AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE

Aircraft Performance means the capabilities of an aircraft under various stages of its
flight. These aspects of flight are considered under two distinctive divisions:
1. Mandatory Performance
2. Operational Performance
MANDATORY PERFORMANCE
Mandatory Performance requirements must be met to obtain Certificate of
Airworthiness. Aircraft in public transport category has to be conform to certain
international standards. It specifies the required performance of a transport aircraft if
an engine failure occurs during any stage of flight. The Airplane Flight Manual
(AFM) shows the various performance limits with one engine inoperative for each
type of aircraft. It also caters for all engines operating takeoff field performance and
landing climb performance. These limitations and stipulations of AFM have to be
complied with throughout the life of the aircraft.
OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE
It provides the all engines operating performance data for climb, cruise, descent and
holding. This data is provided for normal operation of the aircraft. If aircraft does not
perform according to data provided, it does not mean that aircraft is not airworthy.
Conspicuous differences should be investigated and corrective action has to be taken.

REGULATIONS
FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS (FAR)
PART 1

DEFINITIONS AND ABBRIVIATIONS

PART 25

AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS TRANSPORT CATEGORY

AIRCRAFT
DESIGN CRITERIA MANUFACTURERS RESPONSIBILITY
FOR DEMONSTRATION OF COMPLIANCE
ADVISORY CIRCULARS : CLASSIFICATION &
AMPLIFICATION

PART 121

CERTIFICATION AND OPERATIONS: DOMESTIC, FLAG AND

SUPPLEMENTAL CARRIERS AND COMMERCIAL OPERATORS
OF LARGE AIRCRAFT
OPERATING CRITERIA OPERATORS RESPONSIBILITY
FOR
DEMONSTRATION OF COMPLIANCE

PERFORMANCE RELATED TERMS

ISA
International Standard Atmosphere assumes sea level temperature as 15C, pressure
as 1013.2 hPa, density as 1.225 kg/m3 with a lapse rate of temperature of 1.98C per
1000 ft till 36089 ft beyond which it is assumed as constant at 56.5C.
For example, at 5000 ft above mean sea level, in standard atmosphere conditions,
temperature will be 5.1C, pressure will be 843.1 hPa and density will be 1.055 kg/m3.
OAT
Outside Air Temperature is the free air static ambient temperature.
SAT
Static Air Temperature is outside air (ambient) temperature as computed by the air
data computer from TAT and presented on the static air temperature indicator. It is
almost equal to OAT.
RAM RISE
It is an increase in temperature due to compressibility of the air at higher speed.
Higher the speed, higher the ram rise.
TAT
Total Air Temperature as shown by the TAT gauge. It equals OAT plus Ram rise. The
higher the speed, the higher would be the Ram rise and so the TAT.
RECOVERY FACTOR
It is the efficiency factor of TAT probe. TAT probe factor is 1 for B737.
QNH
The barometric pressure at the aerodrome level reduced to mean sea level as per ISA
conditions. When QNH is set on the subscale the altimeter reads height above mean
sea level.
NAUTICAL MILE
It is defined as the arc of the meridian subtending an angle of one minute at the centre
of the earth. This distance is maximum near the poles and least near the Equator but it
is assumed as equal to 6080 feet.
ICING CONDITIONS
Icing conditions exist when OAT on the ground and for takeoff, or TAT inflight is
10C (50F) or below, and visible moisture in any form is present (such as clouds,
fog, with visibility of one mile or less, rain, snow, sleet and ice crystals). Icing
conditions also exist when the OAT on the ground and for takeoff is 10C (50F) or
below when operating on ramps, taxiways or runways where surface snow, ice,
standing water or slush may be ingested by the engines or freeze on engines, or
nacelles.
ELEVATION
Elevation is the height above mean sea level of a place.

