymes
The notion of (monosyllabic
harmony, euphony, words): e.g. down-
rhythm and some other town – and are
sound phenomena standing on the last
contribute to some line or , or bisyllabic
general acoustic words accented on
sound. the last syllables:
Onomatopoeia domain-remain;
(звукоподражание)- mouth-south.
is a combination of ,feminine rhyme
speech sounds which (words are accented
aims at imitating on the last but one
sounds produced in syllable: error-terror)
nature. E.g.: hiss, 1.The rhyming
grumble, sizzle, patterns are shown
murmur, bump.wind, with the help of
sea, thunder,by things letters, e.g. couplets.
like machines tools,by When the last word
people (laughter, of the 2 successive
cough),by animal. lines are rhymea: a a
There exist: 1) Direct bb
onomatopoeia: in 2.Triple (dactylic)
words that imitate rhymes: a a a, based
natural sound (ding- on 3-syllable words.
dong, buzz, hiss, roar, 1 syllable stressed, 2
ping-pong, mew, cock- unstressed
a-doodle-doo)2) 3.There exist cross
Indirect: a (quatrain) rhymes: a
combination of bab
sounds, the aim of 4.framing (rheme)
which is to make the rhymes: abba – frame
sound of the utterance 5.internal rhyme: the
an echo of its sense rhyming word is
(And the silken sat placed not at the end
uncertain, rusting of of the line, but within
each purple curtain). rhymes.
Poetry abounds in Functions of
some specif. devices rhyme:1) to signalize
of sound instrument. the end of line and
The most frequent of mark the arrangement
them are: Alliteration of lines into stanzas
– the repetition of the (4ростишие) 2)
same construction at rhythm becomes
the beginning of evident because of
words.It’s often used rhyme3) the ends
Продолжение 18(2)
guilt in …)The repetition of
the units of the meter or feet
makes verse. The number of
feet in a line is different in
different poetic words. The
length of line is usually
indicated in the Greek terms:
a 2-foot line
– dimeter a 3 foot line –
trimester, 4 -
tetrameter, 5 - pentameter, 6
-nexameter,7- hectometer.8 -
octometer
Sonnets were all written in
14 lines (first by Ptrarka)
iambic –
pentameter,ababcdcdefef –
99
Ballads are usually written
in iambic tetrameter
(4столб. ямб)
In the modern advertising,
mass media and creative
prose sound is foregrouded
through the change its
accepted graphical
representation. The
international violation of the
graphical shape of word or
word combination used to
reflect its authentic
pronunciation is called a
graphon.
Introduced into E. novels
and journalism in the 18 c.
means of supplying info
about speaker’s orogin ,
social and educational
background, physical and
emotional conduction,
etc.sellybrated,,illygitment
Graphons are also good at
conveing atmosphere of
authentic life
communication. We have
such clichés in
communication as: gotta,
in newspaper receive greater wonna, gimme, lemme,
headlines, proverbs, prominent willi.
set expressions. (As Poetic rhythm – r. is It becomes popular with
blind as bat; Pride and created by the regular advertisers (Pik-wik – Pick
prejudice. Sense and recurrence of quick; Rite Aid)
sensibility. The school (un)stressed syllables There also exist, different
of scandal. Silken set of equal poetic lines. forms of foreground
uncertain, rustling of The regular :capitalization,italics,spacing
each purple alterations of of graphemes:
curtain.)The (un)stressed syllables hyphenation ( через дефис,
Assonance – the from a unit which is a с пробелом) ,multiplication
repetition of similar foot. ( 1 and the same letter is
vowels usually in There are 5 basic written sev. times)A special
stressed syllables. metrical trend – graphical imagism
(Nor soul flesh now feet:1)iambus (ямб): (help.hepl.help)
more than flesh helps the 2nd syllable is
soul).They both stressed (The flower /
produce the effect of that smiles / today /
euphony (афония) – a tomorrow /
sense of ease and dies.),2)Trochee
comfort, a pleasing (хорей): every first
effect of pronouncing syllable of the two is
and hearing. stressed. (Who shall
The opposite process that fortune 3)dactyl
is cacophony – a sense (дактиль): the 1st of
of strain and the 3 is stressed.4)
discomfort in amphibrach
pronouncing and (амфибрахий): the
hearing.Rhyme – one middle of the 3 is
of the properties of stressed.5)anapaest
poetry, which is the (анапест): the last of
repetition of the same the 3 is stressed
sound, (There is guilt in the
identical/similar, sound, there’s
usually at the end
of 2 or more lines. We
normally distinguish
b/n:full rhyme (I-sky,
night-
right),incomplete
rhyme (fresh-
press),compound
rhymes (spirit- ?),eye-
rhymes (visible, but
not pronounced):
(love-
 Stylistics
1.The subject of stylistics,other disciplines.
2. The notion of a functional style.
Classification of functional style.
3. The notion of an idiolect, an individual
style, registers of speech.
4. Stylistic differentiation of the English voc.
5.The notion of a term , its characteristics
and stylistic functions.cientific prose.
6.The newspaper style, its varieties,
its distinction from the publicist style.
7.The style of official documents.
8.Main peculiarities of the publicist style.
9.Peculiarities of belle-lettres style, .
10.Archaisms and their stylistic functions.
11 .Peculiarities of poetic and highly literary words.
12.Differences between foreign words and barb.
13.Main characteristics of slang.
14.Professional and social jargonisms .
15.Place and role of dialectal words.
16.Literary coinages and neologisms.
17.Lexical meanings of a word.
18.Phonetic expressive means and SD.
19.Graphical stylistic means, graphons.
20.The notion of a metaphor, .
21.Oxymoron and its types.
22.Antonomasia and its kinds.
23.Metonymy and varieties.
24. Stylistic usage of polysemy.pun and zeugma.
25.Epithets and their varieties.
26.Simile, its difference from a traditional comparison.
27.Overstatement and understatement
28.Periphrasis and its kinds. Euphemistic periphrasis
29.Types of lexical repetitions
30.Types of syntactic repetitions
31.Syntactic stylistic devices based on parallelism.
32.Stylistic devices based on juxtaposition.
33.Stylistic usage of proverbs, sayings, allusions, citations.
34.Stylistic peculiarities of oral speech, syntactical SD.
35.Stylistic use of interrogative and negative constructions.
36. SD based on special arrangement of the parts of an utterance.
37.Stylistics of the author and of the reader.encoding and decoding.
38.Main concepts of decoding stylistic analysis and types of foregrounding.
39.The notions of convergence, and defeated expectancy.
40.The notions of coupling, semantic field , semi-marked structures.