PRESSURE ALTITUDE
Pressure Altitude is the altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to the
outside pressure. In the aircraft it is obtained by setting 1013.2 hP in the subscale of
the pressure altimeter. At standard atmosphere conditions, Pressure Altitude is equal
to Elevation.
DENSITY ALTITUDE
Density Altitude is the altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to outside
density. Density Altitude and Pressure Altitude will be the same when standard
atmosphere is prevailing. When temperature is more than standard, density altitude
will be more than pressure altitude and vice versa.
WIND VELOCITY
The direction from which the wind is blowing and its speed is called wind velocity.
Wind velocity. Wind velocity reported at an airfield is generally the wind measured at
10 meter height at control tower.
INDICATED AIRSPEED (IAS)
Airspeed as indicated by the ASI uncorrected for position error.
CALIBRATED AIRSPEED (CAS)
Indicated airspeed corrected for static source position error and instrument error. CAS
can be same, more or less than IAS depending upon the position error and instrument
error.
EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED (EAS)
Calibrated airspeed corrected for compressibility. EAS will always be less than CAS,
since compressibility correction is negative. The higher the speed the more will be the
difference.
TRUE AIRSPEED (TAS)
EAS corrected for atmospheric density, since ASI is calibrated at standard sea level
density. The higher the flight level, the lower the density and hence higher the TAS.
CONFIGURATION
A particular combination of the position of the moveable elements such as wing flaps,
landing gear, etc. which affect the dynamic characteristics of the aircraft.
LOAD FACTOR (n)
The ratio of lift generated by the wing to the weight of the aircraft.
VSmin
Calibrated stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed, at which the airplane is
controllable in specified configuration at zero thrust or idle thrust (if having no
appreciable effect on stall speed) and C of G in the most unfavourable position
(forward). Stall speed varies with weight, flap setting (configuration), bank angle and
C of G. Stall speeds are based on the minimum speed in the stall maneuver with an
entry rate speed reduction of 1 knot/sec. Full up elevator deflection is used, and the
achieved load factor is less than 1 G at the minimum speed.

VS1G
The 1-G stall speed is determined from the maximum lift coefficient (C Lmax) corrected
for load factor (n) during the stall maneuver in level flight.
For information, on B737-800 at sea level, VS1G for 70000 kg with Flaps 5 takeoff is
129 KCAS and for 65000 kg with Flaps 40 landing is 111.5 KCAS. As V S1G speed is
generally 6-7% higher than VSMIN, the minimum regulatory factor for V2 in terms of
stall speed (earlier 1.2 VSMIN) has been amended 1.13VS1G. Similarly minimum
regulatory factor for VREF in terms of stall speed (earlier 1.3 VSMIN) has been amended
1.23VS1G.
VS1
It is the stalling speed at specified flaps setting.
VS0
It is the stalling speed at the most extended landing flaps setting.
MACH NUMBER
It is the ratio of TAS to the local speed of sound. Since speed of sound varies directly
with temperature. At a constant Mach number when temperature increases TAS will
also increase and vice versa.
MACHMETER
It is the instrument which indicates Mach Number. Since high speed buffet resulting
from flow separation associated with shock waves occurs when the TAS is close to
speed of sound, we need a Machmeter to define high speed limits on a jet aircraft.
BUFFET ONSET CHARACTERISTICS
Buffet onset occurs when the airflow starts to separate from the wing. This
characteristic is a function of angle of attack and Mach number/speed.
HIGH SPPED BUFFET
The maximum speed at which buffeting starts. It is a function of weight and altitude.
Higher the altitude and weight, high speed buffet occurs at a lower maximum speed.
LOW SPEED BUFFET
The lowest speed at which buffet onset occurs. Higher the altitude and weight, the
earlier will be the buffet onset.
VA
Design Maneuvering Speed - It is the maximum speed at which application of full
available rudder or elevator will not overstress the airplane. In the flaps up
configuration, full aileron can be applied at any speed.
VB
Design speed for maximum gust intensity. It is used to establish the turbulent
penetration speed (Rough air speed).

VC
Design Cruising Speed - The maximum design cruising speed shall be sufficiently
greater than VB to provide for an inadvertent speed increase likely to occur as result
of severe atmospheric turbulence.
VC VB + 43 knots
VD/MD
Design Dive Speed - It is used to determine the VMO/MMO, which ensures that VD shall
not be exceeded if the airplane is upset from flight at normal operating speed.
VDF/MDF
It is the maximum demonstrated flight diving speed.
VF
Design flap speeds. The flap placard speeds are determined to meet design criteria in
accordance with rules. Wing flaps and their supporting structure and operating
mechanism must be designed for the critical loads occurring during transition from
one flap position and airspeed to another.
VF shall not be less than 1.6 VS1 in takeoff configuration at MTOW, 1.8 VS1 in
approach configuration at MLW and 1.8 VS0 in landing configuration at MLW.
VMO/MMO
Maximum operating limit speed is a speed which shall not be deliberately exceeded in
any regime of flight. It should not be greater than the design cruising speed V C and
sufficiently below VD/MD or VDF/MDF.
VLO
Landing gear Operating Speed - This shall be established not to exceed a speed at
which it is safe to extend or retract the landing gear as limited by design or by flight
characteristics.
VLE
Landing gear Extended Speed - It shall be established not to exceed a speed at which
it has been shown that the airplane can be safely flown with the landing gear secured
in the fully extended position and for which the structure has been proved in
accordance with rules.
OPTIMUM ALTITUDE
Optimum altitude is the altitude at which the best fuel mileage is achieved. Optimum
altitude is irrespective of temperature and varies with weight only. When weight
reduces optimum altitude increases. Therefore a step climb enables aircraft to fly at or
close to optimum altitude.
ALTITUDE CAPABILITY
The altitude capability is the Maximum Cruise Thrust or Maneuver Capability altitude
for a given Mach no. Maneuver Capability altitude is irrespective of temperature and
varies with weight for a given bank angle. However Maximum Cruise Thrust altitude,
to achieve a target Mach no., varies with weight and temperature.

COST INDEX
It is the ratio of variable cost per hour in dollar ($) to the cost of 1 lb of fuel in cents
(). Where fuel cost is minimum, higher cost index can be used and vice versa. Cost
Index of zero generally refers to Maximum Range Cruise speed and infinity refers to
VMO/MMO. Since Cost Index is a function of fuel price, different values of Cost Index
can be selected depending on route distance and reasonable difference of fuel prices
between departure and destination stations.
MAX RANGE CRUISE
This cruise technique gives best fuel mileage for a given weight and altitude. It means
when airplane is flown at a constant altitude, thrust decreases with reduction of
weight. When fuel cost is overriding factor, this technique is recommended.
LONG RANGE CRUISE
This cruise technique gives 99% of MRC fuel mileage. This penalty of 1% in fuel
mileage gives considerable increase in speed. This is generally used in alternate
planning (diversion).
CONSTANT SPEED CRUISE
When a constant TAS or Mach is to be maintained at a given altitude, thrust decreases
with reduction of weight.
CONSTANT THRUST CRUISE
This cruise technique is based on constant fuel flow to maintain constant thrust, which
increases speed at constant altitude or increases altitude at constant speed.
ECONOMY CRUISE
This method is used to minimize the total trip cost (generally, the sum of Fuel Cost
and Time Cost). Economy cruise speed is a function of gross weight, altitude, cost
index and wind.
BEST ENDURANCE CRUISE
To obtain the greatest endurance for all holding purposes, it is necessary to fly at the
minimum fuel flow. But holding speed selected is generally the highest value of three
requirements: Minimum fuel flow, Minimum maneuvering speed and 1.3 g maneuver
to initial buffet.
WIND ALTITUDE TRADE
This enables trading altitude for wind advantage. Favourable wind is a factor which
may justify operations off-optimum altitude. When ground speed is more at lower
altitude than optimum altitude, fuel used at lower level could be lower than the
optimum altitude.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The point through which the total weight of a body is acting. For the same weight,
centre of gravity may vary depending on the load distribution.

MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD

It is the chord of a section of an imaginary airfoil on the wing which would have force
vectors throughout the flight range identical to the actual wing. The entire lift
generated by the wing is assumed to take place along the MAC. The aircraft C of G
movement is measured in terms of MAC.
INDEX UNIT
When loading an airplane, summation of moments (Weight Balance Arm) is
necessary to determine the net centre of gravity for the airplane, payload and fuel.
Moments would normally be expressed in kilogram-inch units resulting in very large
numbers. For the sake of convenience, an indexing system is used to normalize
moments to more manageable numbers by dividing the moment by a constant (C).
BASIC WEIGHT OR TARE WEIGHT
This consists of the weight of the aircraft equipped with basic inventory like chairs,
racks, fixed pantry, oil and fuel in the lines (Without crew and galley items).
OPERATIONAL EMPTY WEIGHT
OEW or Basic Operating Weight (BOW) or Aircraft Prepared for Service Weight
(APS Wt.) equals the basic weight plus crew & crew baggage plus cabin and catering
items.
OPERATING WEIGHT
Operational Empty Weight plus Takeoff fuel.
MAXIMUM TAXI WEIGHT
MTW is the maximum weight for ground maneuver as limited by aircraft
strength/applicable regulations. (It includes weight of taxi and run-up fuel.)
MAXIMUM TAKEOFF WEIGHT
MTOW is the maximum weight at brake release as limited by aircraft
strength/applicable regulations.
MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT
MLW is the maximum weight for landing as limited by aircraft strength/applicable
regulations.
MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL WEIGHT
MZFW is the maximum weight allowed before usable fuel (fuel available for aircraft
propulsion) must be loaded in the aircraft as limited by strength/applicable
regulations.
This is a structural limit of the wing roots which should not be exceeded.
PAYLOAD (TRAFFIC LOAD)
The load that can be carried in an aircraft in the form of passengers and dead load
(baggage, cargo and mail).

MAXIMUM PAYLOAD
The maximum payload is the MZFW minus APS Weight. However, the maximum
allowable traffic load is also a function of MLW and RTOW.

AIRPORT
RUNWAY
A rectangular area of defined dimensions on a land aerodrome prepared for landing
and takeoff run of an aircraft.
STOPWAY
An area beyond the runway, having the same width as the runway centrally located
about the extended centre line of the runway. Stopway must be able to support the
airplane during an aborted takeoff without causing structural damage to the airplane.
It must be designated by the airport authorities for use in decelerating the airplane
during a rejected takeoff.
CLEARWAY
An area beyond the runway not less than 500 ft wide(250ft on either side of the
extended center line of the runway) and under the control of airport authorities. The
clearway is expressed in terms of a clearway plane, extending from the end of the
runway with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25% above which no object nor any
terrain protrudes. However threshold lights may protrude above the plane if their
height above the end of the runway is 26 inches and if they are located to each side of
the runway. Clearway cannot exceed 50% of runway length.
TAKE OFF DISTANCE AVAILABLE (TODA)
The total area available for an aircraft to complete its takeoff run and achieve V2
before 35 ft height. It will include the runway and clearway. TODA shall not be more
than 150% of TORA.
TAKE OFF RUN AVAILABLE (TORA)
TORA is the length of the runway declared as available and suitable for accelerating
the aircraft to VLOFF plus half the distance to reach 35 ft during a takeoff. TORA
equals runway length.
ACCELERATE STOP DISTANCE AVAILABLE (ASDA)
The total ground distance available for an aircraft to accelerate to V1, throttle back
and stop with normal application of brakes. It includes the runway length (TORA)
plus stopway.
RUNWAY SLOPE
It is the gradient of the runway surface from the beginning to the end of runway.
Effective slope may be calculated by different methods, but generally average slope is
considered for airplane performance. An uphill slope is a disadvantage for takeoff and
an advantage for landing and vice-versa. Aircraft is generally certified up to 2%.
Effect of slope is not factored in the calculation of landing distance.

APRON
It is a designated area of the airport where the aircraft parking bays are located. At
some airports, aero-bridge facilities are provided. These areas are used for embarking
and disembarking of passengers, loading and offloading of cargo. Refuelling and
aircraft preparation for service are also done in this area. In short, apron is meant for
arrivals and departures.
THRESHOLD
It is the beginning of that portion of the runway available for landing. Generally the
beginning of the runway is the threshold.
DISPLACED THRESHOLD
Sometimes the threshold is advanced or displaced ahead of the beginning of the
runway due to presence of obstacle in the approach path for landing. Threshold must
be at or after the line where clearance plane intersects the runway.
PAVEMENT CLASSIFICATION NUMBER (PCN)
ICAO introduced the ACN/ PCN system as a measure to classify pavement bearing
strength for an aircraft with all-up weight for more than 5700 kg. PCN is a number
expressing the bearing strength of a pavement for unrestricted operations. PCN will
be determined and reported by airport authority. PCN consists of type of pavement,
subgrade strength, tire pressure and calculation method.
For example, PCN 60 F/B/W/T means:

Bearing strength
- 60
Type of pavement (F)
- Flexible
Category of subgrade
below the runway surface (B) - Medium
Tire pressure (W)
- Medium
(up to 217
psi)
Evaluation method (T)
- Technical

AIRCRAFT CLASSIFICATION NUMBER (ACN)

ACN is a number expressing the relative effect of an aircraft on a pavement for a
specified subgrade category. The ACN is generally calculated with respect to the
centre of gravity position, which yields the critical loading of the critical gear.
Normally ACN must be either equal to or less than PCN for the particular type of
aircraft.
LOAD CLASSIFICATION NUMBER (LCN)
LCN is a value indicating the load carrying capability of a runway or the pavement
loading characteristics of an aircraft relative to specific radius of relative stiffness (a
factor based on concrete slab thickness) or flexible pavement thickness (surface
course, base course and sub base course). LCN has to be determined for a given
aircraft and compared with the LCN of runway.
There is no relationship between PCN and LCN. They are to be dealt separately.

AIRPORT LAYOUT

Intentionally
Blank

TAKE OFF DISTANCE REQUIRED (TODR)

It is the greater of:
1. The distance to takeoff and climb to a height of 35 ft (15 ft on a wet runway) with
a failure of the critical engine at VEF; or
2. 115 percent of the distance to takeoff and climb to a height of 35 ft with all
engines operating.
TAKE OFF RUN REQUIRED (TORR)
It is the greater of:
1. The distance to takeoff and climb to a point equidistant between lift off and the 35
ft height point with a failure of the critical engine at VEF (On a wet runway, the
takeoff run required is the distance to takeoff and climb to 15 ft with a failure of
the critical engine at VEF); or
2. 115 percent of the distance to takeoff and climb to a point equidistant between lift
off and 35 ft height point with all engines operating.
ACCELERATE STOP DISTANCE REQUIRED (ASDR)
It is the greater of:
1. The sum of the distances required to accelerate with all engines operating and
come to a complete stop assuming a critical engine failure at VEF; or
2. The sum of the distances required to accelerate with all engines operating and
come to a complete stop with no engine failure.
BALANCED FIELD LENGTH
It is the condition in which V1 is selected so as to make the TODR equal to ASDR.
UNBALANCED FIELD LENGTH
It is the condition in which V1 is selected so as to make the TODR and ASDR
unequal.
VEF
Critical engine failure speed. VEF is the speed at which the critical engine is assumed
to fail. It shall not be less than the VMCG.
VMCG
ground minimum control speed, is the minimum control speed on the ground, at
which, when the critical engine suddenly becomes inoperative, it is possible to
recover control of the airplane with the use of primary aerodynamic controls alone
(without the use of nose wheel steering) to enable the takeoff to be safely continued
using normal piloting skill and rudder control forces not exceeding 150 pounds.
V1
Action initiation speed. V1 means the maximum speed in the takeoff at which the pilot
must take the first action (e. g., apply brakes, reduce thrust, deploy speed brakes) to
stop the airplane within the accelerate-stop distance.
V1 also means the minimum speed in the takeoff, following a failure of the critical
engine at VEF at which the pilot can continue the takeoff and achieve the required
height above the takeoff surface within the takeoff distance.

V1(MCG)
The minimum takeoff decision speed, at which, when the critical engine suddenly
becomes inoperative at VEF with the remaining engines at takeoff thrust, it is possible
to control the airplane with primary aerodynamic controls alone and continue the
takeoff. This is the V1 speed which results when VEF is set equal to VMCG.
VMCA
Air minimum control speed, is the airspeed, at which, when the critical engine is
suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to recover control of the airplane with that
engine still inoperative, and maintain straight flight either with zero yaw or with an
angle of bank of not more than 5 degrees towards the live engine. V MCA may not
exceed 1.2 VSmin or 1.13VS1G (Stall speeds determined at the maximum sea level
takeoff weight with maximum available takeoff thrust). Rudder forces required to
maintain control may not exceed 150 pounds.
VR
Takeoff rotation speed. VR is the speed at which rotation is initiated to attain the
takeoff safety or climbout speed, V2, at 35 ft above the takeoff surface. VR must not be
less than 1.05 times VMCA, nor less than V1.
VMU
Minimum unstick speed. VMU shall be the speed at which the airplane can be made to
lift off the ground and to continue the takeoff without displaying any hazardous
characteristics. VMU speeds shall be selected by the applicant for the all engines
operating and the one engine inoperative condition.
VLOFF
Airplane lift off speed. The lift off speed is closely associated to the VR speed and is
dictated by that speed. The all engines operating lift off speed must not be less than
110% of VMU assuming maximum practicable rotation rate. The one engine
inoperative lift off speed must not be less than 105% of VMU.
On longitudinally limiting (stretched fuselage) airplanes VMU is high, VLOFF becomes
higher, necessitating a higher than normal V2 and hence VR.
V2
Takeoff safety speed. V2 is equal to the target speed to be attained at the 35 ft height
assuming recognition of an engine failure at or after V1. It must be equal to or greater
than 113% of the VS1G in the takeoff configuration or 110% of the air minimum
control speed.
TAKEOFF FLIGHT PATH
The takeoff flight path begins 35 ft above the takeoff surface at the end of the takeoff
distance and extends to a point where the airplane is at least 1500 ft above the takeoff
surface or has achieved the enroute configuration and final climb speed, whichever is
later. The takeoff path is divided into a number of segments to meet various
airworthiness requirements.

REFERENCE ZERO
A point on the runway or clearway plane at the end of the takeoff distance and 35 ft
below the flight path to which the height and distance coordinates of other points in
the takeoff flight path are referred.
FIRST SEGMENT
Extends from the end of the takeoff distance to the point where the landing gear is
assumed to be fully retracted, using takeoff thrust and takeoff flaps at a constant V2
speed.
SECOND SEGMENT
Extends from the gear up point to a gross height of at least 400 ft, using takeoff thrust
and takeoff flaps at a constant V2 speed.
THIRD SEGMENT
The horizontal distance required to accelerate, at constant altitude using takeoff thrust,
to the final climb speed while retracting flaps in accordance with the recommended
speed schedule.
The minimum climb gradient capability should be 1.2% for a twin-engine airplane,
1.5% for three-engine airplane and 1.8% for four-engine airplane.
MAXIMUM LEVEL-OFF HEIGHT
The maximum height at which the third segment can be completed before the time
limit on the use of takeoff thrust expires.

FINAL TAKEOFF SEGMENT

Extends from the end of the third segment to a gross height of at least 1500 ft or
where transition to enroute configuration is completed, whichever is later, with flaps
up at maximum continuous thrust.
The minimum climb gradient capability (relative to air) should be 1.2% for a twinengine airplane, 1.5% for three-engine airplane an 1.8% for four-engine airplane.
GRADIENT
The ratio expressed in percentage of the change in geometric height divided by the
horizontal distance traveled in a given time. As an approximation,
Gradient (%)= ROC (fpm) TAS (knots)
GROSS GRADIENT
The actual performance of the airplane under specified conditions.
NET GRADIENT
It is the gross gradient reduced by an amount as per regulations.
GROSS HEIGHT
The geometric height attained at any point in the takeoff flight path using gross climb
performance. Gross height is used for calculating actual pressure altitude at which
obstacle clearance procedures and wing flap retraction are initiated, and level-off
height scheduled.
NET HEIGHT
The geometric height attained at any point in the takeoff flight path using net climb
performance. Net height is used to determine the net flight path which must clear any
obstacle by at least 35 ft to comply with the regulations.
IMPROVED CLIMB
Normally manufacturers would like to use as low a V 2 as is permissible for
presentation of their performance. A lower V2 would have cascading effect on
lowering VR and V1 in order to meet regulatory requirements (VR should be such that
V2 is achieved by 35 ft and V1mcg<V1<VR). This will help them show that the aircraft is
able to takeoff at MAX Weight with the least amount of runway length. This is their
sales pitch as this helps them show that the field length required for operating their
aircraft is less. However, optimum performance is achieved at a higher V2 as shown
below:-

The regulation requires a minimum climb gradient of 2.4% to be demonstrated in the

beginning of the second segment (one engine in-operative). When using minimum V2
there is one MAX Weight at which this compliance is achieved. We call this the climb
limit RTOW. If we increase the V2 corresponding to maximum L/D, keeping the
weight the same, then we can achieve a higher climb gradient than 2.4% or by
keeping the climb gradient same as 2.4%, we can increase the climb limit weight.
However, as you are using higher takeoff speeds you should have excess runway
available for using the higher speeds along with higher tire speed limit and brake
energy limit weight.
In other words whenever the field limit weight is more than the climb limit weight we
can use the over speed technique. This technique is also called the improved climb
technique.
We can also use the over speed or improved climb technique for increasing the climb
gradient to improve obstacle clearance thus increasing obstacle limited weight.
However, while doing improved climb for better obstacle limit weight, the lift off
point during takeoff roll gets closer to the obstacle. Thus, there is a limit up to which
improved climb can be done to increase the obstacle limited weight.
REDUCED THRUST
In the life cycle of an engine, of say 5000 hours, if you are flying 2 hour sectors, you
will be executing 2500 takeoffs. Normally, takeoff thrust is used in every takeoff for a
period of approximately 1 minute when the EGT is at its maximum. Therefore, in
2500 takeoffs, you are running the engine at takeoff thrust for 2500 minutes OR
approximately 40 hours. It is this 40 hours at takeoff thrust out of 5000 hours which
causes almost 75% of wear to the engine as the EGT is at its highest during takeoff.
Therefore, there is need to reduce the wear of the engine during takeoff by using a
lesser thrust than the maximum, if possible.

The question then arises How can I achieve this? Simple, whenever the actual
takeoff weight is less than the maximum weight at full thrust permitted for the
ambient conditions (P.A. and Temperature), then we can choose a lower takeoff thrust
than maximum takeoff thrust which would yet meet all the regulatory requirements.
To calculate this takeoff thrust value, we check up from the airport analysis
chart, the temperature at which the actual weight is limiting and call it the assumed
temperature and use the thrust corresponding to this temperature instead of the
maximum takeoff thrust corresponding to the actual atmospheric conditions (PA and
OAT). If we do this, we are using a lower takeoff thrust and so the engine will run at
lower EGT than the maximum.
However, we can reduce takeoff thrust by maximum of 25% of the actual
takeoff thrust for prevailing ambient conditions.
How safe is the assumed temperature technique?
Absolutely safe. Since actual conditions are colder, even with the lower thrust the
runway length required will be less, the thrust generated by the engine is higher than
what you would have got if actual OAT was the assumed temperature.
There is another method used for using lower thrust for takeoff, called
Derate. In some aircraft, using FMC you can select a fixed derate. For example, the
B737-800 is certified for three takeoff thrust ratings 26,400 lbs of thrust, 24000 lbs of
thrust and 22,000 lbs thrust. If the aircraft is certified with 26.4 K thrust, pilot can
select TO1 to set the maximum takeoff thrust as 24K or TO2 for 22K. FMC will
automatically, set the thrust to the appropriate levels.
The disadvantages of this method are that:
a) We have to provide airport analysis charts for 3 ratings.
b) Pilots can make mistakes by using the wrong airport analysis charts.
In Jet Airways, we have gone for fixed derates to avoid the problems highlighted
above. Our B737-800s have been derated to 24K. Similarly our 737-400s are rated to
22K and 737-700s are rated to 22K maximum takeoff thrust.
We follow assumed temperature technique on these fixed derates.
APROACH CLIMB GRADIENT
To be demonstrated with approach flaps, landing gear up, one engine inoperative,
other engine at go-around thrust and airplane still meets the 2.1% gross gradient
capability for twin engine aircraft; 2.4% gross gradient capability for three engine
aircraft and 2.7% gross gradient capability for four engine aircraft;

LANDING CLIMB GRADIENT

To be demonstrated with landing flaps, landing gear down with all engines operating
and the thrust is go-around thrust or the thrust available on the engine 8 seconds after
the thrust levers are moved from the minimum flight idle position to the takeoff
position, whichever is less. Aircraft should be capable of demonstrating a gross
gradient of 3.2% for twin/three/four engine aircraft.

VMCL
The minimum control speed with the airplane configured for approach at which the
airplane is controllable with maximum of 5 degrees bank when the critical engine
suddenly becomes inoperative with remaining engine at go-around thrust. For three or
four engine airplanes, VMCL-1 with one engine inoperative and VMCL-2 with two engine
inoperative are also defined.
APPROACH CLIMB SPEED
It is the climb speed which ensures the minimum approach climb gradient of 2.1% in
the approach configuration with go-around thrust on operating engine. To demonstrate
this compliance the speed should not exceed 1.40 VS1G.
LANDING CLIMB SPEED
It is the climb speed that ensures the minimum landing climb gradient of 3.2% in the
landing configuration with all engines operating. To demonstrate this compliance the
speed should not exceed 1.23 VS1G.
VREF (LANDING SPEED)
The minimum speed at the 50 feet height over the threshold in a normal landing. This
speed is equal to 1.23 times VS1G in the landing configuration.

LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE (LDA)

It is the length of runway declared, available and suitable for the ground run of
airplane whilst landing. LDA equals the length from threshold to end of runway.
ACTUAL LANDING DISTANCE (ALD)
ALD is the distance from 50 ft over threshold at landing speed (V REF) till the complete
stop of an airplane with maximum manual braking.
LANDING DISTANCE REQUIRED (LDR)
LDR is 1.67 times the distance required to land from 50 ft over threshold at landing
speed, touching down at the 1000 ft marker, and to come to a complete stop using
speed-brakes and maximum manual braking.
FAR LDR = 1.67 ALD
Or, ALD = LDR 1.67 LDR 0.60
The LDR (or, FAR LDR) on WET runway will be 15% more than the FAR LDR on
DRY runway.
FAR LDR (Wet) = 1.15 FAR LDR (Dry)
Enroute Climb Speed
This speed also gives best Lift to Drag ratio with maximum continuous thrust in case
of one engine failure. enroute climb speed gives best rate of climb and is to be
maintained during climb whenever obstacle clearance is required after takeoff in case
of one engine failure. the aircraft will gain more altitude for a given distance. During
climb 1000 feet clearance above obstacle is mandatory.
Drift Down Speed
It is the speed, with maximum continuous thrust in case of one
engine failure, which gives best Lift to Drag ratio. This means that
there will be least rate of descent and thus the aircraft will lose less
altitude for a given distance. Drift down speed is to be maintained
whenever obstacle clearance is required. During descent 2000 feet
clearance over obstacle is mandatory. However after level off and
during further climb, 1000 feet clearance over obstacle is called for
except in mountainous areas where 2000 feet clearance is required.

JET TRANSPORT CHARACTERISTICS

The Jet Transport Performance capability results in normal operations at altitudes and
airspeeds where compressibility effects occur. At higher flight speeds, flow separation
causes buffeting and conventional ASI can not warn when this occurs. Hence the need
for a machmeter arises to show the high speed buffeting.
A machmeter indicates an aircraft's true airspeed (TAS) to the local speed of sound.
This dimensionless parameter is very much important for high speed airplanes.
Expressed in a formula this is:
Mach No. = TAS C

where, C = Local speed of sound

= (662/288) * TK = 39 * TK
T = Outside Air Temperature

As altitude increases, outside air temperature decreases and therefore Mach number
increases. For a constant Mach number, TAS reduces with increase of altitude (Fig. 1).
Thus, a machmeter (Fig. 2) in fact gives the pilot a continuous indication of the ratio
of TAS to the local speed of sound.
As discussed above, Mach number is ratio of two elements - TAS and Local speed of
sound. TAS is the function of dynamic pressure, P - S, and the density. Speed of sound
is the function of static pressure, S, and the density. Density being a factor to both
sides of the fraction, the equation may be re-written as:
Mach No = (P - S)/S

where, P Pitot (Total) pressure, and

S Static pressure

P - S suggests ASI capsule and S suggests altimeter capsule and when placed 90
apart to give a ratio, by interlinking their movement to pointer, Mach number can be
read.
Actually this information is of vital importance to the pilot of high speed aircraft. As
the flight speed approaches the speed of sound (sonic speed) it is found that the
behaviour of the aircraft changes. All the high speed airplanes fly at high altitudes. At
higher flight speed, the air flow can reach speed higher than the local speed of sound
over some portion of wing (thickest section of the wing) due to accelerated flow over
the wing surface. This results in formation of shock waves towards trailing edge of
the wing due to deceleration of flow from sonic to subsonic (speed less than Mach 1).
These shock waves are lines of abrupt changes of pressure, temperature and density
where the speed of airflow reduces and flow separation takes place resulting in loss of
lift which is termed as buffeting (Fig. 3).
An aircraft which is designed for very high speeds generally employs very thin wing
sections and the wings themselves are well swept back. These features delay the onset
of the shock wave, and when it does occur, it is well in the rear.

The Mach Number which produces the first evidence of local sonic flow over the
wing surface, is called Critical Mach Number (Fig. 4). A pilot should not let his
aircraft exceed this speed unless the aircraft is designed to fly beyond it. Thus, a
knowledge of the mach number is of vital importance.
LOW SPEED AND HIGH SPEED BUFFET
At low speeds, the onset of initial buffet and stall are primarily determined by the
angle of attack. At high angles of attack, flow separation of the wing causes buffet. As
the separation proceeds over the entire wing, stall occurs. For a low indicated initial
buffet speed (light weight), very little change takes place at low altitudes and
increases rapidly at high altitudes.
A high indicated initial buffet at a high gross weight, starts to increase rapidly at
higher altitudes. The stall associated with the initial buffet varies almost
proportionally with altitude and therefore the stall margin from initial buffet to stall
remains relatively unchanged.
BUFFET BOUNDARY
If high speed buffet and low speed buffet are plotted against altitude and indicated
airspeed on the same graph, the two buffet curves will meet in an area where one type
of buffet is indistinguishable from the other. This is a buffet transition zone and occurs
at the theoretical maximum altitude or buffet altitude for the given airplane weight
(Fig. 5).